Describe how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed.

 IGNEOUS ROCKS - are found in volcanic regions. Are formed from magma, which is a molten material found deep inside the
earth. When the lava cools, it leads to the formation of igneous rocks.

 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - Natural processes like rain, wind, flowing rivers carry soil particles, sand, dead plants. Over time, all
of these get deposited on top of each other. They are called layers of sedimentary. These rocks takes thousand years to
form.

 METAMORPHIC ROCKS - formed from sedimentary rocks which has pressure from above and heat from magma.

Rock layers are also called strata (the plural form of the Latin word stratum), and
stratigraphy is the science of strata. Stratigraphy deals with all the characteristics of layered
rocks; it includes the study of how these rocks relate to time.

 RELATIVE DATING - scientists compare different layers of rock to determine an

ordered sequence of events in geologic history.
 Stratigraphic succession - the way rock layers are built up and changed by geologic
processes.
 Fossil succession - a method in which scientists compare fossils in different rock strata
to determine the relative ages of each.

3 LAWS
 Law of superposition - in an undisturbed sequence of rocks, the oldest rocks are on the
bottom and the youngest rocks are on top.
 Law of crosscutting - any feature that cuts across a sequence of rocks, is younger than
everything it cuts.
 Law of inclusions - any rock or fragment that’s included inside of another rock is older
than the rock in which it is included.

 ABSOLUTE DATING -
 Radioactive decay - spontaneous breakdown of a nucleus to release matter and energy.
 Isotope - two or more atoms that have the same number of protons, but a different
numbers of neutrons. (Same type of element but different atomic mass)
 Parent atom - atom before it undergo radioactive decay.
 Daughter atom - after radioactive decay.
 Half-life - the amount of time it takes for half of the parent atoms to decay into daughter
atoms.
  Carbon 14 - 5,700 years

RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE DISINTEGRATION HALF-LIFE

(years)
Carbon - 14 (only in life) 14C 14N 5700
Potassium -40 (Sedimentary rocks) 40K 40 Ar 1,300,000,000
40 Ca
Uranium -238 ( igneous rocks) 238U 206Pb 4,500,000,000

C C C C Carbon % Fraction Half lives

C C C C 50% 1/2 1
C C C C 25% 1/4 2
C C C C 12.5% 1/8 3
C C C C
s

EXAMPLE: A skeleton is found to contain 1/8th of its original radioactive material. How
many half life have gone by?
After 1 half life = 1/2
After 2 half lives = 1/4
After 3 half lives = 1/8
So, our skeleton has existed for 3 half lives
Carbon 14 has a half life of 5,700
Age of the skeleton = 17, 100 years. (3 x 5700)
GEOGRAPICAL TIME SCALE
 A geologic era is a subdivision of geologic time that divides an eon into smaller units of time.
The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three such time frames: the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and
Cenozoic (meaning "old life", "middle life" and "recent life") that represent the major stages in
the macroscopic fossil record.

Marker Fossils - Fossils used to define and identify periods of geologic time -It helps to match
rocks at the same age -They help in dating other fossils found in the same sedimentary layer.

Fossils are fundamental to the geologic time scale. ... Rocks formed during the Phanerozoic
Eon may have fossils of complex animals and plants such as dinosaurs, mammals, and trees.
We study Earth's history by studying the record of past events that is preserved in the rocks.

Fossils are the remains and traces of ancient organisms. A cluster of fossil ammonites, an
extinct cephalopod. fossil (latin for "obtained by digging") is the preserved remains or traces of
organisms (plants, animals, etc) that lived in the distant past.

EARTHQUAKES

The surface of the earth is like a jigsaw puzzle. 20 pieces that constantly moves.
The tectonic plates hit, bump or slide to another plate an earthquake is caused.
When do you think it happens? Well, it happens all the time.

3 types of earthquakes
1. Convergent boundary:
Here, one plate is forced over another plate during movement creating a thrust fault.

2. Divergent boundary:
Here, plates are forced apart each other, usually forming a Rift Zone. This kind is common in
ocean floors where new floors are created. An example is the Mid Atlantic Ridge.

3. Transform fault:
Unlike divergent and convergent, the plates here slip by each other. This is also
called Strike-Slip.

Hydrometeorology is a branch of meteorology and hydrology that studies the transfer of water and energy between the
land surface and the lower atmosphere. Hydrologists often utilize meteorologists and data provided by meteorologists.
A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level
atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain.

A monsoon is a seasonal change in the direction of the prevailing, or strongest, winds of a

region.Monsoons cause wet and dry seasons throughout much of the tropics. Monsoons are
most often associated with the Indian Ocean. Monsoons always blow from cold to warm regions.

A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a
cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud.

Why is the Philippines prone to typhoons? It is because the Philippines isgeographically located
along the Pacific region near the Equator which is prone to tropical cyclones and storms.

How Sea Waves are Formed?

As discussed earlier, there are several types of waves and the forces behind them are
also different. The most common cause of ocean waves is wind. Wind-driven waves,
also known as surface waves, are formed due to the friction between surface water and
wind.

When the wind is blowing on the sea, the surface exerts the gravitational force on the
bottom layer of the wind. This, in turn, exerts the pull on the layer above it until it
reaches the top-most layer.

With the gravitational pull being different at each layer, the wind moves at a different
speed. The top-most layer tumbles, forming a circular motion. This creates a
downward pressure at the front and upward pressure at the rear of the surface,
causing a wave.
However, there are tidal waves that are created by the gravitational pull of the sun
and moon on the earth. It should be noted that a tidal wave is a shallow water wave,
not a tsunami.

While the above-mentioned waves are not dangerous in its impact, there are
hazardous waves, including tsunami, that is caused by severe weather conditions such
as a hurricane, typhoon as well as a tornado, and other natural calamities including
earthquakes, landslides, and volcanic eruptions.

Waves are basically disturbances (termed oscillations) on the surface of the water,
which can be formed on all types of water bodies like seas, oceans, rivers and even lakes.
Although waves stem from some kind of external force, they are actually a restoring
force, which counters the disturbance introduced in the water. They seem to transport
water and debris as they move. But there is more to it than meets the eye.

Actually, waves are energy passing through the water, which makes the water to move
in a circular motion. If you might have closely observed a boat encountering a wave,
the wave lurches the boat upward and forward, swirls it, but then the boat comes
down to its original position. This is evidence enough that waves do not make the water
travel much, but are simply the manifestation of the transfer of kinetic energy through
the water.

Some might argue that they have clearly seen waves moving forward and splashing on
the shore. This happens because the inclined edge of the beach offers resistance and
slows down the bottom portion of the wave. This creates an imbalance, and the upper
portion of the wave, or the crest, topples forward and splashes on the beach.

Having established the fact that waves represent the movement of energy, the obvious
question is that from where do waves get their energy?

While mild winds blowing over the surface of the water may create small surface waves,
extreme weather conditions like hurricanes and cyclones produce strong winds and
often create huge waves which may be potentially hazardous. Some adverse natural
phenomena like underwater earthquakes, landslides or volcanic eruptions can create
humongous series of waves known as tsunamis, which can cause unimaginable
destruction to the coastal ecology and human inhabitations in the area of impact.
Waves can also be caused by recurring natural phenomena like tides.

Waves are basically classified according to their formation, source of energy and
behavior. Here we will be looking at the different types of sea waves and how they are
formed.

Different Types of Sea Waves

As mentioned, the sea waves are categorized based on their formation and behaviour.
The commonly used classification of ocean waves is based on the wave period.

Here are all the different types of sea waves.

Breaking Waves

The breaking waves are formed when the wave collapses on top of itself. The breaking
of water surface waves happens anywhere on the surface of the seawater.

However, one can see breaking water surface waves most commonly on a coastline
since wave heights are normally amplified in the shallower water areas.

When waves approach the shore, their profile is modified by the resistance offered by
the sloping sea floor. The seafloor obstructs the motion of the base (or trough) of the
wave, while the top part (or crest) continues to move at its usual speed. As a result, the
wave begins to lean forward as it gradually approaches the shore.

At a point where the steepness ratio of the wave reaches 1:7, the crest outruns the
slow-moving trough, and the entire profile of the wave collapses on itself, thus forming
a breaking wave.

The breaking waves may further be classified into four types –

• Spilling waves – Also known as mushy waves in the beach-goers’ terminology, these
waves are formed at gentle inclinations of the ocean floor. If the shoreline is gently
sloping, the energy of the waves is gradually expelled, the crest gradually spills and
mild waves are formed. These waves take more time to break as compared to other
types.

• Plunging Waves – When waves pass over a steeply inclined or rugged ocean floor, the
crest of the wave curls and trap a pocket of air underneath it. As a result, the waves
somewhat explode when they reach the steeper gradient of the shore, and all of the
waves’ energy is dissipated over a much shorter distance. Thus plunging waves are
formed. Common during offshore winds, these waves have high energies and travel
really swiftly, which may prove to be dangerous to unsuspecting beachgoers and surfers.
They also result in tremendous erosion and deposition.

• Surging waves – They are produced when huge swells reach shorelines having a steep
profile. They travel at high speeds and have no crest associated with them. Although
they might seem to be harmless because they don’t break like other waves, they can be
dangerous because of the strong backwash (pulling or sucking effect) associated with
them.

• Collapsing waves – They are a blend of plunging and surging waves. Their crest does
completely break, and the bottom profile gets vertically aligned and collapses, turning
into whitewater.

Deep Water Waves

Deepwater waves, as the name suggests, have their origin where the depth of the
water in the ocean is significant, and there is no shoreline to provide any resistance to
their motion. Technically speaking, they are formed in areas where the depth of the
water is more than half of the wavelength of the wave. The speed of the wave is a
function of the wavelength of the wave. This means that waves having a longer
wavelength travel at greater speeds as compared to waves with a shorter wavelength.
They are actually multiple waves of different wavelengths, which superimpose upon
one another to form a combined larger wave. They are long and travel in straight lines,
and have enough energy to traverse much greater distances as compared to other
waves like breaking waves. The major force of causation is wind energy, which can be
from local or distant winds. They are also known as stokesian waves or short waves.

Shallow Water Waves

These waves have their origin where the depth of the water is much lesser. They
typically travel in waters which have depths lesser than 1/20th of the wavelength of
the wave. But unlike deep water waves, the speed of the wave has nothing to do with
the wavelength of the wave, and the speed is a function of the depth of water. This
means that waves in shallow waters traverse faster than waves in deeper waters. More
specifically, the speed is equal to the square root of the product of the depth of water
and the acceleration due to gravity.

They are also known as lagrangian waves or long waves.

These waves may have a variety of causation factors behind them. There are two types
of shallow water waves that we generally encounter –

• Tidal waves – They are caused due to astronomical forces like the gravitational pull of
the sun and the moon on the ocean water. You can think of the high and low tides as
the traversing of a wave with a time period of 12 hours.

• Tsunamis – Tsunami is a Japanese word, as Japan is possibly the country most

frequently affected by tsunamis. The word ‘tsunami’ finds it’s the origin in two
different words; ‘tsu’ which means harbor, and ‘nami’ which means wave. So it roughly
translates to ‘harbour waves’. Most of the tsunamis (about 80%) result from large scale
underwater earthquakes. The rest 20% are generated by underwater landslides,
volcanic eruptions and even meteorite impacts. They travel at very high velocities, so
are highly dangerous and devastating.
They are considered shallow water waves, because a typical tsunami wavelength is
several hundred miles long, as an example let’s say 400 miles, while the deepest part of
the ocean is 7 miles deep. So the depth is obviously less than 1/20th of wavelength, as
discussed earlier.

Inshore Waves

The length of these waves is less than the depth of the water they enter, which
decreases the velocity of the waves. This results in the decrease of the wavelength and
increase in the height, eventually breaking the wave. These waves drain the beach as a
backwash.

Internal Waves

They are one of the largest waves in the ocean but are barely noticeable on the surface
due to their formation in the internal layers of the water. Ocean water is composed of
different layers because the more saline and colder water has a tendency to sink
beneath the less salty warmer water. When the interface between these distinct layers
is disturbed due to external forces like tidal movements, internal waves are generated.

Although similar to surface waves in shape and structure, they traverse long distances
and attain towering heights when they hit a landmass. According to scientists, the
largest known internal waves are generated in the Luzon Strait in the South China Sea
(about 550 feet tall)

Kelvin Waves

Kelvin waves are large scale waves, which are caused by a lack of wind flow in the
Pacific Ocean. They were discovered by Sir William Thompson (who was later known as
Lord Kelvin). Kelvin waves are a special type of gravity waves that are influenced by
the Earth’s rotation and get trapped at the Equator or along lateral vertical
boundaries such as coastlines or mountain ranges. There are two kinds of Kelvin waves
– coastal and equatorial waves. Both these waves are gravity driven as well as
non-dispersive in nature.
Progressive Waves

For a progressive wave, the amplitude is equal to overall points and has net energy flow.
In other words, it’s a form of a wave in which the ratio of an instantaneous value at
one point to that at any other point is constant. There are three types of progressive
waves such as longitudinal, transverse, and orbital waves.

Capillary Waves

Capillary waves closely resemble ripples in their structure. The restoring force involved
is capillarity, which is the binding force that holds together the water molecules on the
surface of the ocean. Their particularly wavy structure is caused due to light breezes
and calm winds that blow at small speeds of about 3-4 metres per second, at a
reference level height of 10 metres from the surface of the water. Typical wavelengths
are less than 1.5 cm and time periods less than 0.1 seconds.

As stated by the famous Physical Oceanography professor Blair Kinsman in his book
‘Wind Waves’(1965), “The shortest‐ period waves, and the first to be noticed on the
ocean surface when wind starts blowing, are the capillary waves, which resemble a
cat’s paws ripping the otherwise smooth surface of the water”

Refracted Waves

Refracted Waves travel in shallow water when they approach the shore and the
shallowness decreases the power of the wave and causes a curve. These are usually seen
near headlands and bays.

Seiche Waves

Seiche waves, or simple a seiche (pronounced ‘saysh’) are standing waves that form in
a confined or partially confined body of water. Standing waves, in general, can form in
any type of semi-enclosed or enclosed body of water. In general terms, when water
sloshes back and forth in a swimming pool, a water tub or even a glass of water, it is a
seiche on a much smaller scale. On a larger scale, they are formed in bay areas and
large lakes.

Seiches are generated when either rapid changes in the atmospheric pressure or strong
winds force the water and push it to pile up in one part of the water body. When the
external force finally stops, the piled up water, possessing potential energy, rebounds
back to the opposite side of the enclosed water body. This periodic oscillation of water,
without anything to offer resistance, continues for long intervals of time, typically
many hours or even many days at end. They can also be caused by storm fronts,
tsunamis or earthquakes in ocean harbours or sea shelves.

Many a times, Seiches may be mistaken for tides. This is because the time period of the
wave (the difference between the high(crest) and low(trough)) may be upto 7-8 hours,
which is comparable to the time period of most tides.
Although the causal factors may be the same for seiche waves and tsunamis, seiches are
fundamentally different from tsunamis. Seiches are basically standing waves with long
time periods of oscillations and occur in confined bodies of water, while tsunamis are
progressive waves which generally occur in free bodies of water.

Disclaimer: The authors’ views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the
views of Marine Insight. Data and charts, if used, in the article have been sourced from
available information and have not been authenticated by any statutory authority. The
author and Marine Insight do not claim it to be accurate nor accept any responsibility
for the same. The views constitute only the opinions and do not constitute any
guidelines or recommendation on any course of action to be followed by the reader.

The article or images cannot be reproduced, copied, shared or used in any form
without the permission of the author and Marine Insight.

Tides
Tides refer to the rise and fall of a body of water caused by the interaction
between the moon, sun and Earth.

What are tides?

Tides are greatly influenced by the gravitational pull from the moon and sun.
The moon's elliptic orbit means that twice a month, the moon, sun and Earth
are in direct alignment and create a combined gravitational force.

In the open ocean, the tidal force of the moon will appear as bulges of water
facing the moon whereas around land mass the water can spread out onto
land creating tides.

Types of tides
There are two main tides that are higher or lower than average. They occur
twice monthly and are called neap and spring tides.

Neap tides

When there is a low tide, the Moon faces the Earth at a right angle to the
Sun so the gravitational force of the Moon and Sun work against each other.
These tides are referred to as neap tides; a low tide or one that is lower than
average. A neap tide happens between two spring tides and occurs twice a
month when the first and last quarter Moon appears.

Spring tides

When there is a high tide, the Sun, Moon and Earth are in alignment and the
gravitational force is strong. These tides are known as spring tides and occur
twice a month. In this case the Moon can appear in between the Earth and
Sun resulting in a solar eclipse, or at the furthest point away from the Sun
resulting in a full Moon. When in alignment, the Moon and Sun combine in
gravitational forces to bring the highest and lowest tides of the month.

Causes of sea level change

Sea level changes on a range of temporal and spatial-scales. The total volume of the ocean can
change as a result of changes in ocean mass (addition of water to the ocean from the land) or
expansion/contraction of the ocean water as it warms/cools.

The ocean is not like a bathtub – that is, the level does not change uniformly as water is added
or taken away. There can be large regions of ocean with decreasing sea level even when the
overall Global Mean Sea Level (GMSL) is increasing. Obviously there must be regions of ocean
with trends correspondingly greater than the mean to balance out the regions with trends less
than the mean. There are many processes that drive these changes – we try to give a very brief
introduction in these pages.

Short Term
Some of the processes that drive short term (hours to days) changes in sea level are tides,
surface waves, and storm surges, as well as other events like tsunami. For further information,
see the Causes of Extreme Sea Level section in the Extremes area.

Seasonal to decadal
Seasonal changes
An important cause of intra-annual sea level change is the annual warming/cooling cycle – in
each hemisphere the oceans warm and expand in summer, and cool and contract in the winter.
Thus the sea levels in each hemisphere are higher in summer and early autumn, and lower in
winter and early spring.

In addition there is an increase of water stored on land in the Northern Hemisphere winter
and thus less in the ocean, leading to a lower global average sea level at this time of year.
Other changes are related to the latitudinal movement of the weather patterns in the
ocean-atmosphere system, which produce changes in ocean currents and thus changes in sea
level.

Global- and hemispheric-mean sea level from TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason-1. The two
hemispheric signals partially cancel to produce a global signal with smaller amplitude.

Amplitude of the annual signal in millimetres.

Inter-annual to decadal
Inter-annual to decadal variability in the ocean-atmosphere system can cause large-scale
changes in sea level. For example, El Niño/La Niña events cause coherent positive or negative
changes of up to 20-30 cm in sea level from the eastern Pacific Ocean to the eastern Indian
Ocean, as shown by the plots of sea level from tide gauges below.
 Tide gauge records from Fremantle (SW Australia), Kwajalein
Atoll (Western Tropical Pacific) and San Francisco (Eastern
Pacific). Monthly data is shown in light blue, and the data with
the annual signal removed is shown in dark blue. Note the
correlated/anti-correlated signals at time of El Niño events (e.g.
1983 and 1997).
Other decadal changes (e.g. the Pacific Decadal Oscillation and the Indian Ocean Dipole) also
cause significant large-scale changes in sea level as does exchange of water with the
atmosphere and storage on and in the land.

Longer term
On time scales of months and longer, sea level changes as a result of both changes in ocean
mass (addition of water to the ocean from the land) and expansion/contraction of the ocean
water as it warms/cools.

Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion is one of the main contributors to long-term sea level change, as well as
being part of regional and short-term changes. Water expands as it warms and contracts as it
cools. From 1971-2010 the average contribution from thermal expansion was 0.8 [0.5 to 1.1]
mm/yr, and from 1993-2010 it was 1.1 [0.8 to 1.4] mm/yr representing approximately
40% and 34% of the measured global mean rate of sea level rise over these periods (see Church
et al., 2013).

Non-polar Glaciers
Non-polar glaciers have also been a major contributor to recent sea level rise. From
1971-2010 melting of these glaciers contributed 0.62 [0.25 to 0.99] mm/yr to sea level rise
while over the period 1993-2010 they contributed 0.76 [0.39 to 1.13] mm/yr (see Church
el al., 2013).

Greenland and Antarctica

The contributions of Greenland and Antarctica to sea level rise occur mainly as a result of
direct melting and flow into the ocean. However, other dynamic processes can contribute and
potentially lead to increases in the contribution by these ice sheets to sea level rise. These
‘dynamic processes’ include processes such as collapse of ice shelves into the ocean as the
buttressing effects of surrounding sea ice are diminished through ocean warming. Melting of
the Greenland ice sheet contributed around 0.33 [0.25 to 0.41] mm/yr to sea level rise over
the period 1993-2010 while the Greenland glaciers contributed around 0.10 [0.07 to 0.13]
mm/yr to sea level rise over this period. The Antarctic ice sheet contributed around 0.27
[0.16 to 0.38] mm/yr to sea level rise over the period 1993-2010 (see Church et al., 2013).

Mass Exchange
Exchange of water with other “reservoirs” is an important contribution to sea level change. A
significant part of this is through the hydrological cycle, where water evaporates from the
ocean, resides in the atmosphere, then returns to the ocean either directly as rainfall or via
reservoirs (snow, ice, lakes, rivers, groundwater etc). There are both annual variations as well
as longer-term variations. For example, extraction of water from underground aquifers can
increase the mass of the ocean whereas the storage of water in dams can result in a decrease.
The period of rapid dam building during the 1950’s and 1960’s led to a net lowering of sea
level as water was impounded on land. Over the period 1901-1990, the contribution from
this source to sea level rise was negative, i.e. -0.11 [-0.16 to -0.06] mm/yr. However, the
reduction in building new dams in recent times together with the increase in ground water
pumping to provide freshwater supplies, which ultimately find their way back to the ocean,
means that land water has contributed positively to sea level rise over more recent times,
contributing 0.12 [0.03 to 0.22] mm/yr over 1971-2010 and 0.38 [0.26 to 0.49] mm/yr
over 1993-2010 (see Church et al, 2013).

TYPES, CAUSES, AND EFFECTS OF CRUSTAL MOVEMENTS

-it is the dynamic internal forces that generally tend to elevate the earth's surface. They are in constant battle against external
forces that tend to wear away the land surface.

TYPES/CAUSE OF EARTH MOVEMENTS

1. UPLIFT
-it is the movement of the earth where in the crust rises.
2.SUBSIDENCE
-it is the sinking or setting of a part of the earth's crust with respect to the surrounding parts.
3. THRUST
-it is the horizontal movement of the earth's crust.
EFFECTS OF EARTH'S MOVEMENTS
1. THEORY OF ISOSTACY
-isostacy came from the greek word meaning 'equal standing".
-this theory states that as the rocks from higher region are removed be erosion and deposit on a lower region, the higher region
slowly rises while the lower region becomes heavier and slowly sinks.
2. CONSTRUCTION THEORY
-it states that the earth is gradually shrinking. as the shrinking occurs, the stronger and heavier blocks of the crust sink while
the weaker strata are crowded and squeezed upward.
3. CONVECTION THEORY
-it is the theory which would account from the pushing ang colding of rocks through convection current. This process is true
when it occurs under a continental mass.
4. CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
-it is the theory which accounts for diastrophic movement a d for the folding and faulting along the edges of the continents.
5. EXPANSION THEORY
-it is the theory which states that the earth is gradually expanding. Expansion of the earth would change the position of the
continents.

MOUNTAINS
-mountains are lands that rise high above the surrounding land.

FORMATION OF MOUNTAINS
>FOLDED MOUNTAINS
-are the most common type of montains that are made from rock layers that where squeezed from opposite sides causing the
rock layers to fold.

>FAULT-BLOCK MOUNTAINS
-a fault is a huge crack in the rocks. The grand teton mountains (wyoming) and the sierra nevada mountains (california) are
examples of fault-block mountains.

>EROSIONAL MOUNTAINS
-are formed by wind or water nearing down weak spots in land and carrying it away. (example rocky mount in western US).

>VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS
-can be standing alone or be a part of one big chain of volcanoes are ring of fire.

VOLCANISM
Volcanism is a part of the process by which a planet cools off. Hot magma, rising from below, reaches the earth, eventually, but
not always, erupts onto the surface in the form of lava.
Rising magma gathers in a reservoir in a weak portion of the overlying rock is called the magma chamber.
The different reasons why a volcano is formed are:
>via plumes or hot spots in the lithosphere
>as a result of subduction of the nearby lithosphere.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF VOLCANOES

CINDER CONES
-are simple volcanoes which a bowl-shaped crater at the summit and only grow to about a thousand feet, the size of a hill.
-famous cinder cones include PARICUTIN in Mexico
-another well known cinder cone is in the middle of CRATER LAKE.

COMPOSITE VOLCANOES
-are the most majesty and also known as strato- volcanoes.
-famous composite volcanoes include mount Fuji in japan, mount Cotopaxi in Ecuador, Mount Shasta and Lassen in California,
Mount hood in Oregon, Mount St. Helens and Mount Rainier in Rashington, Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines and Mt. Etna in
Italy.

SHIELD VOLCANOES
-can grow to be very big. In fact, the oldest continental region of earth may be the remains of ancient shield volcanoes.

LOCATION OF VOLCANOES
Volcanoes are mainly found along those plate boundaries:
1. where an oceanic plate and continental plate boundaries.
2. where two oceanic plates meet
3. where plates move apart

TYPES OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

1. QUIET
-it is non-explosive but sends fountains of lava hundreds of feet into the air in spectacular scarlet tongues.
2. EXPLOSIVE
-the eruption is often proceeded by loud rumblings and earthquakes.
3. INTERMEDIATE
-between the quiet and the explosive kinds is the intermediate which is sometimes quiet, sometimes explosive or a
combination of both.
4. FISSURES
-the largest amount of volcanic materials are extruded from cracks in the crust called fissures.
DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES
Almost all of the volcanoes of the world are found into two major belts which cover match of the same regions as the
earthquakes belts.
They are roughly the zones of fracture in the crust. These two belts are:
>Circum-pacific belt also called ring of fire
>Mediterranean belt
Storm surge is produced by water being pushed toward the shore by the force of the winds moving cyclonically around
the storm. The impact on surge of the low pressure associated with intense storms is minimal in comparison to the
water being forced toward the shore by the wind.