Dynamics of DC Drives: Professor Damir Zarko Associate Professor Igor Erceg

Dynamics of DC Drives
Professor Damir Žarko

Associate Professor Igor Erceg
University of Zagreb
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing
Department of Electric Machines and Drives
May 15, 2018
Damir Žarko & Igor Erceg (FER ZESA) DC Drives Dynamics May 15, 2018 1 / 39
Content
1 Introduction
2 Dynamic model of a DC machine
3 Control systems of a DC electric machine

Pulse Width Modulation
Half-Bridge Single Phase Bipolar Converter
Full-Bridge Single Phase Bipolar Converter
Introduction
Introduction
A simple circuit diagram of a two-pole DC machine is shown in Fig. 1

(with armature and field winding)
Figure 1: Simple DC machine1

1
Seung-Ki Sul. Control of electric machine drive systems. Vol. 88. John Wiley &
Sons, 2011.
Introduction
The armature winding is connected to an external DC source, Ua ,

through the commutator and the brush
The brush locates at the position where the flux density is null
The turn of the armature winding, whose polarity of the induced
voltage is positive, is connected to the positive terminal of the DC
source feeding the DC machine (through the commutator and the
brush)
The current that flows in the armature winding induces a flux by the
current itself
The excitation flux from the field winding current is distorted because
of the flux by armature current
Introduction
The spatial distribution of the air gap flux is the vector sum of the
flux by armature winding current and the field winding current
Note that the distortion of the spatial distribution of the flux is
getting worse as the armature current is getting larger in magnitude
The distortion of the flux by the armature current ⇒ Armature
reaction
Figure 2: Field flux and armature flux2
2
Sons, 2011.
Introduction
Armature reaction, results in the shift of the null point of the flux
density distribution, and the commutating of the armature current
from one turn to another turn becomes difficult
The commutator segments experience flashover and over-current due
to the short circuit of the induced voltage at the commutating
instants
To reduce these harmful effects on the commutation from the
armature reaction, commutating poles and a compensation winding
can be installed
Introduction
The presence of the compensation winding, which is only found on

relatively large machines, produces a magnetic flux component that
reduces the armature flux component (Fig. 3)
This ensures that the main flux vector φ remains aligned with the α
axis, even under large armature current conditions, which in turn
insures that the commutation process is not hindered
Figure 3: DC machine cross section3

3
André Veltman, Duco WJ Pulle, and Rik W De Doncker. Fundamentals of electrical
drives. Springer, 2016.
Introduction
A symbolic model of the machine is given in Fig. 4 (the armature of

the machine is assumed to have zero resistance and inductance;
ideal), which is connected to a current source with magnitude ia
Figure 4: Symbolic model of a DC machine4
Electrical input power (pin = ia ea ) to this machine is equal to the

output power of the machine (pout = Me ωm ; no losses), thus:
Me ωm
ea = (1)
ia
4
Introduction
The torque produced by the DC machine is:

Me = φia (2)
From Eq. (1) and Eq. (2) follows:
ea = φωm (3)
Hence the EMF generated by the machine is proportional to the flux-linkage φ
(due to the field winding or permanent magnets) and the shaft speed ωm
The armature has resistance Ra and inductance La which must be added to the
symbolic armature model (Fig. 5)
Figure 5: Symbolic model of a DC machine with armature resistance and

armature inductance6
5
6
drives.
Damir ŽarkoSpringer,
& Igor Erceg 2016.
(FER ZESA) DC Drives Dynamics May 15, 2018 9 / 39
Dynamic model of a DC machine
Under the assumption that the armature reaction is perfectly canceled

out by commutating poles and compensation winding, a DC machine
can be modeled using the following equations:
dφ
Uf = if Rf + (4)
dt
φ = Lf if (5)
dia
ua = ia Ra + La + ea + Ub (6)
dt
ea = Ke φωm (7)
Me = Km φia (8)
dωm
J = Me − Ml − Bωm (9)
dt
In the given dynamic mathematical model of a DC machine Uf is

applied voltage to a field winding, if is field current, φ is linkage flux,
Lf is an equivalent field winding inductance in H, ua is the armature
DC voltage, Ra is an equivalent armature winding resistance in Ω, La
is an equivalent armature winding inductance in H, Ub is voltage drop
by brush in V, ea is back electromotive force (EMF) in V, Me is
torque in Nm, Ke is a back EMF constant, Km is torque constant, J
is total inertia of the rotating part of the drive system (referred to as
the rotor) in kgm2 , Ml is load torque, and B is friction coefficient.
The voltage drop Ub is usually less than 1% of the rated armature
voltage of DC machine and it can be neglected
Because of simplicity, usually the friction coefficient is neglected
Simplified dynamic model of a DC machine:

dφ
Uf = if Rf + (10)
dt
φ = Lf if (11)
dia
ua = ia Ra + La + ea (12)
dt
ea = Ke φωm (13)
Me = Km φia (14)
dωm
J = Me − Ml (15)
dt
If the field winding of machine is excited by a constant current source

or if the field flux is provided by a permanent magnet, then the
excitation flux can be considered as constant
If the products of the constant and field flux are Ke φ = Km φ = K
(only if speed is in rad/s) then a dynamic model of a DC machine can
be expressed as (in Laplace domain):
Ua = (Ra + La s) Ia + K ωm (16)
Me = KIa (17)
Me = (Js + B) ωm + Ml (18)
Eqs. (16)–(18) can be formulated as a control block diagram (Fig. 6)
Figure 6: Block diagram of a DC machine with armature resistance and friction7
7
Sons, 2011.
In Fig. 6 Ra is the armature winding resistance and it is a damping

component of the electric part, and B is the friction coefficient, and it
is a damping component of the mechanical part
Both damping components degrade the efficiency of the system, but
they may contribute to enhance the stability of the system
For Ra = 0 and B = 0 (no damping components) the system would
oscillate without decaying with oscillation angular frequency equal to
√K
JLa
With damping components the oscillation decays out
The transfer function regarding speed to the terminal voltage of the

system (Fig. 6) is:
ωm K
= (19)
Ua (La s + Ra ) (sJ + B) + K 2
As K is getting larger the roots of the denominator have imaginary

parts, and their magnitudes are getting larger ⇒ as K is getting
larger, the damping is getting smaller ⇒ the current, torque, and
speed responses are all getting more oscillatory according to the
variation of the armature voltage
If the torque due to the friction is neglected and if the transient

phenomena by the armature inductance (La ) is neglected, then Eq.
(19) can be simplified as:
K K
ωm J JRa 1 ωc
≈ K2
= K2
= (20)
Ua sRa + s + JR K s + ωc
J a
Then the speed response due to the terminal voltage variation can be
modeled as the output of the first-order low-pass filter of the terminal
K2
voltage (with the angular cutoff frequency of the filter ωc = JR a
)
The time constant of the filter is the inverse of the cutoff frequency
⇒ electromechanical time constant Tm
After neglecting La the torque is directly proportional to the voltage

applied to the armature winding without any time delay (Fig. 7)
Figure 7: Block diagram of a DC machine with neglecting of the armature

inductance9
This approximation can be done if the rotating inertia is large enough

K2
and the armature circuit response is fast enough ( JRa
<< RLaa )
From Eq. (19) one can conclude that the system is critical-damping
or underdamping if:
2
Ra + BL
J
a
La
<4 (21)
2
J (Ra B + K )
From Eq. (21) it can be seen that as K is larger the response is
getting oscillatory
8
Sons, 2011.
Damir 9Žarko & Igor Erceg (FER ZESA) DC Drives Dynamics May 15, 2018 18 / 39
By reducing the field current if , K can be reduced and then the

system can be changed to an overdamped case from an underdamped
case
If the friction torque is neglected then Eq. (21) can be simplified as
follows:
JRa2
<4 (22)
La K 2
From Eq. (22) it can be said that to prevent the oscillatory responses
the armature resistance or the inertia should be increased
However, the increased inertia degrades the acceleration
characteristics of the machine, and the increased resistance degrades
system efficiency because of the increased copper loss
By increasing these passive elements such as the inertia and the

resistance, the improvement of the control performance is very
limited, and the implementation is also costly
By a feedback control after measuring or estimating the control
variables such as acceleration and current, an artificial damping can be
added to the control loop as if the added damping is the physical one
In this way, without any modification in the physical system such as
the increase of inertia and/or the increase of the resistance, the
control performance can be easily improved (and there are no
additional losses)
By feedback control of the measurable states or observable states, the
eigenvalue of the physical system (the roots of the denominator) can
be adjusted to get better control performance
Control systems of a DC electric machine

A control system structure of an electric machine through a power
converter is shown in Fig. 8
Figure 8: A typical drive control system10
10
A simple controller structure is given in Fig. 9
Figure 9: Basic electric drive11
11
The input to the control module is the load current i (t) which is
obtained via a current sensor which measures the load current (Fig. 9)
A user input value i ∗ is the reference current
Microprocessor (µP or DSP) is a digital computational element that
implements the control algorithm of the drive
The aim of the drive circuit is to control the current in the motor in
such a way that the reference current value matches the actual load
current under all circumstances
A DC voltage source has a value of uDC where the bottom side is set
to 0V and the upper wire (red) in Fig. 9 has a potential of uDC ⇒ the
voltage source is uni-polar (only one voltage level other than zero)
The converter module shown in Fig. 9 consists of a single two-way
switch → the state Sw = 1 corresponds to the switch in the up state
(the output voltage is uDC ), while for the switch state Sw = 0 (switch
in the down state) the output voltage is 0
The controller is in most cases digital → analog input variables, i (t)

and i ∗ (t), need to be converted to a digital form(Fig. 9)
Inputs are then used by the microprocessor (or DSP) to calculate an
output variable known as the reference average voltage per sample
U ∗ (t) which is an input to the modulator
Figure 10: A/D converter unit with example input/output waveforms12

12
The basic task of the modulator module is to control the switch of

the converter module in such a way to satisfy:
Z tk +Ts
1
U ∗ (tk ) = U (tk ) = u (t) dt (23)
Ts tk
where u (t) represents the instantaneous voltage across the motor

(output of the converter) within a sample period
The incremental flux-linkage controls the current in an inductance:
Z tk +Ts
dψ
u= → ψ (t) = u (t) dt + ψ (0)
dt tk
Z tk +Ts
∆ψ = ψ (t) − ψ (0) = L∆i (t) = u (t) dt
tk
U (tk ) Ts
∆i (tk ) ≈ (24)
L
Control systems of a DC electric machine Pulse Width Modulation
In regularly sampled systems

with sampling time Ts the
current change per sample is
defined by the average voltage
per sample value U (tk )
Rising edge type
modulation strategy: the
switch Sw is in the logical
control level 1 position (up
position) after a time tr
measured from the start of
the sampling interval; switch
Sw in logical control level 0
position at the end of each
sampling interval Figure 11: Rising edge type modulation
The variable t r can change

between zero and Ts
For a particular value t r the
average voltage per sample
value is equal to:
tr

r
U (t ) = uDC 1 −
Ts
This function repeats each

sample interval and it is
possible to find the required
t r value for a given average
voltage per sample reference
value Figure 12: Rising edge type modulation
When the condition

U ∗ ≥ U (t r ) is met, the
switch Sw is set to up
position (Sw = 1)
This modulator–converter
combination will provide an
average voltage per sample
value between zero and uD C ,
which is why this converter
topology is uni-polar
The required average voltage
per sample value is realized by
adjusting the width of the
output voltage pulse for each
sample interval → single
rising edge Pulse Width Figure 13: Rising edge type modulation
Modulation (PWM)
Falling edge PWM

modulation strategy at the
start of each sampling interval
sets the switch Sw to up
position and it moves the
switch to its down position
after t f
Particular value tf can be
evaluated from the average
voltage
per sample function
f
U t f = uDC Tt s
The converter switch Sw is
set to downposition when
U∗ ≤ U tf
Figure 14: Falling edge type modulation
The implementation (Fig. 15) takes into consideration changes in the

supply voltage uDC
Figure 15: Block scheme of falling edge PWM
Double edged PWM

modulation strategy combines
the rising and falling edged
PWM strategies into one
This modulation strategy
alternates between the two
single edged PWM options for
every sample
The first sample uses rising
edge PWM and the next uses
falling edge PWM
The fundamental frequency
fmod of the modulator is
changed from T1s to 2T1 s Figure 16: Double edged type
modulation
Control systems of a DC electric machine Half-Bridge Single Phase Bipolar Converter
Half-Bridge Single Phase Bipolar Converter

The problem with the uni-polar circuit discussed previously is that the
sign of the average voltage per sample cannot be changed
To improve the situation the supply source uDC is splitted and
rearranged into the two new supply sources as shown in Fig. 17
Figure 17: Half-Bridge Single Phase Bipolar Converter
The switches are controlled by two logic signals Swt and Swb , where
logic 1 corresponds to a closed switch state
For the half-bridge converter in Fig. 17, one can define that the state
Sw = 1 corresponds to the output voltage of uDC 2 , and the state
Sw = 0 corresponds to the output voltage of − uDC 2
Similar to the uni-polar modulator there is a choice as to whether to
use a single or double edged PWM strategy
The double edged strategy is preferable
Two samples correspond to one modulator period of operation
The first sample shows rising

edge modulation and this
means that the converter sets
the load voltage to − uDC2 at
the beginning of the sampling
interval and after a time
interval t r the output voltage
is changed to uDC2
In the second sample a falling
edge PWM strategy is used
which means that the
converter switches the load
voltage to uDC 2 at the
beginning of the sample
interval and after a time Figure 18: Double edged type
interval t f it is switched to modulation with half-bridge converter
− uDC
2
The correct value for t r and

t f can be calculated from:
uDC tr
U (t r ) = − uDC
2 Ts
uDC tf
U tf = − + uDC
2 Ts
Bipolar output voltage
capability enables negative
output voltages, but reduces
the maximum positive output
voltage in comparison with
the uni-polar case Figure 19: Double edged type
modulation with half-bridge converter
Control systems of a DC electric machine Full-Bridge Single Phase Bipolar Converter
Full-Bridge Single Phase Bipolar Converter

The problem with the half-bridge circuit is the presence of a split DC
power supply
Combining two half-bridge converters results in a so-called full- or
H-bridge configuration as shown in Fig. 17
Figure 20: Full-bridge bipolar converter with power source and modulators
The two modulators (shown

as separate modules for
convenience) control the half
bridges and the average
voltage per sample reference
values Ua∗ and Ub∗ must be
appropriately chosen to ensure
the required load average
voltage per sample value U ∗
To understand the modulation
of the full-bridge converter
consider one half bridge,
whilst the other is idle (both Figure 21: Double edged type
switches open) modulation with full-bridge converter
A double edged modulation strategy is used

The half-bridge converter output voltages ua,b are defined relative to
a DC voltage uDC
2
The first sample shows rising edge modulation and this means that
the half-bridge converter sets the voltage to ua = − uDC
2 at the
beginning of the sampling interval and after a time interval tr the
output voltage is changed to ua = uDC2
In the second sample a falling edge PWM strategy is used which
means that the half-bridge converter switches the output voltage to
ua = uDC
2 at the beginning of the sample interval and after a time
interval t f it is switched to ua = − uDC
2
This analysis undertaken with the left half-bridge converter active can
readily be undertaken for the case where the right half-bridge
converter is active and left converter idle
When considering the operation of both half bridges together the

question arises how to choose the reference voltage per sample values
Ua∗ and Ub∗ relative to the reference voltage per sample value U ∗ that
must be applied to the load?
This is done by setting Ua∗ = 12 U ∗ and Ub∗ = − 21 U ∗
Note that the limit average voltage per sample outputs of a
full-bridge converter is uDC , which is double the value possible with a
single half-bridge converter
Furthermore, the voltage across the load is now equal to uDC pending
the polarity of the reference average voltage per sample value U ∗
When positive the output pulses will be uDC , vice versa when a
negative pulse amplitude −uDC will appear

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Dynamics of DC Drives

Professor Damir Žarko

May 15, 2018

2 Dynamic model of a DC machine

3 Control systems of a DC electric machine

A simple circuit diagram of a two-pole DC machine is shown in Fig. 1

Figure 1: Simple DC machine1

The armature winding is connected to an external DC source, Ua ,

Figure 2: Field flux and armature flux2

The presence of the compensation winding, which is only found on

Figure 3: DC machine cross section3

A symbolic model of the machine is given in Fig. 4 (the armature of

Figure 4: Symbolic model of a DC machine4

Electrical input power (pin = ia ea ) to this machine is equal to the

The torque produced by the DC machine is:

Figure 5: Symbolic model of a DC machine with armature resistance and

Dynamic model of a DC machine

Under the assumption that the armature reaction is perfectly canceled

In the given dynamic mathematical model of a DC machine Uf is

Simplified dynamic model of a DC machine:

If the field winding of machine is excited by a constant current source

Eqs. (16)–(18) can be formulated as a control block diagram (Fig. 6)

Figure 6: Block diagram of a DC machine with armature resistance and friction7

In Fig. 6 Ra is the armature winding resistance and it is a damping

The transfer function regarding speed to the terminal voltage of the

As K is getting larger the roots of the denominator have imaginary

If the torque due to the friction is neglected and if the transient

After neglecting La the torque is directly proportional to the voltage

Figure 7: Block diagram of a DC machine with neglecting of the armature

This approximation can be done if the rotating inertia is large enough

By reducing the field current if , K can be reduced and then the

By increasing these passive elements such as the inertia and the

Control systems of a DC electric machine

Figure 8: A typical drive control system10

A simple controller structure is given in Fig. 9

Figure 9: Basic electric drive11

The controller is in most cases digital → analog input variables, i (t)

Figure 10: A/D converter unit with example input/output waveforms12

The basic task of the modulator module is to control the switch of

where u (t) represents the instantaneous voltage across the motor

In regularly sampled systems

The variable t r can change

This function repeats each

When the condition

Falling edge PWM

The implementation (Fig. 15) takes into consideration changes in the

Figure 15: Block scheme of falling edge PWM

Double edged PWM

Half-Bridge Single Phase Bipolar Converter

Figure 17: Half-Bridge Single Phase Bipolar Converter

The first sample shows rising

The correct value for t r and

Full-Bridge Single Phase Bipolar Converter

The two modulators (shown

A double edged modulation strategy is used

When considering the operation of both half bridges together the

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