CORPORATE

’.

STRUCTURE , NETWORK
AND KNOWLEDGE
MANAGEMENT
 THE OVERALL PURPOSE OF THIS CHAPTER IS
TO EXAMINE THE AREAS OF ORGANIZATION
LEARNING , KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT (KM)
AND ORGANIZATIONAL KNOWLEDGE SHARING
NETWORKS AS A CRITICAL STRATEGIC
‘TRIPOD’.
 *THE CHAPTER IS CONSEQUENTLY
DIVIDED INTO THREE MAJOR BUILDING
BLOCKS*
• ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING

•KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT(KM)

•ORGANIZATIONAL KNOWLEDGE
SHARING
*ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING*
LEARNING IS A CONTINUOUS PERSONAL TRANSFORMATION.IT IS THE
CYCLE AND CUMULATIVE PRODUCTS OF THE CONTINUOUS
ACTUALIZATION OF YOUR KNOWLEDGE(ADDING NEW THINGS TO
YOUR KNOWLEDGE REPERTOIRE),IN ORDER TO CHANGE YOUR
BEHAVIOR SO YOU CAN FUNCTION AND ACT BETTER. .
 *KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT*
A FIRMS LONG- TERM SUCCESS AND SURVIVAL INCREASINGLY
DEFENDS LESS ON PARTICULAR PRODUCTS AND MORE ON AN
ORGANIZATION’S DISTINCTIVE CAPABILITIES TO DEVELOP, SHARE
AND UTILIZE SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE.
 *ORGANIZATIONAL KNOWLEDGE
SHARING*
THE ENVIRONMENTAL VOLATILITY EXPERIENCED BY MANY
ORGANIZATIONS IN THE EARLY YEARS OF THE 21ST CENTURY HAS
ENCOURAGED MANY OF THEM TO ABANDON ISOLATIONISM AND
FOCUS ON LOOKING INSIDE AT THEMSELVES IN FAVOR OF
COLLABORATION , LOOKING OUTSIDE AND ESTABLISHING
INTERORGANIZATIONAL RELATIONSHIPS.
 *CULTURE AND CHANGE*
• CONSIDERATION OF ORGANIZATION CULTURE CAME TO PROMINENCE IN THE
EARLY 1980’S. EARLIER WORK SUMMARIZED BY HANDY IN HIS BESTSELLER
UNDERSTANDING ORGANIZATIONS(1976)CLASSIFIED ORGANIZATION IN TERMS OF
POWER , ROLE , TASK AND PERSON . THESE CONCEPTS ARE STILL DESCRIBED IN
SOME DETAIL IN CURRENT STANDARD TEXTS (E . G.,MULLINS ,(2007).HANDY
HYPOTHESIZED THAT ORGANIZATIONS NATURALLY DEVELOP FROM A POWER-
BASED CULTURE IN ENTREPRENEURIAL(START-UP)FIRMS, DRIVEN BY GROWTH
TO DEFINE STANDARD PROCEDURES AND JOB DESCRIPTIONS WHICH INDICATIVE
OF A ROLE-BASED CULTURE , THEN CONCENTRATE ON JOBS AND PROJECTS IN A
TASK-BASED AND CULTURE AND FINALLY MOVE TO TOWARDS A PERSON-BASED
CULTURE WHERE THE ORGANIZATIONS DO NOT JETTISON EXISTING CULTURE ON
MOVING TO THE NEXT STAGE, BUT RATHER ACCUMULATE A HYBRID OF ALL
FOUR CATEGORIES.
 *KNOWLEDGE AND LEARNING*
*KNOWLEDGE -IS A FUNCTION OF INFORMATION , CULTURE AND SKILLS
(RAMPERSAD 2001)
<KNOWLEDGE>=F(<INFORMATION|>,<CULTURE >,<SKILLS>)
F -SPECIFIES THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN KNOWLEDGE ON THE ONE SIDE AND
INFORMATION ,CULTURE AND SKILLS ON THE OTHER.
INFORMATION- COMPRISES THE MEANING GIVEN TO DATA OR INFORMATION
OBTAINED ACCORDING TO CERTAIN CONVENTIONS; THIS IS ALSO KNOWN AS
EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE .
*CULTURE- IS THE TOTAL OF STANDARDS ,VALUES , VIEWS PRINCIPLES AND
ATTITUDES OF PEOPLE THAT UNDERSCORE THEIR BEHAVIOR AND FUNCTIONING.
* SKILLS- ARE RELATED TO THE CAPABILITY, ABILITY AND PERSONAL EXPERIENCE
OF PEOPLE; IT RELATES TO WHAT PEOPLE CAN DO , KNOW AND UNDERSTAND.
 WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE?
KNOWLEDGE BELONGS TO THE FAMILY OF STEADILY INCREASING INVISIBLE
CORPORATE ASSETS
THAT INCLUDE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM, PATENTS, BRAND IDENTITY AND
CORPORATE REPUTATION.
 OTHER AUTHORS COMPANY SOUGHT TO TAKE A PROCESS-
BASED RATHER THAN A PROJECT-BASED PERSPECTIVE TO THE
DEFINITION OF KM.

LIEBOWITZ(2000)PRESENTED NINE-STEP
1. APPROACH
TRANSFORM INFORMATION TO KM:
INTO KNOWLEDGE
2. IDENTITY AND VERIFY KNOWLEDGE
3. CAPTURE AND SECURE KNOWLEDGE
4. ORGANIZE KNOWLEDGE
5. RETRIEVE AND APPLY KNOWLEDGE
6. COMBINE KNOWLEDGE
7. CREATE KNOWLEDGE
8. LEARN KNOWLEDGE
9. DISTRIBUTE/SELL KNOWLEDGE
 KM IS DRIVEN BY THE NEED TO ENHANCE:
• INTELLECTUAL ASSET MANAGEMENT
• OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY
• CUSTOMER AND COMPETITOR INTELLIGENCE
• CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT
• ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING
• INNOVATION IN PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
• TIME TO MARKET
 * 6 TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE RELEVANT
FOR ANY COMPANY*
1. KNOWLEDGE ABOUT CUSTOMERS
2. KNOWLEDGE ABOUT BEST PRACTICES AND EFFECTIVE PROCESSES
3. KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE COMPANY’S OWN COMPETENCIES AND
CAPABILITIES
4. KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE COMPANY’S OWN PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
5. KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE MARKET TRENDS
6. KNOWLEDGE ABOUT COMPETITORS
 *THE SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED MODEL OF
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT*

THE SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED MODEL EMPHASIZES FOUR KEY DIMENSIONS OF KM.

THEY INCLUDE THE CONSTRUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE WITHIN THE ORGANIZATION
AND THE EMBODIMENTS OF KNOWLEDGE THROUGH A PROCESS OF SOCIAL
INTERCHANGE.
 *KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT PROCESSES
AND TOOLS*
KM IS PERCEIVED AS PART OF CORPORATE CULTURE-ORIENTED METHOD . CORE
IDENTIFIED KM PROCESSES INCLUDED IDENTIFICATION OF RELEVANT
KNOWLEDGE (VIA BENCHMARKING, KNOWLEDGE BROKERS),
GENERATION OF NEW KNOWLEDGE (PROJECT TEAMS, EXTERNAL LINKS),
STORAGE OF KNOWLEDGE (SUCCESS STORIES ,CASE STUDIES ,DATABASES)
DISTRIBUTION OF KNOWLEDGE (INTRANET ,NEWSLETTER ,MENTORING)
APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE (COACHING EXPERT OPINIONS)
*INTEGRATION OF DIFFERENT MODELS OF
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT*
• THE DIFFERENT MODEL OF KM DIFFER CONSIDER IN THEIR FOCUS
AND ON ISSUED THAT RELATE TO THE CONCEPTION OF
KNOWLEDGE AND THE MODEL OF LEARNING INCORPORATED . THE
SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED MODEL INVOLVES A CONTINUOUS
PROCESS OF LEARNING IN A LEARNING-BASED ENVIRONMENT .
THE KNOWLEDGE CATEGORY MODEL ON THE OTHER HAND, FOCUS
ON THE TRANSFORMATION PROCESS OF KNOWLEDGE IN THE
FIRM THAT HAS WITHIN IT ‘A SYSTEM OF KNOWLEDGE’.
 *5 KEY OF KM SUCCESS FACTORS,
ACCORDING TO SURVEY*
● CORPORATE CULTURE (OPENNESS ,AUTONOMY , LEARNING BEHAVIOURS )

● MOTIVATION (VISUALIZATION OF SUCCESS ,REWARDS)

● MANAGEMENT SUPPORT (COACHING)

● STUCTURES OR PROSSES (ROLES)

● IT(INTELLIGENT AGENTS, INTRANET)

 THE HR DEPARTMENT PLAYS AN IMPORTANTIN THE
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF EMPLOYEE RESEACH
ABILITIES,STUCTURED THINKING, SELF-REFLECTION,META-
COGNITION AND KNOWLEDGE COMMUNICATION.
EMPLOYEES SHOULD FEEL MOTIVATED ,COMMITTED ,
PERSONALLY INVOLVED AND INCENTIVIZED.
*FACILITATING KNOWLEDGE SEARCH AND
DISCOVERY*
• MANY ENTERPRISE SYSTEM ACQUIRE LARGE VOLUMES OF
KNOWLEDGE ARTEFACTS FROM MULTIPLE AND OFTEN REMOTE
SOURCES. THE COMPLEXITY OF INTERRELATED KNOWLEDGE
ARTEFACTS STORED IN THESE REPOSITIONS MAKE IT OFTEN
DIFFICULT FOR PEOPLE TO LOCATE RELEVANT ARTEFACTS OR
COMPREHEND AND INTERPRET THEIR MEANING . LOCATING OF
RELEVANT KNOWLEDGE IN CORPORATE MEMORIES IS ONE OF THE
IMPORTANT OBJECTIVES DEVELOPING AND DEVELOPING KM
SYSTEM IN ORGANIZATIONS.
 *INTELLIGENT AGENTS*
• INTELLIGENT AGENTS ARE SOFTWARE PROGRAMS THAT ACT
PERSONAL COMMUNICATION ASSISTANT TO THEIR USERS AND
CARRY OUT SOME SETS OF OPERATIONS ON THEIR BEHALF WITH
SOME DEGREE OF INDEFENDENCE OR AUTONOMY. INTELLIGENT
AGENTS THAT GREW FROM EXPERT SYSTEM AND ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENT RESEARCH LEARN FROM INPUT DURING THE COURSE
OF THEIR PERFORMANCE AND MODIFY THEIR BEHAVIOR
ACCORDINGLY.
*PROMOTING VIRTUAL SOCIALIZATION AND
COLLABORATION*
THE SPIRAL MODEL OF KNOWLEDGE CREATION RECOGNIZES THE
CRUCIAL IMPORTANCE OF SOCIALIZATION IN DEVELOPING AND
TRANSFERRING . TACIT KNOWLEDGE IN AN ORGANIZATION. THE
MAIN AIM OF TECHNOLOGY IS ENABLING AND FACILITATING
INTERACTION AMONG PEOPLE FOR THE PURPOSE OF KNOWLEDGE
SHARING AND COLLECTIVE LEARNING . COMMUNICATION AND
COLLABORATION TECHNOLOGIES MAY BE CLASSIFIED BY THE
OFFERED TO SUPPORT GROUP ACTIVITIES FROM FACILITATING
COMMUNICATION , THROUGH TO PROCESS AND TASK STRUCTURING,
TO REGULATING INTERACTION.
*STIMULATING CREATIVITY AND COMPLEX
PROBLEM-SOLVING*

THERE IS WIDESPREAD RECOGNITION IN THE KM LITERATURE OF

THE IMPORTANCE OF CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION FOR
ORGANIZATIONAL SUCCESS IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT.
AN ORGANIZATION’S ADAPTIVE RESPONSE MAY BE A CHOICE
BETWEEN DEVELOPMENT AND DECAY. IT IS ARGUED THAT GREAT
INNOVATION NEED CREATIVE THINKING AND IDEAS.
 *THE CONCEPT OF KNOWLEDGE
REPOSITORY*
A KNOWLEDGE REPOSITORY CAN BE VIEWED AS A FORM OF ORGANIZATIONAL
MEMORY, I. E, A SET OF STORED ARTEFACTS THAT ORGANIZATION ACQUIRE,RETAIN
AND BRING TO BE BEAR ON THEIR PRESNT ACTIVITIES IN OREDER TO AVOID
FUTURE MISTAKES.A KNOWLEDGE REPOSITORY CAN BE STUDIED FROM TWO
PERSPECTIVE.THE ‘CONTENT’ PERPECTIVE FOCUSES ON THE KNOWLEDGE THAT IS
CAPTURED ON HOW KNOWLEDGE IS STORED AND RETRIEVED.

IN THE GENERAL,REPOSOTORIES STORE TWO TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE:

• STRUCTURED CONCRETE INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE IN DATABASES,
DOCUMENTS AND ARTEFACTS(STANDARDS,RULES)
• THE REPRESENTATION OF UNSTRUCTURED ABSRACT INFORMATIN AND
KNOWLEDGE OF HUMAN ACTORS(CONCEPTUAL LENSES, FRAMEWORK)
*UNDERSTANDING KNOWLEDGE MAPS*
MOST DEFINITIONS OF K-MAPS INCLUDE THE IDEA OF TOOLS OR
PROCESS THAT HELP USERS NAVIGATE THE SILOS OF ARTEFACTS
THAT RESIDE IN AN ORGANIZATION,WHILE DETERMINING
MEANINGFUL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN KNOWLEDGE DOMAINS.

K-MAP EXAMOLE INCLUDE KNOWLEDGE APPLICATION,KNOWLEDGE

STRUCTURE, KNOWLEDGE SOURCE,KLNOWLEDGE ASSET AND
KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPMENT MAPS.
 *CONCEPT-BASED KNOWLEDGE MAPS*
THE GROUP OF COCEPT-BASED K-MAPS OR TAXONOMIES INCLUDES
CONCEPTUAL K-MAPS AND KNOWLEDGE ATRUCTURE MAPS. BOTH
OF THESE PROVIDE A FRAMEWORK FOR CAPTURING AND
ORGANIZING DOMAIN KNOWLEDGE OF AN ORGANIZATION AROUND
TOPIC AREAS.THEYREPRESNET A METHOD OF STRUCTURING AND
CLASSIFYING CONTENT IN AHIEARCHICAL MANNER.CONCEPT-BASED
K-MAPS ALSO ALLOW FOP INTERNAL EXPERTS KNOWLEDGE TO BE
MADE EXPLICIT IN A VISUAL, GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION THAT
CAN BE EASILY UNDERSTOOD AND SHARED.
 *COMPETENCY-BASED KNOWLEDGE
MAPS*
COMPETENCY-BASED K-MAPS COVER A GROUP OF SIMILAR MAPS INCLUDING
COMPETENCY K-MAPS , KNOWLEDGE SOURCE AND KNOWLEDGE ASSET MAPS .
THESE MAPS PROVIDE AN OVERVIEW OF EXPERTISE THAT RESIDES IN THE
ORGANIZATION ALONG WITH THE IDENTIFICATION OF ENTRIES THAT POSSESS
SUCH EXPERTISE ; VISUALLY QUALIFY THE EXISTING STOCK OF KNOWLEDGE OF
AN INDIVIDUAL, TEAM OR WHOLE ORGANIZATION ; AND DOCUMENTS SKILLS ,
POSITIONS AND CAREER PATHS. ESSENTIALLY , THEY ARE SIMPLE GRAPHIC
BALANCE SHEETS OF A COMPANY’S INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL.
*PROCESS-BASED KNOWLEDGE MAPS*
• PROCESS-BASED K-MAPS ARE ONE OF THE MOST COMMONLY USED TYPES OF K-
MAPS IN ORGANIZATIONS . THEY INCLUDE PROCEDURAL MAPS AND
KNOWLEDGE APPLICATION MAPS . THEY ARE SIMILAR IN THAT THEY BOTH
FOCUS ON WORK/BUSINESS PROCESS, ESSENTIALLY , PROCESS-BASED K-MAPS
PRESENT BUSINESS PROCESS WITH RELATED KNOWLEDGE SOURCES IN
AUDITING , CONSULTING , RESEARCH AND PRODUCTS DEVELOPMENT.
 *CORPORATE MEMORY*
HAVING SPENT THE 1990’S IN THE THROES OF RECONSTRUCTING, RE-
ENGINEERING AND DOWNSIZING , COMPANIES MARE WORRYING
ABOUT CORPORATE AMNESIA. THERE WAS A TIME WHEN AIR
TRAVELERS, IN-SEARCH OF TIMELY TAKE-OFFS AND STERLING
SERVICE , WOULD FLY WITH DELTA AIRWAYS . THEN DELTA
EMBARKED ON A COST-CUTTING AND RE-ENGINEERING
PROGRAMME , REDUCED ITS WORKFORCE BY ABOUT A SIXTH, THUS
REDUCING PERCEPTIONS OF SERVICE QUALITY.
 ORGANIZATIONAL KNOWLEDGE
SHARING

*THE DEVELOPING FIELD*

DURING THE LAST QUARTER OF THE 20TH CENTURY, A
CONSIDERABLE AMOUNT OF MANAGEMENT , ACADEMIC AND
CONSULTANCY TIME, AND THOUGHT AND EFFORT, WAS PUT INTO
ALTERING SOME , OF THE CLASSICAL STRUCTURES OF MANY LARGE
ORGANIZATIONS THAT HAD BEEN IN THE PLACE SINCE THE END OF
1945.THE KEY FEATURES OF THESE STRUCTURES WOULD HAVE BEEN
FAMILIAR TO MAX WEBER(1947) WHO HAD WRITTEN ABOUT THE
BENEFITS OF BUREAUCRATIC ORGANIZATION AT THE START SAME
CENTURY.
 *INTERNAL EXPERIMENTS*
IN THAT PERIOD, THE SOLUTIONS TO THOSE PROBLEMS OF
KNOWLEDGE SHARING WERE FOCUSED INSIDE ORGANIZATIONS. TO
AMELIORATE THE WORST DYSFUNCTIONS OF BUREAURACRACY,
MANY COMPANIES OPTED TO INTRODUCE TEAMWORKING INTO
THEIR BUREAUCRATIC STRUCTURES . HAYES (1997,P.1)NOTED THAT
‘TO AN EVER-INCREASING EXTENT , MODERN MANAGEMENT HAS
BECOME FOCUSED ON THE IDEA OF THE TEAM.
 *INTERORGANIZATIONAL
RELATIONSHIPS*
THE ENVIRONMENTAL VOLATILITY EXPERIENCED BY MANY
ORGANIZATIONS IN THE EARLY YEARS OF THE 21ST CENTURY HAS
ENCOURAGED MANY OF THEM TO ABANDON ISOLATIONISM IN
FAVOUR OF COLLABORATION, LOOKING OUTSIDE, TO ESTABLISH
INTERORGANIZATIONAL RELATIONSHIPS FROM WHICH THEY CAN
MUTUALLY LEARN AND PROSPER. ‘PARTNERING’ IN ALL ITS VARIOUS
FORMS HAS BECOME THE BUZZWORD.
 *UNILATERAL AGREEMENT*
WHAT DISTINGUISHES A UNILATERAL AGREEMENT IS THAT IT
INVOLVES ONE FIRM PROVIDING ANOTHER ON A CLOSE BASIS WITH
SPECIFIC SERVICE , PRIMARILY FOR A FINANCIAL RETURN . FOR
EXAMPLE ONE FIR, MAY PROVIDE MANAGEMENT CONSULTANCY
SERVICE , MARKETING ADVICE AND TECHNICAL INPUTS . THE
CONNECTION BETWEEN THE TWO FIRMS IS STRICTLY FINANCIAL.
BECAUSE THE SERVICE IS BEING PAID FOR BY ONE OF THE PARTNERS,
THE LEVEL OF INTERDEPENDENCE BETWEEN THE TWO ENTITIES IS
VERY LIMITED.
 *SUBCONTRACTING*
INVOLVES AN ORGANIZATION HANDING OVER OTHERS SOME OF ITS
INTERNAL FUNCTIONS, WHICH IT THEN BUYS BACK FROM THEM AS
SERVICES. THESE FUNCTIONS ARE PUT OUT TO TENDER, AND THE
CHOSEN COMPANY SUPPLIES THESE SERVICES. THEN TYPES OF
FUNCTIONS SUBCONTRACTED BY TENDERING OFTEN INCLUDE
CLEANING, TRANSPORT LOGISTICS, IT, PAYROLL, FACILITIES
MANAGEMENT AND CUSTOMER SUPPORT. THIS CONTRUCTING0-OUT
ORGANIZATIONS DO NOT NORMALLY OWN THEIR SUBCONTRACTING
BLURS A FIRM’S EXISTING BOUNDARIES, REPRESENTING NEITHER
THE FAMILIAR MARKET CONTRACT NOR THE HIERARCHICAL,
VERTICALLY, INTEGRATED STRUCTURE.
 *STRATEGIC ALLIANCE*
ANOTHER POPULAR INTERORGANIZATIONAL FORM IS THE
STRATEGIC ALLIANCE. THIS INVOLVES TWO FIRMS CO-OPERATING IN
ORDER TO REALIZE COMMERCIAL GOALS FOR THEIR MUTUAL
ADVANTAGE.IN THIS CASE, THE CONTRACTUAL RELATIONSHIP IS
HIGHLY FORMALIZED AND HAS A LEGAL ELEMENT. TWO COMPANIES
ARE LIKELY TO BEGIN BY CREATING AN ALLIANCE TO PROGRESS A
SPECIFIC PROJECT . LATER, DEFENDING ON SUCCESS, THEY MAY
EXPAND THEIR CO-OPERATION TO COVER OTHER ACTIVITIES IN
NUMBER OF DIFFERENT ARES.
 *JOINT VENTURE OR CONSORTIA*
IN THIS RELATIONSHIPS , EACH OR4GANIZATION RETAINS ITS
INDEPENDENCE, BUT THEY FORM A NEW COMPANY WHICH IS
JOINTLY OWNED AND MANAGED. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE
TWO FIRMS IS FORMAL, SHAREHOLDING ARRANGEMENTS OR ASSET-
HOLDING AGREEMENTS DETERMINE RESPONSIBILITIES. JOINT
VENTURE ARE REGULARLY REPORTED IN T5HE FINANCIAL PRESS.
ONE WELL-KNOWN JOINT VENTURE WAS ESTABLISHED BETWEEN
SWITZERLAND’S NESTLE AND AMERICA’S GENERAL MILLS WITH
RESPECT TO BREAKFAST CEREAL.
 *NETWORK ORGANIZATION*
NETWORK ORGANIZATION ARE MUCH IN THE ACADEMIC AND
BUSINESS LITERATURE AND FREQUENTLY ARISE BECAUSE A
COMPANY LACKS THE KNOWLEDGE AND RESOURCES THAT IT
NEEDS. IT MUST GO BEYOND ITS OWN BOUNDARIES TO MEET ITS
REQUIREMENTS . THE EXPERTISE AND COMPETENCE THAT ARE
REQUIRED ARE SPREAD ACROSS A RANGE OF DIFFERENT
ORGANIZATIONS.