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ME412-HEAT TRANSFER

WEEK 1-2:INTRODUCTION &

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

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Difference between heat and

temperature
In heat transfer problems, we often interchangeably use the
terms heat and temperature. Actually, there is a distinct
difference between the two. Temperature is a measure of the
amount of energy possessed by the molecules of a substance. It
manifests itself as a degree of hotness, and can be used to predict
the direction of heat transfer. The usual symbol for temperature is
T. The scales for measuring temperature in SI units are the Celsius
and Kelvin temperature scales. Heat, on the other hand, is energy
in transit. Spontaneously, heat flows from a hotter body to a
colder one. The usual symbol for heat is Q. In the SI system,
common units for measuring heat are the Joule and calorie.

What is Heat Transfer?

Thermal energy is related to the temperature of matter.

For a given material and mass, the higher the temperature,
the greater its thermal energy. Heat transfer is a study of
the exchange of thermal energy through a body or between
bodies which occurs when there is a temperature difference.
When two bodies are at different temperatures, thermal
energy transfers from the one with higher temperature to
the one with lower temperature. Heat always transfers from
hot to cold.

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What is Heat Transfer?

“Energy in transit due to

temperature difference.”

Difference between thermodynamics

and heat transfer
Thermodynamics tells us: Heat transfer tells us:

• how much heat is transferred (δQ) • how (with what modes) δQ is

transferred
• how much work is done (δW) • at what rate δQ is transferred

• final state of the system • temperature distribution inside the

body

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1.Heat transfer practical

occurrences
a. Is a metallic park bench colder than a wooden park bench?
b. Why dress in layers during winter?
c. What time of the day and why do we get sea-breeze?
d. Does hot water freeze faster than cold water?
e. What is greenhouse effect? What is the principle behind it?
f. Can you lose weight by drinking cold water?
g. Why are “fins” present on the outside of the radiator of a car?

2.Heat Transfer in Various Industries

a. Automobile: Radiator and engine coolant

b. Electronics: Cooling of motherboard/CPU by fan
c. Pharmaceutical: Freeze drying of vaccines
d. Metallurgical: Heating/cooling during steel manufacture
e. Chemical: Condensation, boiling, distillation of chemicals

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3. Heat Transfer in the Food Industry

a. Melting: Thawing of a frozen food (turkey)

b. Freezing: Freezing of ice-cream mix
c. Drying: Drying of fruits
d. Evaporation: Spray drying of coffee or concentration of juices
e. Sublimation: Freeze drying of coffee
f. Heating/cooling of milk
g. Baking of bread
h. Processing of canned soups (inactivate microorganisms &
maximize nutrient content, color/flavor/texture)

4.Heat Transfer in our Home

a. Refrigerator
b. Air Conditioner
c. Heater
d. Dryer
e. Stove
f. Microwave

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5. What Factors Affect Rate of Heat

Transfer?
a. Thermal Properties
- Specific heat (cp in J/kg K)
A measure of how much energy is required to raise the
temperature of an object
- Thermal conductivity (k in W/m K)
A measure of how quickly heat gets conducted from one part
of an object to another
- Thermal diffusivity (α = k/ρ.cp in m2/s) combines the effect
of several factors - specific heat, thermal conductivity,
and density of a material. Thus, this one quantity can be
used to determine how temperature changes at various
points within an object.

5. What Factors Affect Rate of Heat

Transfer? (cont.)
b. Physical
- Density (ρ in kg/m3)
c. Rheological (measured using rheometer/viscometer)
- Viscosity (µ in Pa s) for Newtonian fluids
- Consistency coefficient (K in Pa sn) and flow behavior
index (n) for power-law fluids

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IMPORTANCE OF HEAT TRANSFER

There are several unit operations and unit processes

which operate at high temperatures. Flow of heat is
important to attain uniform temperature in the furnace
chamber. Ideally the available heat must be utilized to raise
the temperature of the reactants and products to the
desired value, but some amount of heat is always lost to the
surrounding. Loss of heat to the surrounding is loss of energy
and one of the main objectives of an engineer is to minimize
the heat losses. Fundamentals of heat transfer mechanisms
are important to calculate the flow of heat and to design the
most efficient flow path conforming to the process.

CATEGORIES OF HEAT TRANSFER

1. Steady state
- Temperatures at all points within the system remain constant over time
- The temperatures at different locations within the system may be
different, but they do not change over time
- Strictly speaking, steady state conditions are uncommon
* Conditions are often approximated to be steady state
- Eg.: Temperature inside a room or refrigerator
2. Unsteady state
- Temperature(s) at one or more points in the system change(s) over time
- Eg.: Temperature inside a canned food during cooking

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MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction,

convection, and radiation. Any energy exchange
between bodies occurs through one of these modes or a
combination of them. Conduction is the transfer of heat
through solids or stationary fluids. Convection uses the
movement of fluids to transfer heat. Radiation does not
require a medium for transferring heat; this mode uses
the electromagnetic radiation emitted by an object for
exchanging heat.

1. CONDUCTION

Conduction is a transfer through solids or

stationery fluids. When you touch a hot object, the
heat you feel is transferred through your skin by
conduction. Two mechanisms explain how heat is
transferred by conduction: lattice vibration and
particle collision. Conduction through solids occurs
by a combination of the two mechanisms; heat is
conducted through stationery fluids primarily by
molecular collisions.

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Conduction by lattice vibration

Conduction by partial vibration

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a. Heat transfer by conduction

2. CONVECTION

Convection uses the motion of fluids to

transfer heat. In a typical convective heat
transfer, a hot surface heats the surrounding
fluid, which is then carried away by fluid
movement such as wind. The warm fluid is
replaced by cooler fluid, which can draw more
heat away from the surface. Since the heated
fluid is constantly replaced by cooler fluid, the
rate of heat transfer is enhanced.

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Two types of Convection

1. Natural Convection
2. Forced Convection

1. Natural Convection

Natural convection (or free convection)

refers to a case where the fluid movement is
created by the warm fluid itself. The density
of fluid decrease as it is heated; thus, hot
fluids are lighter than cool fluids. Warm fluid
surrounding a hot object rises, and is
replaced by cooler fluid. The result is a
circulation of air above the warm surface.

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Circulation of air in natural

convection

2. Forced Convection

Forced convection uses external means of

producing fluid movement. Forced convection is
what makes a windy, winter day feel much
colder than a calm day with same temperature.
The heat loss from your body is increased due to
the constant replenishment of cold air by the
wind. Natural wind and fans are the two most
common sources of forced convection.

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3. RADIATION

Radiative heat transfer does not require a medium to

pass through; thus, it is the only form of heat transfer
present in vacuum. It uses electromagnetic radiation
(photons), which travels at the speed of light and is emitted
by any matter with temperature above 0 degrees Kelvin (-
273 °C). Radiative heat transfer occurs when the emitted
radiation strikes another body and is absorbed. We all
experience radiative heat transfer everyday; solar radiation,
absorbed by our skin, is why we feel warmer in the sun than
in the shade.

WEEK 2: FUNDAMENTAL LAWS IN HEAT

TRANSFER

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CONDUCTION

 Basics of Conduction
• Conduction involves the translation of vibration of molecules
along a temperature gradient as they acquire thermal energy
(mainly analyzed within solids; however, it takes place in liquids
and gases also)
– Actual movement of particles does not occur
• Good conductors of electricity are generally good conductors of
heat
• Thermal conductivity (k) is used to quantify the ability of a
material to conduct heat

CONDUCTION

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Fourier’s law

The heat transfer rate through conduction depends upon:

1.The area of the face which conducts heat i.e. more the area of
the face, more is the heat conducted.
2.The thickness of the material or medium which conducts the
heat i.e. the more the thickness of the sheet the less is the heat it
conducts.
3.The temperature difference b/w the different faces of the plate
or sheet i.e. the more is the temperature difference the more is
the heat transfer rate.

EQUATION

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CONVECTION

 Basics of Convection
• It involves transfer of heat by movement of molecules of fluid (liquid or gas) due to
– Temperatures differences within a fluid or between a fluid and a solid object
OR
– An external agency such as a pump or a fan
• Convection is a combination of
– Diffusion (microscopic/molecular level)
• Random Brownian motion due to temperature gradient
– Advection (macroscopic level)
• Heat is transferred from one place to another by fluid movement

CONVECTION

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CONVECTION

NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

 Newton's law of cooling states that the rate of

heat loss of a body is directly proportional to the
difference in the temperatures between the body
and its surroundings provided the temperature
difference is small and the nature of radiating
surface remains same.

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EQUATION
Rate of heat transfer by convection (for heating or cooling) is given by
Newton’s law of cooling as follows:
Q = h A (Ts - T∞)
Q: Energy transferred per unit time (W)
h: Convective heat transfer coefficient - CHTC (W/m2 K)
A: Surface area available for heat transfer (m2)
ΔT = Ts – T∞ : Temperature difference (K)
Ts: Surface temperature of solid object (K)
T∞: Free stream (or bulk fluid) temperature of fluid (K)
CHTC (h): Measure of rate of heat transfer by convection; NOT a property;
depends on fluid velocity, surface characteristics (shape, size, smoothness), fluid
properties (µ, k, ρ, cp)

Categories of Convection

• Free (or natural) convection

– Does not involve any external agency in causing flow
– Heat transfer between bottom of vessel and fluid in it
– Cooling of human body
– Cooling of radiator fluid in car engine during idling
– hair-solid: 5-25 W/m2 K; hwater-solid: 20-100 W/m2 K

• Forced convection
– External agency such as fan/pump causes flow
– Cooling of radiator fluid in car engine during motion
– Ice-cream freezer (Blast air)
– Stirring a pot of soup
– Heat transferred from computers (fan)
– hair-solid: 10-200 W/m2 K; hwater-solid: 50-10,000 W/m2 K
– hboiling water or steam to solid: 3,000-100,000 W/m2 K

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Free Convection
• Fluid comes into contact with hot solid
• Fluid temperature near solid increases
• Fluid density near solid decreases
• This results in a buoyancy force that causes flow
• Rate of heat transfer (Q & h) depends on
– Temperature difference between fluid and surface of solid
– Properties (µ, ρ, k, cp) of fluid
– Dimensions and surface characteristics (smoothness) of solid

NNu = hdc/kf = f (NGr , NPr )

Nusselt Number (NNu)

Nusselt number represents the ratio of heat transfer by
convection & conduction

h: Convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)

dc: Characteristic dimension (m)
Kf: Thermal conductivity of fluid (W/m K)

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Grashof (NGr) Number

Grashof number represents the ratio of buoyancy and viscous
forces

βf: Coefficient of volumetric thermal expansion (K-1)

g: Acceleration due to gravity (= 9.81 m/s2)
ρf: Density of fluid (kg/m3)
Ts: Surface temperature of solid object (K)
T∞: Free stream temperature of fluid (K)
dc: Characteristic dimension of solid object (m) (Obtained
from tables based on shape & orientation of solid object)
µf: Viscosity of surrounding fluid (Pa s)

Prandtl Number (NPr)

Prandtl number represents the ratio of momentum and
thermal diffusivities

Cp(f): Specific heat of fluid (J/kg K)

µf: Viscosity of fluid (Pa s)
kf: Thermal conductivity of fluid (W/m K)

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Properties of Air

Properties of Water

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Free Convection (Plate)

• NNu = hdc/kf = f (NGr, NPr)
• NNu = a (NGr NPr )m; NRa = NGr NPr
• For vertical plate (dc = plate height)
a = 0.59, m = 0.250 (for 104 < NRa < 109)
a = 0.10, m = 0.333 (for 109 < NRa < 1013)
• For inclined plate (for NRa < 109)
Use same eqn as vertical plate & replace ‘g’ by ‘g cos ’ in NGr
• For horizontal plate (dc = Area/Perimeter)
Upper surface hot
• a = 0.54, m = 0.250 (for 104 < NRa < 107)
• a = 0.15, m = 0.333 (for 107 < NRa < 1011)
Lower surface hot
• a = 0.27, m = 0.250 (for 105 < NRa < 1011)

Free Convection (Cylinder)

• For vertical cylinder (dc = cylinder height)
– Similar to vertical plate if D ≥ 35L/(N Gr)
0.25

• For horizontal cylinder (dc = cylinder diameter)

– For 10-5 < N Ra < 1012

Note: NRa = NGr NPr

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Free Convection (Sphere)

NRa = NGr NPr

For sphere, dc = ∏ D/2
Note 1: For all free convection situations, determine properties at the
film temperature {Tfilm = (Ts + T∞)/2} unless otherwise specified
Note 2: For all free convection scenarios, as the ΔT between the fluid
and surface of solid increases, NGr increases. Thus, NNu and ‘h’ increase.

Forced Convection
• Fluid is forced to move by an external force (pump/fan)
• Rate of heat transfer (Q & h) depends on
– Properties (µ, ρ, k, cp) of fluid
– Dimensions and surface characteristics (smoothness) of solid
• ‘h’ does NOT depend on
– Temperature difference between fluid and surface of solid
• ‘h’ strongly depends on Reynolds number
– When all system and product parameters are kept constant, it is
flow rate (a process parameter) that strongly affects ‘h’
N Nu = hdc/kf = f (NRe , NPr)

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Categories of Convective Heat Transfer

Coefficient for Forced Convection
• Between a moving fluid and a stationary solid object
– Transfer of heat from hot pipe to a fluid flowing in a pipe
– Generally depicted by ‘h’
• Between a moving fluid and a moving particle
– Transfer of heat from a hot fluid to a freely flowing particle in a
suspension (particulate/multiphase food)
– Generally depicted by ‘hfp’

Forced Convection in a Pipe

• NNu = hdc/kf = f (NRe, NPr)
• Three sub-categories of forced convection exist…..
1. Laminar flow (NRe < 2100)
– A. Constant surface temperature of pipe
• NNu = 3.66 (for fully developed conditions)
– B. Constant surface heat flux
• NNu = 4.36 (for fully developed conditions)
– C. Other situations (for entry region & fully developed)
• NNu = 1.86 (NRe x NPr x dc/L)0.33 (µb/µw)0.14 dc: ID of pipe, L: Length of pipe
2. Transitional flow (2100 < NRe < 4000)
– Friction factor (f)
• For smooth pipes:

• For non-smooth pipes, use Moody chart (graph of: f, NRe, Є/D)

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Moody Diagram

Forced Convection in a Pipe (contd.)

3. Turbulent flow (NRe > 4000) of a Newtonian fluid in a pipe,

NNu = 0.023 (NRe)0.8 (NPr)0.33 (µb/µw)0.14

µb: Viscosity of fluid based on bulk fluid temperature
µw: Viscosity of fluid based on wall temperature
The term “(µb/µw)” is called the viscosity correction factor and can be
approximated to “1.0” in the absence of information on wall
temperature
Note: For flow in an annulus, use same eqn with dc = 4 (A cs/Wp) = d io – d oi
d io : Inside diameter of outside pipe
d oi : Outside diameter of inner pipe
Note: For all forced convection situations, use bulk temperature of fluid
to determine properties (unless otherwise specified)

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‘hfp’ for Forced Convection over a

Sphere
NNu = hdc/kf = f (NRe, NPr) – similar to flow in a pipe

NNu = 2 + 0.6 (NRe)0.5 (NPr)0.33

For 1 < NRe < 70,000 and 0.6 < NPr < 400

Note 1: dc is the outside diameter of the sphere

Note 2: Determine all properties at the film temperature

{T film = (T s + T∞)/2}

Comparison of Free and Forced

Convection
• Free convection [Q = hA ΔT; NNu = hdc/kf = f (NGr, NPr)]
– Does not involve any external agency in causing flow
• Temp difference (ΔT) causes density difference; this causes flow
– Q & h depend on
• Temp difference between surface of solid and surrounding fluid (ΔT)
• Properties (µ, ρ, k, cp) of fluid
• Dimensions and surface characteristics (smoothness) of solid
• Forced convection [Q = hA ΔT; NNu = hdc/kf = f (NRe, NPr)]
– External agency such as fan/pump causes flow
– Q & h depend on
• Properties (µ, ρ, k, cp) of fluid
• Dimensions and surface characteristics (smoothness) of solid
– Only ‘Q’ and NOT ‘h’ depends on temperature difference between
surface of solid and surrounding fluid (ΔT)

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RADIATION

Basics of Radiation Heat Transfer

Rate of heat transfer by radiation is given by Stefan-

Boltzmann law as follows:

Q = σ A ε T4
Q: Energy transferred per unit time (W)
σ: Stefan-Boltzmann constant (= 5.669 x 10-8 W/m2 K4)
A: Surface area of object (m2)
ε: Emissivity of surface (ranges from 0 to 1.0)
T: Temperature (K)

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Infrared Thermometer

• Infrared thermometer can be used to non-invasively and

remotely determine the surface temperature of an object
• Care should be exercised in ensuring that ONLY emitted
energy is measured and NOT reflected energy (may have to
use non-reflecting tape on metallic surfaces)
• The emissivity of some infrared thermometers can be
adjusted; for others, a pre-set value of 0.95 is commonly
programmed

WEEK 3

 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF HOMOGENEOUS AND NON-

HOMOGENEOUS MATERIALS
 SPECIFIC HEAT
 COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION

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Thermal Conductivity, k

Thermal conductivity is a measure of the ability of a

material to conduct heat. It is defined using the Fourier's
law of conduction which, relates the rate of heat transfer by
conduction to the temperature gradient:

Thermal Conductivity, k

where k is the thermal conductivity. Using the Fourier's law

we can define the thermal conductivity as the rate of heat
transfer through a unit thickness of a material per unit area
and per unit temperature difference. A good conductor of
heat has a high value of thermal conductivity. The thermal
conductivity is expressed in the units of (energy
rate/(length.Temperature). In metric system, its unit is
W/m.K.

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Thermal Conductivity, k

Thermal conductivity of most material vary with

temperature. For example:

Thermal Conductivity, k

For both cases the thermal conductivity decreases with

temperature. Thermal conductivity of most liquids decrease
with increasing temperature. Water is, however, an
exception to this rule. According to the kinetic theory of
gases, the thermal conductivity of gases is proportional to
the square root of the absolute temperature and inversely
proportional to the square root of the molar mass. It is
obvious that the thermal conductivity of a gas increases with
the increasing temperature.

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Thermal Conductivities of Selected

Materials at Room Temperature.

SPECIFIC HEAT

Specific heat is the amount of heat that is required to raise

the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one
degree. In a constant pressure process

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SPECIFIC HEAT

The units for the specific heat are kJ/kg.K (or C). Typical
values of Cp for various materials (at 300 K) are shown
below:

SPECIFIC HEAT

• Heat Capacity – is the quantity of heat required to raise

the temperature of a substance by one degree. Its SI unit
is JK-1.
• Specific Heat Capacity – is the quantity of heat required
to raise the temperature of unit mass of substance by one
degree. Its SI unit is J Kg-1 K-1.

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COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION

 This property is usually denoted by β and is defined as the change in the

density of a substance as a function of temperature at constant pressure. It
can be approximated as:

COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION

 In other words, to find the change in density as a

function of a change in temperature, we just
multiply the density by

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THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY

 When a temperature gradient is applied to a martial, the heat travels from

the high temperature region to the low temperature. A measure of how heat
propagates through a medium may be defined by the ratio of the heat
conducted through the material to the heat stored in the material.
 Heat capacity is defined as the product of density and specific heat
The thermal diffusivity is defined as:

THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY

The thermal diffusivity is, therefore, the ratio of heat conducted through the
material to the heat stored per unit volume. The larger the thermal diffusivity
the faster the propagation of heat into the material. If the thermal diffusivity is
small it means that a big part of the heat is absorbed by the material and only a
small portion is conducted through. Some typical value of thermal diffusivity:

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