Applied Linear Chapter 1

LINEAR ALGEBRA
Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai
Department of Mathematics
INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY, VNU-HCM
September 28, 2010
Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA

References
E. Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 9th ed., John

Wiley & Sons, 2006. (pp. 271–363)

Chapter 1 MATRICES AND
SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
1.1 MATRICES
1.1.1 General Concepts of Matrices

Definition 1.1 An m × n matrix (read “m by n matrix”)
is a rectangular array of m rows and n columns of the form
 
a11 a12 · · · a1n
 a21 a22 · · · a2n 
 
 .. .. 
 . . 
am1 am2 · · · amn
where each aij is a number (or function) called an entry or

element of the matrix. The numbers m and n are called the
dimension or size of the matrix.

1.1 MATRICES
1.1.1 GENERAL CONCEPTS OF MATRICES
For example,
√
 
3
b11 b12 b13 b14
2 2 7  b21 b22 b23 b24 
0 1.2 π
b31 b32 b33 b34
e −2x ex

0
1 9 4
sin 3x cos 5x −2
The first matrix has two rows and three columns.
• We denote matrices by capital boldface letters A, B, C, ...

• In a matrix A, aij denotes the entry that occurs in row i and
column j of A.
• Sometimes, we write “the m by n matrix A = [aij ]”.

1.1 MATRICES
• Matrices with a single row or column are called vectors.
• Matrices having just one row are row vectors.
• Matrices having just one column are column vectors.
• Its entries are called the components of the vector.
• We shall denote vectors by lowercase boldface letters a, b, ...

or by its general components in brackets, a = [aj ], and so on.

1.1 MATRICES
Definition 1.2 A matrix with n rows and n columns is

called a square matrix of order n, and the entries
a11 , a22 , ..., ann form the main diagonal of A.
For instance, the matrix

 
2 0 −9
 −1 5 7 
4 3 0
is a square matrix of order 3, and 2, 5 and 0 are entries on the

main diagonal.

1.1 MATRICES
An m × n matrix whose entries are all zeros is called the m × n

zero matrix and is denoted by O.
For instance, the 2 × 3 zero matrix is

0 0 0
O= .
0 0 0

1.1 MATRICES
1.1.2 MATRICES ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLE
Equality
Definition 1.3 Two matrices are said to be equal if they
have the same size and the corresponding entries in the two
matrices are equal.
Example 1.1 Two matrices

   
1 a 1 3
A =  −1 2  and B= x 2 
0 b y 5
are equal if and only if a = 3, b = 5, x = −1 and y = 0.

1.1 MATRICES
Addition of Matrices
Definition 1.4 The sum of two m × n matrices A = [aij ]

and B = [bij ] is the m × n matrix A + B obtained by adding
together the corresponding entries of A and B.
A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] =⇒ A + B = [aij + bij ]
As a special case, the sum a + b of two row vectors or two column

vectors, which must have the same number of components, is
obtained by adding the corresponding components.

1.1 MATRICES
Example 1.2 Let

 
4 7
3 0 −2 5 −3 6
A= , B= , and C =  −5 −9  .
2 −1 4 1 2 −5
0 −1
Since A and B are the same size (2 × 3), their sum is defined. We
have

3 + 5 0 + (−3) (−2) + 6 8 −3 4
A+B= = .
2 + 1 (−1) + 2 4 + (−5) 3 1 −1
The sum A + C is not defined since their sizes are different.

Similarly, since B and C are not the same size, their sum does not
exist.

1.1 MATRICES
Properties of Matrix Addition
If A, B, C, and O have the same size, then

1. A + B = B + A
2. (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
3. A + O = O + A = A

1.1 MATRICES
Multiplication of Matrices
Traditionally, when discussing matrices, a number is called a

scalar.
Definition 1.5 If A is any matrix and k is any scalar, then

the product kA is the matrix obtained by multiplying each
entry of A by k.
Example 1.3 If
3 0 −2
A=
2 −1 4
then

6 0 −4 −3 0 2
2A = and (−1)A = .
4 −2 8 −2 1 −4

1.1 MATRICES
Definition 1.6 If A is any matrix, then −A will denote the

product (−1)A. If A and B are two matrices, then A − B is
defined to be the sum A + (−B).
• The matrix −A is usually called the negative of A or the

additive inverse for A.
• A − B is called the difference of A and B.

1.1 MATRICES
Properties of Scalar Multiplication
1. k(A + B) = kA + kA
2. (k1 + k2 )A = k1 A + k2 A
3. k1 (k2 A) = (k1 k2 )A
4. 1A = A
5. 0A = O
6. kO = O

1.1 MATRICES
1.1.2 MATRIX MULTIPLICATION
Definition of Matrix Multiplication
Matrix multiplication means multiplication of matrices by matrices.
Definition 1.7 If A is an m × n matrix and B is an n × p

matrix, then the product AB is the m × p matrix C whose
entry cij in row i and column j is obtained as follows: Sum
the products formed by multiplying each entry in row i of A
by the corresponding entry in column j of B.
cij = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + · · · + ain bnj (1)
The only requirement restricting the definition of the product AB

is that the number of columns of A must equal the number of
rows of B.

1.1 MATRICES
Example 1.4 Find AB where

 
4 5 −1 3
1 3 −2
A= and B =  1 −2 0 1 .
−3 0 5
2 −1 0 2

1.1 MATRICES
Example 1.5 A system of linear equations
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ··· + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ··· + a2n xn = b2
.. .. ..
. . .
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm
can be written as the matrix equation

    
a11 a12 · · · a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 · · · a2n   x2   b2 
..   ..  =  ..
    
 .. 
 . .   .   . 
am1 am2 · · · amn xn bm

1.1 MATRICES
or
Ax = b
where A is the coefficient matrix of the system,
     
a11 a12 · · · a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 · · · a2n   x2   b2 
A= . , x= ..  and b =  .
     
. .
.  ..
 . .   .   . 
am1 am2 · · · amn xn bm

1.1 MATRICES
Properties of Matrix Multiplication
The following equalities hold provided that the operations exist.

1. (AB)C = A(BC)
2. (A + B)C = AC + BC
3. A(B + C) = AB + AC
4. k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB)

1.1 MATRICES
1.1.3 TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
Definition 1.8 If A = [aij ] is an m × n matrix, then the

transpose of A, denoted AT , is the n × m matrix AT = [bij ],
where bij = aji for all i and j, 1 ≤ j ≤ m, and 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
As a special case, transposition converts row vectors to column

vectors and conversely.
Example 1.6 Find the transpose of

   
0 2 13 a −2
A =  −1 4  , B =  4 −1 b , and C = −9 .
5 9 c 5 8

1.1 MATRICES
1.1.3 TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
Transpose are important in their own right, and following are a few
of their important properties.
1. (AT )T = A.
2. (A + B)T = AT + BT
3. (AB)T = BT AT

1.1 MATRICES
1.1.4 SPECIAL MATRICES
Symmetric Matrices
Symmetric matrices are square matrices whose transpose equals

the matrix itself.
A symmetric matrix ⇐⇒ AT = A ⇐⇒ aij = aji for all i, j
Example 1.7 The matrix

 
1 −5 8
A =  −5 0 2 
8 2 −3
is symmetric.

1.1 MATRICES
Triangular Matrices
• Upper triangular matrices are square matrices that can have

nonzero entries only on and above the main diagonal, whereas any
entry below the diagonal must be zero.
• Similarly, lower triangular matrices can have nonzero entries

only on and below the main diagonal. Any entry on the main
diagonal of a triangular matrix may be zero or not.

1.1 MATRICES
Example 1.8
 
0 2 −4
a b  0 1 10 
and
0 c
0 0 7
are upper triangular matrices.

 
5 0 0 0
1 0  0 0 0 0 
and  
0 8  9 0 7 0 
2 −4 −1 −11
are lower triangular matrices.

1.1 MATRICES
Diagonal matrices are square matrices that can have nonzero

entries only on the main diagonal. Any entry above or below the
main diagonal must be zero. For example,
 
5 0 0 0
−4 0  0 0 0 0 
and  
0 0  0 0 7 0 
0 0 0 0
are diagonal matrices.

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
1.2.1 GENERAL LINEAR SYSTEMS
In science, engineering, and the social sciences, one of the most

important and frequently occurring mathematical problems is
finding a simultaneous solution to a set of linear equations
involving several unknowns.
In this section we introduce basic terminology and discuss a

method for solving systems of linear equations.

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
Definition 2.1 A solution of a linear equation
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = b
is a sequence of n numbers s1 , s2 , ..., sn such that if we

substitute x1 = s1 , x2 = s2 , ..., xn = sn into the equation, we
obtain a true statement, that is, if
a1 s1 + a2 s2 + · · · + an sn = b.
A solution of an equation is usually written between parentheses as

(s1 , s2 , ..., sn ). For instance, (−1, 2, 1), (1, −1, 0), (−2, 7, −2) are
solutions of the equation 2x1 + x2 + x3 = 1.

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
Definition 2.2 An m × n system of linear equations is

the system of m linear equations in n unknowns
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
.. .. ..
. . .
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm
In other words, a finite set of linear equations in the variables

x1 , x2 , ..., xn is called a system of linear equations or more simply
a linear system.
A sequence of numbers s1 , s2 , ..., sn is called a solution of the

system if x1 = s1 , x2 = s2 , ..., xn = sn is a solution of every
equation in the system.
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
For instance, the system
2x1 − x2 − 3x3 = −1
−2x1 + 2x2 + 5x3 = 3
has the solution x1 = 1, x2 = 0, and x3 = 1 since these values

satisfy both equations. However, x1 = 0, x2 = −1, and x3 = 1 is
not a solution since these value satisfy only the second of the two
equations in the system.

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
Not all systems of linear equations have solutions. A system with

no solutions is called inconsistent; a system with at least one
solution is called consistent.
Example 2.1 (Geometric Interpretation) If m = n = 2, we have
two equations in two unknowns x1 , x2 :
a11 x1 + a12 x2 = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 = b2
(x1 , x2 ) is a solution of the system if and only if the point
P(x1 , x2 ) lies on both lines. Hence there are three possible cases:
(a) The two lines intersect at a single point, so there is a unique
solution.
(b) The two lines are coincident, so there are infinitely many
solutions.
(c) The two lines are parallel, so there are no solutions.
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
1.2.2 MATRIX FORM OF LINEAR SYSTEMS
From the definition of matrix multiplication we see that the system

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
.. .. ..
. . .
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm
may be written as a single vector equation
Ax = b (2)
where the coefficient matrix A = [aij ] is the m × n matrix
 
a11 a12 · · · a1n
 a21 a22 · · · a2n 
A= .
 
.. 
 .. . 
am1 am2 · · · amn
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
and    
x1 b1
 x2   b2 
x= and b=
   
..  .. 
 .   . 
xn bm
are column vectors. Note that x has n components, whereas b has
m components.

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
The matrix
 
a11 a12 ··· a1n b1
 a21 a22 ··· a2n b2 
A=
 
e .. .. 
 . . 
am1 am2 ··· amn bm
is called the augmented matrix for the system (2) and usually
denoted as [A|b]. The augmented matrix A e = [A|b] determines
the system (2) completely because it contains all the given
numbers appearing in (2).

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
1.2.3 GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION
Elementary Operations
• The basic method for solving a system of linear equations is to

replace the given system by a new system that has the same
solution set but which is quicker and easier to solve.
• Gauss elimination is a standard elimination method for solving

linear systems that proceeds systematically irrespective of
particular features of coefficients.
• It is a method of great practical importance and is reasonable

with respect to computing time and storage demand.

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
Definition 2.3 Two systems of linear equations in n

unknown are equivalent provided that they have the same set
of solutions.
A new equivalent system is generally obtained by applying three

types of operations, called elementary operations, to eliminate
unknowns systematically.
Theorem 2.1
If one of the following elementary operations is applied to a
system of linear equations, then the resulting system is
equivalent:
1. Interchange two equations.
2. Multiply an equation by a nonzero constant.
3. Add a multiple of one equation to another.
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
Since the equations of a system correspond to rows of the

augmented matrix, elementary operations on a linear system
correspond to the following elementary row operations on the
augmented matrix.
1. Interchange two rows.

2. Multiply a row by a nonzero constant.
3. Add a multiple of one row to another.

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
Example 2.2
Linear system Associated augmented matrix
 
3y + 2z =7 0 3 2 7
x + 4y − 4z =3  1 4 −4 3 
3x + 3y + 8z =1 3 3 8 1
Interchange the first and Interchange the first and

second equations. second rows.
 
x + 4y − 4z =3 1 4 −4 3
3y + 2z =7  0 3 2 7 
3x + 3y + 8z =1 3 3 8 1

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
Add −3 times the first Add −3 times the first

equation to the third. row to the third.
 
x + 4y − 4z = 3 1 4 −4 3
3y + 2z = 7  0 3 2 7 
9y + 20z = −8 0 −9 20 −8
Add −3 times the second Add −3 times the second

equation to the third. row to the third.
 
x + 4y − 4z = 3 1 4 −4 3
3y + 2z = 7  0 3 2 7 
26z = 13 0 0 26 13

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
Now the system is in “triangular form” and we can solve it by

“back substitution”, that is, solve the last equation for z:
1
26z = 13, z= ,
2
then substitute this value for z into the preceding equation and
solve for y :
1
3y + 2( ) = 7, y = 2.
2
Finally, substitute the known values for y and z into the first
equation and solve for x:
1
x + 4(2) − 4( ) = 3, x = −3.
2
Thus the solution is (−3, 2, 21 ).
The method we have used to solve this system of equations is
called Gaussian elimination.
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
Echelon Form
Since a linear system is completely determined by its augmented
matrix, Gauss elimination can be done by merely considering the
matrices.
Definition 2.4 A matrix is said to be in echelon form if

(a) All rows that contain only zeros are grouped together at
the bottom of the matrix;
(b) For each row that does not contain only zeros, the first
nonzero number in the row, called the leading entry, appears
strictly to the right of the first nonzero number in each row
above it.

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
Example 2.3 Determine which of the following matrices are in

echelon form:
 
2 1 0 3 −5  
 0 −4 1 4 −4 3
3 2 0 

A= B= 0 3 2 7 
 0 0 −9 0 −8 
0 −9 0 −8
0 0 0 1 4
   
1 5 0 0 4 −4 3
 0 3 2   2 3 2 7 
C=  2 0 −1 
 D= 
 0 0 1 −8 
0 0 0 0 0 0 −5
 
  0 4 −4 3
0 0  0 0 0 7 
E= 0 0  F=  0 0

0 0 
0 0
0 0 0 0
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
Remark Every matrix can be transformed to matrix in echelon

form using elementary operations.
Example 2.4 Solve the system
x + y − 2z = 3z − y + 3
3z + 4 = 4y
2x − y + 2z = 1

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
Reduced Echelon Form

• The goal of Gassian elimination is to obtain a system of
equations that is equivalent to the given system and that has an
augmented matrix in echelon form.
• However, the system can be further reduced by proceeding from
right to left. This reduction technique avoids backsolving by using
elementary operations.
Definition 2.5 A matrix M that is in echelon form is in

reduced echelon form provided that the first nonzero
element in each nonzero row is the only nonzero entry in its
column.
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
For example, the matrices

   
2 0 0 1 1 2 0 1 −1
C= 0 4 0 −3  and D =  0 0 3 −3 7 
0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0
are in reduced echelon form. However

 
1 3 0 0
E= 0 1 0 −2 
0 0 −1 0
is not in reduced echelon form.

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
Example 2.5 Solve the system of linear equations
2x1 − 3x2 + x3 − 3x4 + 2x5 = 6

2x1 − 3x2 + 5x3 − x4 + x5 = 8
4x3 + 3x4 + 2x5 = 3
−2x1 + 3x2 + 3x3 + 3x4 − 9x5 = −6,
Example 2.6 Solve the system
x1 + 3x2 − 2x3 + 2x5 = 0

2x1 + 6x2 − 5x3 − 2x4 + 4x5 − 3x6 = −1
5x3 + 10x4 + 15x6 = 5
2x1 + 6x2 + 8x4 + 4x5 + 18x6 = 6

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
From the above examples we see that

Every system of linear equations has either no solutions,
exactly one solution, or infinitely many solutions.

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
1.2.4 HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEMS
OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
Definition 2.6 A system of linear equations is said to be

homogeneous if all the constant terms are zeros, that is, the
system has the form
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = 0

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = 0
.. .. ..
. . .
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = 0
• Every homogeneous system is consistent, since

x1 = 0, x2 = 0, ..., xn = 0 is always a solution.
• This solution is called the trivial solution; if there are other
solutions, they are called nontrivial solutions.
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
For a homogeneous system of linear equations, exactly one of the

following is true:
1. The system has only the trivial solution.
2. The system has infinitely many nontrivial solutions in addition
to the trivial solution.

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO
OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
Theorem 2.2
Let A be the reduced coefficient matrix of a homogeneous
system of linear equations in n unknowns. If A has exactly k
nonzero rows, then k ≤ n. Moreover,
1. if k < n, then the system has infinitely many solutions, and
2. if k = n, the system has a unique solution (the trivial
solution).
Corollary 2.1
A homogeneous system of linear equations with fewer
equations than unknowns has infinitely many solutions.
Remark Note that the above theorem and corollary apply

only to homogeneous systems. A nonhomogeneous system
with more unknowns than equations need not be consistent.
1.3 DETERMINANTS
1.3.1 DEFINITION OF DETERMINANTS
Cofactor Expansions of Determinants
Definition 3.1 If A = [a] is an 1 × 1 matrix, the we define

the determinant of A to be the number a. If A = [aij ] is an
2 × 2 matrix, the determinant of A is given by
det A = a11 a22 − a12 a21 .
The determinant is often expressed by using vertical bars:

a11 a12
det A = = a11 a22 − a12 a21 .
a21 a22

1.3 DETERMINANTS
Definition 3.2 Let A = [aij ] be an n × n matrix, and let

Mrs denote the (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix obtained by deleting
the r th row and sth column from A. Then Mrs is called a
minor matrix of A, and the number det Mrs is the minor of
the (r, s)th entry ars . In addition, the numbers
Aij = (−1)i+j det Mrs
are called cofactors (or signed minors).
Example 3.1 Determine the minor matrices M11 , M23 , and M32
for the matrix A given by
 
2 −1 3
A =  −1 −2 5  .
4 −6 2
Also, calculate the cofactors A11 , A23 , and A32 .
1.3 DETERMINANTS
Definition 3.3 Let A = [aij ] be an n × n matrix. Then the

determinant of A is
det A = a11 A11 + a12 A12 + · · · + a1n A1n
Note that determinants are defined only for square matrices.
Example 3.2 Compute det A, where

 
3 2 1
A =  2 1 −3  .
4 0 1

1.3 DETERMINANTS
Example 3.3 Compute det A, where

 
1 2 0 2
 −1 2 3 1 
A=  −3
.
2 −1 0 
2 −3 −2 1
Theorem 3.1
If A = [aij ] is a lower-triangular matrix, then
det A = a11 a22 · · · ann .

1.3 DETERMINANTS
1.3.2 PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
Theorem 3.2
If A is a square matrix then
det(AT ) = det A
Corollary 3.1
If A = [aij ] is an n × n upper or lower triangular matrix, then
det A is the product of the entries on the main diagonal:
det A = a11 a22 · · · ann .

1.3 DETERMINANTS
Theorem 3.3
Let A = [aij ] be an n × n matrix. Then
det A = ai1 Ai1 + ai2 Ai2 + · · · + ain Ain

det A = a1j A1j + a2j A2j + · · · + anj Anj
Example 3.4 Find the determinant

−1 0 1 3

2 1 −1 1
|A| = .
1 0 3 3

1 0 8 0

1.3 DETERMINANTS
Theorem 3.4
If B is obtained from A by interchanging two rows (or two
columns), then det B = − det A.
In other words, interchanging two rows (or two columns) of a

square matrix changes the sign of its determinant.

1.3 DETERMINANTS
Theorem 3.5
If B is obtained from A by multiplying a row (or column) of A
by a scalar k, then det B = k det A.
In other words, multiplication of a row or column by a constant k

multiplies the value of the determinant by k.

1.3 DETERMINANTS
Corollary 3.2
If a square matrix contains a row of all zeros, then its
determinant is zero.
Corollary 3.3
Let A = [aij ] be an n × n matrix. Then
det(kA) = k n det A

1.3 DETERMINANTS
Theorem 3.6
If A, B, and C are n × n matrices that are equal except that
the sth row of A is equal to the sum of the sth rows of B and
C, then det A = det B + det C.
CAUTION In general, det(B + C) 6= det B + det C
Theorem 3.7
If B is obtained from A by adding a multiple of one row of A
to another row, then det B = det A.
Thus, to obtain the value of a determinant, we can first simplify it

systematically by elementary row operations, similar to those for
matrices.
1.3 DETERMINANTS
Corollary 3.4
(a) If a square matrix has two proportional rows, its determinant
is zero.
(b) If two rows of a square matrix are the same, then its
determinant is zero.
Example 3.5 Evaluate the determinant of

 
2a + 1 4 a x
 2b + 1 9 b x 
A=  2c + 1 −5 c x


2c + 1 3 d x

1.3 DETERMINANTS
Example 3.6 Evaluate

x 1 1 1

1 x 1 1

1 1 x 1

1 1 1 x
Example 3.7 Compute

2 8 1 1

4
13 3 −1
−2 −5 −3 3

−6 −18 −1 1

1.3 DETERMINANTS
1.3.3 MATRIX INVERSES
Definition 3.4 The identity matrix In is the n × n matrix

that has ones on the main diagonal and zeros elsewhere:
 
1 0 0 ··· 0
 0 1 0 ··· 0 
In =  . ..  .
 
 .. . 
0 0 0 ··· 1
That is, the ijth entry of In is 0 when i 6= j and is 1 when i = j.

For example, I2 and I3 are given by
 
1 0 0
1 0
I2 = and I3 =  0 1 0 .
0 1
0 0 1

1.3 DETERMINANTS
Remark The product of a matrix and the identity matrix is

the matrix itself:
AI = A and IB = B
provided that these products exist.

1.3 DETERMINANTS
Definition 3.5 If A is a square matrix and there exists a

matrix B such that AB = BA = I, then B is called an inverse
of A, and A is said to be invertible.
Remark If B and C are both inverses for the matrix A,

then B = C.
That is,
If A has an inverse, the inverse is unique.
The inverse of A (if exists) is denoted by the symbol A−1 . Thus,
A−1 A = AA−1 = I
CAUTION A−1 6= 1
A
1.3 DETERMINANTS
Example 3.8 Find the inverse of

1 2
A= .
2 3
METHOD FOR FINDING AN INVERSE MATRIX
To obtain A−1 for any n × n matrix A, follow these steps.

1. Form the augmented matrix [A|I], where I is the n × n
identical matrix.
2. Use elementary row operations to transform [A|I] to the form
[I|B].
Matrix B is A−1 .

1.3 DETERMINANTS
Example 3.9 Find A−1 for

 
1 2 3
A= 2 5 4 .
1 −1 10

1.3 DETERMINANTS
1.3.4 SOLVING SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS WITH INVERSES
Theorem 3.8
If A is an invertible n × n matrix, then for each n × 1 matrix
b, the system of linear equations Ax = b has exactly one
solution, namely, x = A−1 b.
Theorem 3.9
If A is an n × n matrix, then the following statements are
equivalent.
(a) A is invertible.
(b) The system Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution.
(c) The system Ax = b has a unique solution for every n × 1
matrix b.

1.3 DETERMINANTS
1.3.4 SOLVING SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS WITH INVERSES
Definition 3.6 A square matrix A is said to be

nonsingular if the equation Ax = 0 has only the trivial
solution x = 0. A is singular if it is not nonsingular.
By the Theorem 7.2,
A is invertible ⇐⇒ A is nonsingular.

1.3 DETERMINANTS
1.3.5 THE DETERMINANT OF A PRODUCT
Theorem 3.10
If A and B are square matrices of the same size, then
det(AB) = det A det B
Theorem 3.11
A square matrix A is invertible if and only if
det A 6= 0.
Combining Theorem 7.3 with Theorem 7.4 we obtain:

A square matrix A is nonsingular if and only if det A 6= 0.
Thus,
A invertible ⇐⇒ A nonsingular ⇐⇒ det A 6= 0

1.3 DETERMINANTS
Example 3.10 Find all values λ such that the matrix Bλ is

singular, where
 
2−λ 0 0
Bλ =  2 3−λ 4 
1 2 1−λ

1.3 DETERMINANTS
Corollary 3.5
If A is invertible, then
1
det A−1 = .
det A
Corollary 3.6
Suppose that A and B are square matrices of the same size. If
either AB = I or BA = I, then B = A−1 .
Corollary 3.7
Let A, B, C be n × n matrices. Then
(a) If A is nonsingular and AB = AC, then A = C.
(b) If A is nonsingular and AB = O, then B = O.
(c) If A is singular, so are AB and BA.
1.3 DETERMINANTS
1.3.6 ADJOINT MATRIX AND INVERSE
Definition 3.7 If A is any n × n matrix and Aij is the

cofactor of aij , the the matrix
 
A11 A12 · · · A1n
 A21 A22 · · · A2n 
 
 .. .. .. 
 . . . 
An1 An2 · · · Ann
is called the matrix of cofactors from A. The transpose of

this matrix is called the adjoint of A and is denoted by
adj(A).

1.3 DETERMINANTS
Example 3.11 Let

 
2 −3 1
A= 4 0 −2  .
3 −1 −3
The cofactors of A are

0 −2 4 −2
A11 = = −2, A12 = − = −6,
−1 −3 3 −3

4 0
= −4,
−3 1
A13 = A21 = − = −10,
3 −1 −1 −3

2 1 2 −3
A22 = = −9, A23 = − = −7,
3 −3 3 −1

−3 1 2 1
A31 = = 6, A32 = − = 8,
0 −2 4 −2

2 −3
A33 = = 12
4 0
1.3 DETERMINANTS
so that the matrix of cofactors is

 
−2 6 −4
 −10 −9 −7  .
6 8 12
Taking the transpose, we obtain the adjoint of A

 
−2 −10 6
adj(A) =  6 −9 8  .
−4 −7 12

1.3 DETERMINANTS
Theorem 3.12
If A is an square matrix, then
A adj(A) = (det A)I.
Thus if A is invertible, then

1
A−1 = adj(A).
det A
Example 3.12 Find A−1 if

 
1 −1 2
A= 2 1 −3  .
4 1 1

1.3 DETERMINANTS
Remark The matrix

a b
A=
c d
is invertible if and only if det A = ad − bc 6= 0. Then

1 d −b
A−1 = .
ad − bc −c a

1.3 DETERMINANTS
1.3.7 SOLVING Ax = b WITH CRAMER’S RULE
Theorem 3.13 (Cramer’s Rule)

If Ax = b is a system of n linear equations in n unknowns
such that det A 6= 0, then the system has a unique solution.
This solution is
det A1 det A2 det An

x1 = , x2 = , . . . , xn =
det A det A det A
where Aj is the matrix obtained by replacing the entries in the

jth column of A by the entries in the matrix
 
b1
 b2 
b =  . .
 
 .. 
bn

1.3 DETERMINANTS
1.3.7 SOLVING Ax = b WITH CRAMER’S RULE
Example 3.13 Use Cramer’s rule to solve
3x + 2y + 3z = 4
−2x − 4y + 2z = −12
2x + 3z = 0.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
1.4.1 EUCLIDEAN n -SPACE
Definition 4.1 If n is a positive integer, then an

ordered-n-tuple is a sequence of n real numbers
(a1 , a2 , ..., an ). The set of all ordered-n-tuples is called
n-space and is denoted by IR n .
When n = 2 or n = 3, we use the term ordered pair and ordered

triple rather than ordered-2-tuple and 3-tuple.
An ordered-n-tuple (a1 , a2 , ..., an ) can be viewed either as a

“generalized point” or a “generalized vector”. We will use both
descriptions.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Definition 4.2 Two vectors u = (u1 , u2 , ..., un ) and

v = (v1 , v2 , ..., vn ) in IR n are said to be equal if
u1 = v1 , u2 = v2 , ..., un = vn .
The sum u + v is defined by
u + v = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , ..., un + vn ).
If k is any scalar, the scalar multiple ku is defined by
ku = (ku1 , ku2 , ..., kun ).
The zero (null) vector is defined to be the vector
0 = (0, 0, ..., 0).
It is also called the origin.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Definition 4.3 If u = (u1 , u2 , ..., un ) is any vector in IR n ,

then the negative (or additive inverse) of u is denoted by
−u and is defined by
−u = (−u1 , −u2 , ..., −un ).
We define subtraction of vectors in IR n by
u − v = u + (−v) = (u1 − v1 , u2 − v2 , ..., un − vn ).

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Example 4.1 Let x = (2, −1, 0, 5, −8) and y = (−2, 4, 9, −1, 3)

be in IR 5 . Then
x + y = (2 + (−2), −1 + 4, 0 + 9, 5 + (−1), −8 + 3) = (0, 3, 9, 4, 5)
7x = (14, −7, 0, 35, −56)
−x = (−2, 1, 0, −5, 8)
x − y = (2 − (−2), −1 − 4, 0 − 9, 5 − (−1), −8 − 3)
= (4, −5, −9, 6, −11).

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Theorem 4.1
If u = (u1 , u2 , ..., un ), v = (v1 , v2 , ..., vn ), and
w = (w1 , w2 , ..., wn ) are vectors in IR n and k and l are scalars,
then
(a) u + v = v + u
(b) u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w
(c) u + 0 = 0 + u = u
(d) u + (−u) = 0, that is, u − u = 0
(e) k(lu) = (kl)u
(f) k(u + v) = ku + kv
(g) (k + l)u = ku + lu
(h) 1u = u

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Definition 4.4 If u = (u1 , u2 , ..., un ) and

v = (v1 , v2 , ..., vn ) are any vectors in IR n , then the Euclidean
inner product or dot product u · v is defined by
u · v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + · · · + un vn .

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
The four main arithmetic properties of the Euclidean inner product

are listed in the next theorem.
Theorem 4.2
If u, v, and w are vectors in IR n and k is any scalar, then
(a) u · v = v · u;
(b) (u + v) · w = u · w + v · w;
(c) (ku) · v = ku · v = u · (kv);
(d) u · u ≥ 0. Further, u · u = 0 if and only if u = 0.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Definition 4.5 The Euclidean norm (or length) of a

vector u = (u1 , u2 , ..., un ) in IR n , is defined by
q
1
kuk = (u · u) 2 = u12 + u22 + · · · + un2 .
The Euclidean distance between u = (u1 , u2 , ..., un ) and

v = (v1 , v2 , ..., vn ) in IR n , is defined y
q
d(u, v) = ku−v k = (u1 − v1 )2 + (u2 − v2 )2 + · · · + (un − vn )2 .
By Euclidean n-space we mean IR n , together with these

distance and product.
√ √
Example 4.2 Let u = (1, 2 2, 4) and v = (3, 2, 5). Compute
(a) kuk and kvk (b) d(u, v).
1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Note It is possible to use the matrix notation

 
u1
 u2 
u= . 
 
 .. 
un
rather than the horizontal natation u = (u1 , u2 , ..., un ) to denote

vectors in IR n . If we use matrix notation for the vectors u and v
and omit the brackets on 1 × 1 matrices, then we have the matrix
formula
vT u = v · u
for the Euclidean inner product.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
1.4.2 GENERAL VECTOR SPACES
Definition and Examples of Vector Spaces
• Using IR n as a model, we now extends the notion of a vector

even further to include subjects such as matrices, polynomials,
functions continuous on a given intervals, and solutions to certain
differential equations, etc.
• We take the basic properties of vectors in IR n as axioms.
• The axioms guarantee that one obtains a useful and applicable

theory of those more general situations.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Definition 4.6 A nonempty set V of elements is called a

real vector space (or real linear space), and these elements
are called vectors if an addition operation is defined between
any two elements of V and a scalar multiplication is defined
between any number and any vector in V as follows.
(1) If u and v are vectors in V , then u + v is a vector in V .
(2) For any two vectors u and v of V , u + v = v + u.
(3) For any three vectors u, v and w of V ,
(u + v) + w = u + (v + w).
(4) There is a vector in V , called the zero vector and denoted by
0, such that 0 + u = u + 0 = u for all u in V .
(5) For each u in V , there is a vector in V that is denoted by −u
and is such that u + (−u) = (−u) + u = 0.
(6) If k is any scalar and u is any vector in V , then ku is in V .

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Definition 4.7
(7) For every scalar k and vectors u and v in V ,

k(u + v) = ku + kv.
(8) For all scalar k and l and every u in V , (k + l)u = ku + lu.
(9) For all scalar k and l and every u in V , k(lu) = (kl)u.
(10) For every u in V , 1u = u.
A complex vector space is obtained if, instead of real numbers,

we take complex numbers as scalars.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Example 4.3 For any positive integer n, IR n is a real vector

space.
Example 4.4 Verify that the set of all 2 × 3 matrices with real
entries is a real vector space.
In general for any m and n the set of all m × n matrices with real
entries, together with the operations of matrix addition and scalar
multiplication, is a real vector space.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Example 4.5 Let Pn denote the set of all real polynomials of

degree n or less. If f and g are two such polynomials and k is any
real number, define the sum f + g and the scalar multiple kf by
(f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x)

(kf )(x) = kf (x)
Verify that Pn is a linear space.
Example 4.6 Let C [a, b] be the set of all continuous functions

defined on [a, b]. Verify that C [a, b] is a linear space.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Theorem 4.3 If V is a vector space, then

1. The zero vector is unique.
2. For each u, the additive inverse −u is unique.
3. 0u = 0 for every u in V , where 0 is the zero number.
4. k0 = 0 for every scalar k.
5. If ku = 0, then k = 0 or u = 0.
6. (−1)u = −u.
7. If u + w = v + w, then v = w.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Inner Product Spaces
Definition 4.8 An inner product on a real vector space V

is a function that associates a real number hu, vi with each
pair of vectors u and v in V in such a way that the following
axioms are satisfied for all vectors u, v, and w in V and all
scalars k.
(1) hu, vi = hv, ui
(2) hu + v, wi = hu, wi + hv, wi
(3) hku, vi = khu, vi
(4) hu, ui ≥ 0 and hu, ui = 0 if and only if u = 0.
A real vector with an inner product is called a real inner
product space.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Example 4.7 If u = (u1 , u2 , ..., un ) and v = (v1 , v2 , ..., vn ) are

vectors in IR n , the the formula
hu, vi = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + · · · + un vn
defines hu, vi to be the Euclidean inner product on IR n .
More generally, if
µ1 , µ2 , ..., µn
are positive real numbers, and if u = (u1 , u2 , ..., un ) and
v = (v1 , v2 , ..., vn ) are vectors in IR n , then it can be shown that the
formula
hu, vi = µ1 u1 v1 + µ2 u2 v2 + · · · + µn un vn
defines an inner product on IR n ; it is called the weighted
Euclidean inner product with weights µ1 , µ2 , ..., µn .
1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Example 4.8 Let f and g be continuous functions on [a, b], and

define Z b
hf , g i = f (x)g (x)dx.
a
Show that this formula defines an inner product on the vector
space C [a, b].
Theorem 4.4 If u, v and w are vectors in a real inner product

space, and k is any scalar, then
(a) h0, ui = 0;
(b) hu, v + wi = hu, vi + hu, wi;
(c) hu, kvi = khu, vi;

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Length and Distance in Inner Product Spaces
Definition 4.9 If V is an inner product space, then the

norm (or length) of a vector u is denoted by kuk and defined
by
kuk = hu, ui1/2 .
Definition 4.10 If V is an inner product space, then the

distance between two points (or vectors) u and v is denoted
by d(u − v) and is defined by
d(u − v) = ku − vk.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Linear Transformations
If V and W are any vector spaces and F is a function that
associates a unique vector in W with each vector in V , we say F
maps V into W , and write F : V → W . Further, if F associates
the vector w in W with the vector v in V , we write w = F (v ) and
say that w is the image of v under F . F is called a mapping (or
transformation or operator) of V into W .
Definition 4.11 Let V and W be vector spaces, and let F

be a function from V to W . We say that F is a linear
transformation if for all vectors u and v in V and all scalars
k,
F (u + v) = F (u) + F (v)
and
F (ku) = kF (u).
1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Example 4.9 Let F : IR 2 → IR 3 be the function defined by

F (x, y ) = (x, x + y , x − y ).
Show that F is a linear operator.
Example 4.10 Let A be a fixed m × n matrix. Show that the

function T : IR n → IR m defined by
T (x) = Ax.
is a linear operator. This transformation is called multiplication
by A.
Example 4.11 Let T : C [a, b] → IR be defined by

Z b
T (f ) = f (t)dt.
a
Prove that T is a linear transformation.
1.4 VECTOR SPACES
1.4.3 SUBSPACES
Definition 4.12 A nonempty subset W of a vector space

V is called a subspace of V if W is itself a vector space
under the addition and scalar multiplication defined on V .
Theorem 4.5
Let W be a nonempty subset of a vector space V . Then W is a
subspace of V if and only if the following conditions are met.
(a) If u and v are vectors in W , then u + v is in W .
(b) If k is any scalar and u is any vector in W , then ku is in W .
In other word, W is a subspace if it is closed under addition and

scalar multiplication.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
1.4.3 SUBSPACES
Example 4.12 Let A be an m × n matrix and W be the set of all

solutions of the system Ax = 0. Then W is a subspace of IR n .
However, if b is a nonzero vector in IR n , then the set of all
solutions of Ax = b is not a subspace of IR n .
Example 4.13 Show that the set W of all 2 × 2 matrices having

zeros on the main diagonal is a subspace of the vector space M22
of all 2 × 2 matrices.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
1.4.3 SUBSPACES
The following definition is one of the most fundamental concepts

in the study of vectors.
Definition 4.13 A vector w is called a linear combination

of the vectors v1 , v2 , ..., vp if it can be expressed in the form
w = k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + kp vp ,
where k1 , k2 , ..., kp are scalars.
For instance, every vector u = (x, y ) ∈ IR 2 is a linear combination

of vectors e1 = (1, 0) and e2 = (0, 1) since
u = (x, 0) + (0, y ) = xe1 + y e2 .

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
1.4.3 SUBSPACES
Theorem 4.6
If v1 , v2 , ..., vr are vectors in in a vector space V , then the set
of all linear combinations of v1 , v2 , ..., vr is a subspace of V .
If S = {v1 , v2 , ..., vr } is a subset of V , then the subspace W

consisting of all linear combinations of v1 , v2 , ..., vr is called the
subspace spanned by S and will denoted by
lin(S) or lin{v1 , v2 , ..., vr }.
We also say that the set S spans W .

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
1.4.3 SUBSPACES
Definition 4.14 Let A be an m × n matrix. The range of

A is the set of vectors in IR m defined by
R(A) = {y : y = Ax for some x in IR n }.
Theorem 4.7
If A is an m × n matrix, then the range of A is a subspace of
IR m . More precisely,
R(A) = lin{A1 , A2 ..., An },
where A1 , A2 ..., An are column vectors of A.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
1.4.3 SUBSPACES
Let A be the m × n matrix:

 
a11 a12 ··· a1n
 a21 a22
 ··· a2n 

 .. .. .. 
 . . ··· . 
an1 an2 ··· ann
The rows of A,
r1 = (a11 , a12 , ..., a1n )

r2 = (a21 , a22 , ..., a2n )
.. ..
. .
rm = (am1 , am2 , ..., amn )
can be regarded as vectors in IR n , called the row vectors of A.

The row space of A is defined to be lin{r1 , r2 , ..., rm }.
1.4 VECTOR SPACES
1.4.3 SUBSPACES
Theorem 4.8
Let A be an m × n matrix, and suppose that A is row
equivalent to the m × n matrix B. Then A and B have the
same row space.
In other words, elementary row operations do not change the row

space of a matrix.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
1.4.4 BASIS AND DIMENSION
Linear Independence
Definition 4.15 A set S = {v1 , v2 , ..., vp } of p vectors is

said to be linearly dependent if there are scalars
k1 , k2 , ..., kp , not all of which are zero, such that
k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + kp vp = 0.
S is said to be linearly independent if it is not linearly
dependent; that is, the only scalars for which
k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + kp vp = 0
are the scalars k1 = k2 = · · · = kp = 0.
S = {v1 , v2 , ..., vp } linearly independent ⇐⇒

k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + kp vp = 0 =⇒ k1 = k2 = · · · = kp = 0

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Example 4.14 (a) The set of vectors {v1 , v2 , v3 }, where

v1 = (2, −1, 6, 5), v2 = (5, 1, 2, 2), and v3 = (0, −1, 4, 3) is linearly
dependent, since 5v1 − 2v2 − 7v3 = 0.
(b) Consider the set of vectors {e1 , e2 , e3 }, where
e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), and e3 = (0, 0, 1). The equation
k1 e1 + k2 e2 + k3 e3 = 0 is equivalent to (k1 , k2 , k3 ) = (0, 0, 0).
Thus, k1 = 0, k2 = 0, and k3 = 0, so the set {e1 , e2 , e3 } is linearly
independent.
Note (a) If a set contains the zero vector, it is linearly

independent.
(b) A set with exactly two vectors is linearly independent if and
only if at least one of the vectors is a scalar multiple of the other.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Theorem 4.9
n vectors v1 = (v11 , v12 , ..., v1n ), ..., vn = (vn1 , vn2 , ..., vnn ) in
IR n are linearly independent if and only if

v11 v12 ... v1n

v21 v22 ... vnn
.. 6= 0.

.. ..
. . .

vn1 vn2 ... vnn

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Basis
Definition 4.16 A finite set S of vectors in a vector space

V is called a basis for V if
(i) S is linearly independent and
(ii) S spans V .
Remark If B = {v1 , v2 , ..., vp } is a basis for V , then each vector

x in V can be represented uniquely in terms of the basis B. That
is, there are unique scalars k1 , k2 , ..., kp such that
x = k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + kp vp .

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Example 4.15 (a) The following systems are bases for IR 3 :

(i) e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), and e3 = (0, 0, 1).
(ii) v1 = (1, 0, 0), v2 = (1, 1, 0), and v3 = (1, 1, 1).
(b) In IR n , the set S of vectors
e1 = (1, 0, ..., 0), e2 = (0, 1, ..., 0), ...., en = (0, 0, ..., 1)
is linearly independent. Since any vector x = (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) in IR n

can be expressed as x = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + · · · + xn en , S spans IR n and
is therefore a basis. It is called the standard basis for IR n .
Example 4.16 The set S = {1, x, x 2 , ..., x n } is a basis for the

vector space Pn and is called the standard basis for Pn .

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Example 4.17 Let

1 0 0 1
M1 = , M2 =
0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0
M3 = , M4 = .
1 0 0 1
Then the set S = {M1 , M2 , M3 , M4 } is a basis for the vector space

M22 of 2 × 2 matrices, called the standard basis for M22 . More
generally, the standard basis for Mmn consists of mn different
matrices with a single 1 and zero for the remaining entries.
Example 4.18 If S = {v1 , v2 , ..., vp } is a linearly independent set

in a vector space V , then S is a basis for the subspace lin(S) since
S is dependent, and by definition of lin(S), S spans lin(S).
1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Theorem 4.10
If the nonzero matrix A is row equivalent to the matrix B in
echelon form, then the nonzero rows of B form a basis for the
row space of A.
Example 4.19 Find a basis for the row space of

 
1 1 2 −1
 1 2 1 1 
 
A=  1 4 −1 5 
.
 1 0 4 −1 
2 5 0 2

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Dimension
Definition 4.17 A nonzero vector space V is called finite

dimensional if it contains a finite set of vectors
{v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } that forms a basis. If no such set exists, V is
called infinite dimensional.
Note We shall regard the zero vector space as finite dimensional

even though it has no linearly independent sets and consequently
no basis.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Theorem 4.11
If S = {v1 , v2 , ..., vp } is a basis for a vector space V , then
every set with more than p vectors is linearly dependent.
Corollary 4.1
Let S be a set of p vectors in IR n . If p > n, then S is linearly
dependent.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Theorem 4.12
Any two bases for a finite-dimensional vector space have the
same number of vectors.
For instance, the standard basis for IR n contains n vectors.

Therefore, every basis for IR n contains n vectors.

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Definition 4.18 The dimension of a space W is defined

to be the number of vectors in a basis for W and denoted
dim(W ). In addition, we define the zero vector space to have
dimension zero.
• For example, since {e1 , e2 , e3 } is a basis for IR 3 , IR 3 has

dimension 3.
• In general, IR n has a basis {e1 , e2 , ..., en } that contains n vectors,
so
dim(IR n ) = n

1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Theorem 4.13
If A is any matrix, then the row space and the column space
of A have the same dimension.
Definition 4.19 The dimension of the range of a matrix A

is called the rank of A and is denoted by rank(A).
Corollary 4.2
rank(A) = rank(AT )
Note It should be noted that the column space of A is exactly

the range of A.
1.4 VECTOR SPACES
Theorem 4.14
A system of linear equations Ax = b is consistent if and only
if the rank of the coefficient matrix is the same as the rank of
the augmented matrix.
Ax = b consistent ⇐⇒ rank(A) = rank([A|b]).
Theorem 4.15
An n × n matrix A is nonsingular if and only if the rank of A
is n.

Applied Linear Chapter 1

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LINEAR ALGEBRA

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai

September 28, 2010

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA

E. Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 9th ed., John

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA

1.1.1 General Concepts of Matrices

where each aij is a number (or function) called an entry or

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA

The first matrix has two rows and three columns.

• We denote matrices by capital boldface letters A, B, C, ...

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA

• Matrices with a single row or column are called vectors.

• Matrices having just one row are row vectors.

• Matrices having just one column are column vectors.

• Its entries are called the components of the vector.

• We shall denote vectors by lowercase boldface letters a, b, ...

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA

Definition 1.2 A matrix with n rows and n columns is

For instance, the matrix

is a square matrix of order 3, and 2, 5 and 0 are entries on the

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA

An m × n matrix whose entries are all zeros is called the m × n

For instance, the 2 × 3 zero matrix is

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA

Example 1.1 Two matrices

are equal if and only if a = 3, b = 5, x = −1 and y = 0.

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA

Definition 1.4 The sum of two m × n matrices A = [aij ]

A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] =⇒ A + B = [aij + bij ]

As a special case, the sum a + b of two row vectors or two column

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA

Example 1.2 Let

The sum A + C is not defined since their sizes are different.

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA

Properties of Matrix Addition

If A, B, C, and O have the same size, then

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA

Traditionally, when discussing matrices, a number is called a

Definition 1.5 If A is any matrix and k is any scalar, then

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA

Definition 1.6 If A is any matrix, then −A will denote the

• The matrix −A is usually called the negative of A or the

• A − B is called the difference of A and B.

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA

Properties of Scalar Multiplication

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA

Definition of Matrix Multiplication

Matrix multiplication means multiplication of matrices by matrices.

Definition 1.7 If A is an m × n matrix and B is an n × p

cij = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + · · · + ain bnj (1)

The only requirement restricting the definition of the product AB

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA

Example 1.4 Find AB where

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA

Example 1.5 A system of linear equations

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ··· + a1n xn = b1

can be written as the matrix equation

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA

Properties of Matrix Multiplication

The following equalities hold provided that the operations exist.

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai LINEAR ALGEBRA