1

Yarn Diameter, Specific volume and Packing Density

N.Balasubramanian
Retd. Jt. Director (BTRA) and Consultant1

Abstract
Relationship between yarn diameter and count by equations given by different
authors is compared and discrepancies explained. A new equation is proposed
taking into account the variation in specific volume with count. Methods for
determining yarn diameter and packing density are critically reviewed and their
relative merits discussed. Influence of fibre properties and process parameters on
yarn diameter and specific volume are discussed. Packing density is found to be
higher at core and reduces towards the surface with yarns produced by all
spinning systems. While rotor yarns have been found to have higher diameter and
lower packing density, contradictory results are found in regard to air-jet yarns vis
a vis ring yarns. Packing density is found to be lower at core and increases,
reaches a maximum and drops rapidly towards surface in rotor, compact, siro-
spun and worsted ring yarns. Packing density in ring yarns is found to be lower
than that given by ‘open’ and ‘close’ packing

Introduction
For successful quality monitoring, it is necessary to know the important
Quality parameters of yarn and the factors affecting them and their
interrelationships. These aspects are comprehensively covered in this
article. Contradictions found in literature in the relationship in the quality
parameters are highlighted and explanations have been given for some
findings

 Yarn diameter and Count

Yarn diameter is an important quality of yarn. Diameter and its variation
affect appearance and sale value. Diameter also affects the cover of woven
fabric and stitch length and tightness of knitted fabric. Weft insertion rate of
air jet weaving machines are affected by diameter. Relationship between
yarn count and diameter is dependent upon specific volume of yarn. Specific
volume in turn determines the absorbency and dyeing behavior of yarn.
Specific volume, ‘v’ is the ratio of the volume of yarn to that of the same
weight of water. Specific volume of yarn depends upon the raw material,
type of spinning system, twist factor and spinning parameters. If

1
Ba1ja2@yahoo.co.uk Tel No 9869716298
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 d is diameter (apparent diameter assuming yarn to have a circular

cross-section) in inch of ring yarn
 d1 diameter in cm
 r1 is radius of yarn in cm
 C English count (Ne)
 T Tex count
 v specific volume in cm3/gm
 ρ density of yarn in gm/cm3

then v = 1/ ρ = (π r2 105) / T
= 314159.3 r12 / T
= 78539.8 d12 / T …………………………...1
v = 858 C d2 ……………………………………………….2

(1/d) = 29.3√(C/v) ………………………………………………..3

Assuming specific volume as 1.1. Pierce1 gave the following equation for
yarn diameter.

(1/d) = 28√C ……………………………………………………….4

(1/d) = 28 √C (1/d1) = 280.24 / √(T v) …………………………...5

Elmogahzy2,3 has given the following empirical equation relating count and
yarn diameter for ring yarns.
1.592
d1 = -0.10284 + ………………………………………….6
√𝐶

Relationship between yarn diameter and count for ring yarns by Elmogahzy
equation and by Pierce’s equation are given in Fig 1. Not only diameter is
found to be higher but also the rate of reduction in diameter with count is
steeper with Mogahzy than Pierce. This is because specific volume increases
in Mogahzy equation from 1.18 to 2.13 as count reduces from40s to 10s
while Pierce has assumed specific volume to be the same irrespective of
count. As finer fibres are used in finer count, specific volume (inverse of
density) is likely to increase with reduction in count but the order of increase
from 1.18 to 2.13 found with Mogahzy equation appears to be high. Specific
volume seldom exceeds 2. From actual experimental studies, where ‘v’ is
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found to vary from 1.5 to 1.75, following equation is given connecting v

with count.

v = 1.75 – 0.0036 (C – 10) …………………………………………….7

By inserting this value in equation 2, relation between diameter and count

given by

√1.786−0.0036𝐶
d= ………………………………………………8
29.3√𝐶

Relation between diameter and count with this equation is also

shown in Fig 1.
The modified equation helps to raise the diameter to a higher level with a
higher rate of reduction with count than with Pierce equation.

0.5

0.45

0.4
Rotor Elmogahzy (11)
0.35
Diameter mm

0.3

0.25

Pierce v =
0.2
1.1 (4) Pierce '''v' varying
0.15 with count (8)

0.1

Ring,El
0.05
mogahzy
0
(6)
0 10 20 30 Count
40 Ne
50 60 70 80 90

Fig 1 Yarn diameter vs Count

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Equations 3 and 4 can also be used to determine specific volume ‘v’ of yarn
from measurements of diameter and count.

Specific volume from twist

If twist factor is k and t is twists per inch then,
k = t/√C. If fibres follow helical path and θ is angle surface fibre makes with axis
and r is radius of yarn in inch then as shown in Fig 2
tan θ =2πrt= 2πrk√C
=π(√v)k/29.3
=0.107k(√v)
v = tan2θ /(.0114 k2) …………………………………………………..9
v = (tan2θ ×7957.7)/ r12 × 𝑇 ……………………………………………10
Yarn specific volume can be obtained from helix angle of surface of fibre and twist
factor in case of ideal yarn where fibres follow helical path from any of the above
equations 9 or 10.

Fig 2: Yarn with fibres following helical path

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Diameter

As yarn is not perfectly circular, diameter measurements have to be made in two

perpendicular planes or, even better, at a number of places around circumference.
Narkhedkar and Kane4 have reviewed some methods for measuring yarn diameter.
The simplest method is to allow a parallel beam of light to fall on yarn, and image
is then projected on a screen or monitor and diameter measured by a graduated
scale. Alternately, yarn image is viewed under a microscope fitted with CCD
camera, transferred to monitor of PC and image analysis is used. From pixel
concentration, yarn body outline is determined. Presence of wild fibres and
hairiness makes the yarn boundary hazy and adds to errors in measurement. Van
Issum and Chamberlin5 developed a method for determining free diameter of yarn
by photographic integration. Electronic equipments are also available for
measuring yarn diameter and its variability. OM module incorporating optical
sensor of Uster Evenness tester 5 –S800 measures yarn diameter by projecting two
parallel light beams perpendicular to each other on yarn. In addition diameter
variation, roundness, density and surface structure of yarn are measured. QQM is a
hand held portable device, by Investa UNI, with two optical sensors of 2mm width
through which yarn is passed. Good correlation is found between yarn diameter
measured by OM module of Uster, and QQM and laboratory measurement based
on image analysis6. Thread flattening occurs in fabric due to interlacement of yarns
in weaving and yarn diameter measurements by microscopic methods may not give
accurate estimates of yarn diameter. Hamilton7 therefore developed an instrument
(shown in Fig 3) where yarn is found under tension on to a spindle in the form of
coils. Yarn gets flattened and assumes an elliptical shape. Major ellipse axis Y, is
obtained from number of coils per unit length and minor axis X is found with the
help of a feeler placed on wound coils. The flattening of yarn obtained by this
instrument may not conform to what is obtained by interlacement of threads in
weaving as the conditions are much different.
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Fig 3 : Diameter of yarn by coil winding (Hamilton)

Hamilton further found that with increase in twist, major diameter increases, minor
diameter reduces and yarn density increases first and then falls. While increase of
yarn density with increase of twist is expected, the fall of the same beyond a point
is not on expected lines. This may be the outcome of the instrumental method for
determining yarn diameter. Barella8 found considerable differences between
diameter measurements made by his instrument and Van Issum with a more closer
agreement with Hamilton’s method. Because of hairiness, photographic methods
tend to give higher results for yarn diameter and specific volume. Tsai and Chu9
found that cross-section of both ring and rotor yarns to be elliptical with irregular
outline with ellipticities of1.09 and 1.07 respectively. Onions10 et al; measured
thickness and compressibility of worsted yarns by applying load ranging from 1 to
100 gm.
Influence of fibre properties
Packing density and fibre density are the main factors determining yarn diameter.
Yarn diameter will be higher with fibres of lower density because of higher fibre
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diameter. The Table below gives density and diameter of multifilament yarns from
Polypropylene, HDPE, and Polyester11.
Table 1 Influence of fibre density on yarn diameter
Fibre Type Density of Diameter of 75 Diameter of
3
fibre g/cm den 150 den
multifilament multifilament
yarn, mm yarn, mm
Polypropylene 0.91 0.108 0.151
HDPE 0.95 0.106 0.149
Polyester 1.38 0.088 0.124
Finer fibres compact better than coarser fibres and result in lower yarn diameter.
Further, coarser fibres offer greater resistance to bending during twisting leading to
higher diameter. Longer fibres result in lower diameter because of reduced
hairiness and better compaction. However, contradictory results are reported for
jute/polyester blends by Debnath and Sengupta12 .Diameter of jute/polyester blend
is higher than 100 % jute yarn though jute is coarser and has higher density than
polyester. Hamilton13 found that yarn bulk density increases from 0.82 in Indian
cotton to 0.98 gms/cm3 in Sea Island. Higher diameter will therefore be found with
short staples. Fibres with lower density like propylene will result in bulkier yarn
with higher diameter as shown in Table 1. Fibre crimp is a major factor affecting
thickness and compressibility10. Fibres with higher crimp will result in larger yarn
diameter. Marked increase in thickness and compressibility is found with acrylic
yarns after bulking. .

Packing Density and Specific volume

Packing density and specific volume are important parameters as they determine
the bulkiness, feel, warmth and dyeing characteristics of yarn. They also influence
the amount of yarn that can be put on a package. A number of methods have been
proposed for determining packing density. International Standard IN 22-103-01-01
(Technical University of Liberec, Czechoslovakia) describes two methods for
determining yarn packing density. The two methods are also discussed by
Kremenakova14.
Direct Method
Yarn cross-section is prepared by embedding yarn and taking thin cross-sections
without disturbing the fibre position. Yarn is coated with a substance like polyvinyl
acetate to prevent disturbance of fibres during cross-sectioning. After drying, yarn
is embedded in a medium, dried and thin sections of 25 µm are prepared by a
microtome. Some of the embedding substances used include Perspex in
chloroform, nitrocellulose in ether/ethanol (later covered with wax), molten wax
and paraffin. The cross-section is viewed under a microscope. Template is placed
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on cross-section with circular rings to indicate yarn periphery. Total fibre area is
mapped by using PC software like LUCIA Metlab after separation of individual
images. Yarn area is obtained from diameter of ring.
𝐹𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
Packing Density =
𝑌𝑎𝑟𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
This method can also be used for determining radial packing density by placing a
template with concentric rings separated by a known width as shown in Fig 4. In
the figure cross-section has been divided into 5 zones For more detailed
investigation of radial density, yarn cross-section can be divided into more zones
up to 20. In this case, some fibres will be lying on the border contributing to both
zones.

Fig 4 Yarn cross-section divided in number of radial zones.

Fibre cross-section in each radial zone is mapped and divided by yarn area in the
zone to get radial packing density of that zone. About 50 cross-sections are
examined to get a reliable package density.
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Secant Method
For fibres with irregular cross-sections like viscose, 3 lobe polyester,secant method
is used. Centre of gravity of fibre is determined and fibre cross-section are
reconstructed around it after determining equivalent fibre diameter .Equivalent
Fibre diameter is estimated from the linear density and mass density of fibre
assuming the cross-section to be circular and fibre cross-sectional area estimated
from the following equations
1 𝑡(𝑓) 𝜋 𝑑(𝑓)2
df = √
5 𝜋𝜌(𝑓)
and Sf =
4
Where d(f) = Fibre diameter in mm
T(f) = Fibre linear density in Decitex
𝜌(𝑓)= Fibre mass density in g/cm3
Sf = Fibre cross-sectional area
As the fibres follow helical path, fibre cross-sectional area is corrected as per yarn
twist and distance of annular ring from centre of yarn by multiplying by secant of
helix angle.

Packing density in the whole yarn, as well as radial packing density, is estimated
from the ratio of fibre area to yarn area. Packing density of ring yarn is found to
vary from .4 to .6.
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0.6

0.5
Rotor

P d
0.4
a e
Ring
c n
k s 0.3

i i
n t 0.2
g y
0.1

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Diameter mm

Fig 5 Radial packing density of Ring and Rotor yarn

Fig 5 shows typical radial packing density of Ring yarns for 20 tex yarn. Packing
density is high at the core and reduces rapidly after a radius of 0.08mm. This
method is however not recommended for fibres like cotton and wool which have a
high variation in linear density from fibre to fibre. Kremenakova 14 postulates that
the border area between yarn core and surface lies at packing density of 0.15 and
determines yarn diameter at this point from radial packing density curve.
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Packing density from tracer fibre technique

Fig 6 Path of tracer fibre

15
Morton determined zonal distribution of fibres in yarn by tracer fibre technique.
A small quantity of (0.1%) of coloured fibre is introduced in the mixing. Yarn is
optically dissolved in a liquid of same refractive index as fibre so that path of
coloured fibre can be traced under microscope. Image of yarn in 2 perpendicular
directions by use of a mirror placed at 450 will result in accurate mapping of tracer
fibre profile. A typical trace of tracer fibre is given in Fig 6. Number of turns per
unit length made by a fibre can be ascertained and the length contributed by fibre
to different radial zones of yarn can be estimated. Image acquisition software can
be used to get an accurate mapping of tracer fibre. To get % fibre contributing to
each zone, length is corrected for helix angle in the zone by multiplying by secant
tan-1(2πr/z), where r is zone radius(.1r, .2r …) and z is turns per unit length. By
examining about 100 tracer fibres, mean zonal distribution can be found. If density
of fibre packing is uniform throughout yarn section, % of fibre in each zone will
vary as per volume of the zone. Actual zonal distribution was compared against
theoretical (assuming uniform packing density) by Morton. A typical figure is
shown in Fig 7.Zonal contribution is much lower than theoretical in the zone close
to surface indicating that packing density reduces steeply near surface.
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30

%
F 25
i
b i 20
r n
e Actual
Z15
l o
e n10
n e Theoretical
g
t 5

h
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
yarn Zone in r

Fig 7 : Comparison of actual and theoretical zonal distribution of fibre

Ishtiaque16 has developed the following formula for estimating packing density
from tracer fibre examination.

2 𝜋 𝑛 𝐹 𝑍2
Packing Density =
((√1+(𝜋 𝐷 𝑍)2) )− 1
Where
n = number of fibres in cross-section
F= Fibre cross-sectional area, mm2
Z = Average number turns of helix in tracer fibre (turns/mm)
D = yarn diameter in mm
Dogu17 gives the following equation for radial packing density of with filaments
migration
𝑑𝑥
𝑛
𝑑𝑟
vr =
𝜋𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
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Where vr = packing density at radius r

n = number of starting points at axis
Θ = twist angle of fibre at radius r.
dr/dx = Rate of migration
Hickie and Chaikin18 determined radial packing density by taking a large number
of microscopic photographs of yarn cross-section. They found a low packing
density at core and packing density increases and reaches a maximum at about one
quarter of radius from core in worsted yarn and reduces thereafter. Neckar19 used
Omest tester to determine radial packing density of cotton yarn by mathematical
evaluation of tracer fibre photographs. The instrument has a measuring cell and a
specialized camera. Two perpendicular images of tracer fibre are recorded in the
instrument side by side by means of a prismatic system.. The radial density results
for 25.2 tex and 56.6 tex obtained by this method are given in Fig 8.
0.7

0.6

P 0.5d
a e
c 0.4n
k s
25.2 tex
i 0.3i
n t
0.2
g y
0.1

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25

radius mm

Fig 8 : Radial packing density from trace fibre analysis

Fig 8 shows that packing density initially increases from core reaches a maximum
and then comes down rapidly towards surface as found by Hickie and Chaikin.
Maximum packing density lies at a higher radius in finer yarn than in coarser
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yarns. Theoretical model for radial packing density was proposed and results
obtained from the same compared with actual measurements.

Out of the two techniques, packing density from cross-section is likely to give
more accurate results as no assumptions are involved and 100% fibres have been
covered. Further radial packing density is low at core and increases, reaches a
maximum and drops towards surface with tracer fibre technique even in ring yarns.
This trend is not found in ring yarns with cross-section method where packing
density reduces continuously from core to surface . Only drawback of cross-
section method is that it is more tedious and time consuming.

Displacement technique
Carnaby20 developed an instrument for measuring yarn specific volume by fluid
displacement technique. A length of yarn is made to hang in a glass tube which is
then filled with small glass beads. From the weight of beads for filling the tube
with and without yarn, specific volume of yarn is estimated.
Shape
Uster21 has opined that shape of the yarn can be estimated by ratio of minor to
diameter of yarn crosssection assuming it to be an ellipse. However yarn
crossection varies from place to place and is far from an ellipse.
Surface roughness
Uster21 has proposed that the increase in diameter CV from measuring zone .3 mm
to 8mm can be taken as a measure of roughness. However no supporting is
provided for this hypothesis.
Effect of twist
Jaoudi22 et al; found that yarn density increases with twist and asymptotically
approaches a value. Twist and count have the maximum influence on packing
coefficient. Hearle and Merchant23 also found that with increase in twist, specific
volume of yarn (inverse of density) reduces and asymptotically approaches a value
(1.25 cm3/gm) which is still higher than fibre specific volume (0.88 cm3/gm), in
nylon staple fibre yarns. This is because entrapped air is not fully expelled with
increase in twist. Initial fall in specific volume with twist is greater for finer yarns
than in coarser yarns. Kremenakova et al;24 found that with polypropylene, packing
density increases slowly with twist and reaches a limiting value of 0.7 to 0.8. With
cotton increase of packing density with twist is more rapid. Barella25 found that
yarn density approaches fibre density at the time of break during loading in tensile
load tester.
Effect of fibre properties
As discussed earlier yarns made from finer fibres and higher density have higher
packing density. Krenakova et al;26 confirmed that packing density is higher and
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diameter lower with finer fibres. Kremenakova et al27; found higher packing
density with yarns made from polyester fibre with scallop oval shape and high
shape variability. Packing density is least with polyester fibre of hex channel
shape.
Process factors
Uster21 has found a lower packing density with carded yarns than combed yarns.
This is because fibres compact better when they are parallel to each other.
Yarn packing density increases with increase in spinning tension as the fibres get
closely packed. Lower strand width at the delivery by the use of finer roving and
lower ring frame draft will increase packing density because twist flows closer to
nip. However Tyagi et al;28 found that packing density increases with spinning
draft initially and afterwards drops.
Compact Yarns
Strand width at delivery nip of front rollers determines the extent to which twist
flows to the nip and the size of spinning triangle. If the strand width is reduced
spinning triangle diminishes, twist flows right up to nip and increases compactness
of yarn.. Compact spinning is developed on this principle. Basal and Oxenham29
and Tyagi et al;28 found the diameter to be lower and density higher of compact
yarn compared to ring yarn. Yilmaz30 et al; found that packing density is high near
the core and reaches a maximum at one fifth radius and thereafter reduces
parabolically towards surface in compact yarns. About 15 – 30 % higher packing
density is found in compact yarns (.55 to .70) than ring yarns (.5 to .6). As in the
case of ring yarns, packing density increases with twist in compact yarns. Yarns
from 3 different pneumatic compact spinning had no significant difference in
packing density but fibre number is found to vary between the systems. Diameter
of both carded and combed mechanical compact yarns (from RoCos) is lower than
ring spun conventional carded and combed yarn31. Difference in diameter of
compact and ring yarn increases as count becomes coarser and decreases with
increase in twist. Reduction in diameter is more with pneumatic compacting
systems than mechanical compacting systems. The former brings down the strand
width to a higher extent. Indigenous mechanical compact system, MCS –Positive is
also effective in reducing diameter of yarns compared to ring spinning 32.Semi
positive nip is however not that effective in compacting and reduces diameter only
slightly. Wu33 et al;, who reconstructed yarn structure from the path of tracer
fibres, found that packing density is more uniform in compact yarn than in ring
yarns up to 70% yarn radius. Further, packing density is lower in compact yarn
than ring yarns in this core region. Beyond 70 % radius , compact yarn has a
packing density higher than ring yarns. While packing density of ring yarn starts
reducing from 35 % of radius, that of compact yarn starts reducing only after 70 %
of radius. Further fibres in compact yarn have a larger twist angle than ring yarns.
 16

These results are at variance with that of Yilmaz et al;30. This suggests that
reconstruction of yarn from tracer fibres may give erroneous results. Uster21 has
found higher shape with compact yarns amongst ring, rotor and airjet yarns

Rotor yarns

Rotor spinning is primarily intended for coarse and medium counts to achieve high
production rates and improved yarn evenness. El magahzy2,3 has given the
following empirical equation connecting yarn diameter and count in rotor yarns.

d1 = - 0.16155 + …………………………………………11

Relationship between count and diameter for rotor yarns by El magahzy are also
shown plotted in Fig 1. Rotor yarn will be found to have higher diameter than ring
yarns in the coarse count range and the difference decreases as count becomes
finer.

Basu34 et al (SITRA) found that rotor yarns are 10 % bulkier than ring yarns and
found the following equation gives a good fit with actual measurements.

(1/d) = 23.5 √C ……………………………………………………12

(1/ d1) = 252/√T …………………………………………………….13

In Fig 9 variation of yarn diameter with count by equations given by Elmogahzy

and SITRA are compared. Elmogahzy’s equation gives higher diameter than
SITRA in coarser counts and the difference diminishes with increase in count.
Uster found mean density value of .55 for combed yarns (equal to 5 % standards)
and 0.4 for rotor yarns (equal to 23% standards).Higher diameter with rotor yarns
is because of higher specific volume arising from the fact that twisting takes place
at much lower tension than in ring spinning.
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0.5

0.45

0.4
Elmogahzy(11)
D
i 0.35
a
m 0.3
e
t 0.25
e
SITRA
r 0.2
(12)
m 0.15
m
0.1

0.05

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Count, Ne

Fig 9 : Variation of diameter with yarn count in rotor yarn

Radial packing density of rotor and ring yarns is compared in Fig 6. Rotor yarns
have a significantly lower density near the core region, increases to a maximum
and then decreases rapidly towards surface. Beyond 0.1mm the two yarns have
nearly same packing density. Jiang35 et al found packing density in rotor yarns to
be low at core and increases continuously and reaches a maximum at one third or
one fourth of radius from yarn axis. Similar results are also reported by Neckar36et
al;. Afterwards packing density reduces steeply towards the surface. With increase
of twist, fibre scatter is reduced and packing density increases and maximum
packing density shifts towards core. Packing density in rotor yarns also reduces as
yarn becomes finer. Neckar35 et al; found that for the same count, rotor yarns have
about 15 – 19 % lower number fibres than ring yarns primarily because of poor
alignment of fibres caused by radial and twist migration. Radial packing density of
both rotor and ring yarns are non uniform. Packing of yarns is more towards core
in rotor yarn than ring yarns. Higher rotor speed and diameter result in more
compact yarn with lower diameter because of higher tension37. Increase of card
draft and corresponding reduction in rotor draft reduces yarn diameter38.. Rotor
 18

yarns are further found to have a lower shape (0.67 – 0.8) compared to ring yarns
(.80 - .89) as per Uster21.

Air-Jet Yarn
Air-jet technology is suitable for medium counts with polyester and
polyester/cotton blends with potential for high production rates and unique yarn
properties. Elmogahzy has given the following empirical equation connecting yarn
diameter and count in air-jet yarns.
1.5872
d1 = - 0.09298 + …………………………………………….14
√𝐶

Diameters of air-jet and ring yarns, as per Elmogahzy equation are compared in
Fig 10. Air-jet yarns will be found to have slightly higher diameter than ring yarn.
0.25

D AirJet
i 0.2
a
m
e 0.15

t Ring
e
0.1
r
,

0.05
m
m
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Count, Ne

Fig 10 Comparison of diameter of air-jet and ring yarns by Mogahzy equation

However, Tyagi et al;38 and Kumar37 et al; found air jet yarn to have a lower
diameter and higher packing density than ring yarns while rotor yarn has the
 19

maximum diameter and lowest packing density. Helix angle is found to be lowest
in air-jet yarns and highest in rotor yarn. Increase in card draft and corresponding
reduction in air jet draft increases yarn diameter and lowers packing density. This
is confirmed by Tyagi et al;39This may be because of reduced strand width which
brings down the number of wrapper fibres. Increase in second nozzle pressure
improves packing density39. Studies by Uster21 have shown that air jet yarns and
carded ring yarns have a higher CVFS (10.9 %) compared to combed and compact
yarns (8.58 ) confirming thgeneralfinding that air jet yarns have a rough feel.
Air vortex Spinning
Air vortex spinning is a modification of air jet spinning designed for 100 % cotton
and cotton rich blends. Basal and Oxenham40 found that yarn diameter reduces
with delivery speed in air vortex spinning because of longer time for which fibre
bundle is exposed to whirling air force. Kilichand and Okur41 found diameter to be
lower and density higher in compact yarn than in ring yarns while that of vortex
yarn falls in between. While regenerated fibres have lower yarn diameter than
cotton in ring and compact, no such difference is found between the two in vortex
yarns. Roundness of compact yarn is better than ring yarns because of lower strand
width at delivery. Vortex yarns have a much lower roundness than ring and
compact yarns.
Failure mechanism in a tensile test in different types of yarns was investigated by
Cybulska et al;42. Yarn diameter is found to be lowest and diameter unevenness
highest in yarns made by all spinning systems at the time of break
Friction spun yarn
Friction spinning is suitable for coarse counts with high production rates. Ishtiaque
et al;43 found yarn diameter reduces and packing density increases with increase in
suction pressure in core-sheath friction spun as well as rotor yarns. Core-sheath
friction spun yarns have lower diameter and helix angle than rotor yarns. In
another study Ishtiaque44found that packing density increases with friction drum
speed, decrease in delivery rate and increase in throttle diameter up to 52mm.
Packing density of core sheath spun friction yarn increases as yarn becomes
coarser and with increase in friction ratio45. As in rotor yarn, packing density is
higher in core and reduces towards surface. Fibre to fibre friction has a significant
influence on packing density of sore-sheath friction spun yarn46. With increase in
fibre friction, packing density increases.
Siro spun yarn
Siro spiniing is nothing but double rove spinning common in olden times, except
that that the space between rovings is adjustable to get optimum yarn quality.
Ishtiaque47 et al found that unlike ring yarns packing density reaches a maximum at
one third of yarn radius from the core in siro spun yarns. Packing density of Siro
 20

spun yarn is higher than ring yarn. Johari48 found increase in packing density and
reduction in diameter with increase in spacing between rovings.
Plied Yarn
Plied yarn is expected to have a higher packing density than single yarn especially
if it is z over z. Ishtiaque etal;49 have confirmed this. Further they found that
packing density of single yarn in doubled yarn increases significantly upon
doubling possibly because untwisting and retwisting reduces air pockets. However
measurement of packing density in plied yarn is difficult as yarn does not have a
circular cross-section. Moreover shape of cross-section varies from place to place.
Splicing
In modern winding machines splicing is invariably done in place of knot for
joining broken ends. Splicing technology has improved over the years to minimize
diameter and strength difference of a splice and normal yarn. Das et al50 showed
that yarn twist and splice air pressure have a significant influence on splice
diameter, % increase in diameter and retained packing density. Fibre friction has
no significant in influence on these properties.
Packing of fibres in yarn
Schwarz51 postulated two types of packing of fibres in yarn viz; circular or open
packing and polygonal or close packing, shown in Fig 11 and 12.

Fig 11 : Open Packing

In open packing, fibres follow on concentric circles over a central fibre in a
number of layers. The first layer consists of a single fibre and second layer has 6
fibres all of them touching each other as well as central fibre. The third layer is
 21

formed by fibres touching the circle that contains the second layer of fibres. Build
up of layers one over other proceeds in this manner. Open packing gives a circular
yarn with air spaces between layers from 2nd layer onwards. As shown by Hearle et
al; 52 radius of yarn with n layers is given by (2n – 1)rf where rf is fibre radius.
Packing density of open packing is around 0.76 as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 : Packing density of open packed yarns with different layers
Number of layers Number of fibres Packing density
3 19 0.76
4 37 0.755
5 62 0.765
6 93 0.768

Petrulis53 considered two modifications of open packing with different amount of

gaps between filaments in some ring layers. With wider gap between filament
packing density is slightly lower. However actual packing density of yarn is much
lower than that given by open packing. This means that actual yarns have more
yarn pockets than open packing.

Fig 12 : Close Packing

 22

Close packing gives a hexagonal outline with all fibres touching each other. Yarn
is not circular and closer to elliptical. For yarn with n layers, major radius of yarn
is (2n – 1) rf and minor radius is (1.732n – 0.732 )rf. Close packing, as its name
indicates, has a higher packing density. Table 3 gives packing density with close
packing for different layers. With increase in number of layers above 5 packing
density becomes stable and reaches a value of around 0.87
Table 3 Packing density with close packing
No of Layers Total number of Fibres Packing Density
3 19 .836
4 37 .852
5 61 .84
6 91 .87
7 127 .874
8 169 .873
9 217 .879

Potrulis and Petrulyte54 developed a hypothetical model of close packing for

estimating packing density. This allows calculation of a vector for each filament
and cross-sectional layer in which filament lies. Yarn is assumed to have a circular
cross-section with fibres close packed Packing density varies from.75 for 2 layers
to 0.898 for 12 layers. Another method, considering yarn with close packing with
comb type cells and infinite number of layers was also examined. In this case
packing density works out to 0.906. Balakrishna Iyer and Phatarford55 found yarn
diameter to be nearly constant with small number of fibres in the twist factor range
20 – 40. Packing density was found to be 0.907. However, actual measurements
show packing density varies from .45 to .6 in cotton yarns. This means that fibres
are packed more loosely than either close or open packing.

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