All Ices Notes

The University of the West Indies
EE36C – Industrial and Commercial Energy Systems
Chapter 1 – THE PER UNIT SYSTEM
1.1 Introduction
The per unit system is fundamental in the analysis of power systems, due to the large
amount of power transmitted, parameters such as voltage and power are usually in the
kilo or mega range. These values along with current and impedance are usually
represented as a percent of per unit of a base or reference value.
The per unit system has several advantages which include:

1) Calculations are simplified.
2) Equipment rating.
3) Provides a reference to voltages in the power system.
4) It is an international standard.
Usually base megavolt amperes (MVA) and base voltage in kilovolts are selected to
specify the base.
Vb
(1) Zb = /per phase where Zb is the base impedance
3I b
(KVb ) 2
= ()
MVA b
(2) Per Unit Conversion
Actual value of ' A'

Apu = where A can be either V, I or MVA
Base value of ' A'
Note: Apu is dimensionless
(3) Therefore,
Z given Zgiven .MVAb Vb

Zpu = = (since Zb = )
 kVb 
2
Zb 3I b
Zpu x 100 = Z%
Dr. Chandrabhan Sharma P age |1

(4) To compare two power systems with different MVAs
1
Zb  (KV)2 
MVA
1
Zpu   MVA
(KV) 2
KVb old 2 MVA b new

Zpu new = Zpu old ( ) .( )
KVb new MVA b old
KVb old
Note: ( ) = 1 for this course hence,
KVb new
MVA b new
Zpu new = Zpu old . ( )
MVA b old
Example:
Given a transformer with the following specifications: 100MVA, 66KV/12KV, 0.1 pu
(10%)
If the base value chosen is 200, then
MVA b new
Zpu new = Zpu old . ( )
MVA b old
200
= (0.1) ( )
100
= 0.2
(5) The PU system is used to extract the current that would flow when a fault
occurs.
1 pu
System 1 
Zpu
Figure 1: Resultant system

F
Isc
(pu)

The result is a 1pu generator whose voltage is 1pu.
Therefore,
Vpu 1
Isc = ( )= ( ) (pu) since Vpu = 1
Z pu Z pu
1
MVAsc pu = Vpu . Isc pu = ( )
Z pu
(6) Convert the pu values to the actual values
Isc actual (Amps) = Isc pu x Ib
MVA sc pu = MVAsc pu x MVAb

1
=( ) x MVAb
Z pu
200 x 10 6
eg. Ibf =
3 x 12x 103

1.2 Three Phase Fault Calculations
There are 2 types of faults:

(1) Symmetrical Fault (three phase balanced)
(2) Unsymmetrical/ asymmetrical fault (SLG, DLG, DL, 1xOC, 2xOC)
1.2.1 Symmetrical Faults
When a fault occurs, the symmetry of the system doesn’t change. The rotation, magnetic
and angular displacement must be constant. See figure 2.
120 120
120
C B
Figure 2: Symmetrical Fault
1xOC – 1 line open circuit (has no power)
The most common fault is the Single Line to Ground Fault (SLG) which occurs over 90%
of the time.
Note: If the system is unbalanced, the relationship V = IR does not hold.

1.2.2 Circuit Breakers
Circuit breakers are needed:

(1) to isolate equipment for maintenance and
(2) to open for faults.
Figure 3: Transient Impedance Graph
x'' – for current flow within the first 3-4 cycles

x' - for current flow after 15 cycles
x - for current flow after 60 cycles
 x'' < x' < x

1.3 Fault Calculations
Figure 4: Fault System
Question:
From the diagram of figure 4, what should be the short-circuit rating on the breaker at E.
Note: The impedance between circuit breakers are negligible, therefore the rating is the
same for all breakers on the same bus.
Given:
G1 and G2 = 25MVA, 0.1ou
G3 = 20MVA, 0.1pu
Tf1 and tf2 = 50MVA, 10%
Lines AB, AC, BD, CD = j10Ω
Line B'C' = j0.75Ω
Steps:
(1) Let base value = 100MVA
→ Convert all values to a common base pu value.
For the 33kV bus,

(KVb ) 2 332
Zb 33k = = = 10.89Ω
MVA b 100
MVA 100 x 106

Ib 33k = = = 1749.5A
3V 3 x 33 x 103
Vb
Zb = = 10.89 Ω
3I b

Z given j10
 Zpu = = = j0.92 pu
Zb 10.89
For 12kV bus,

(KVb ) 2 12 2
Zb 12k = = = 1.44 Ω
MVA b 100
MVA 100 x 106

Ib 12k = =
3V 3 x12 x103
j0.75
Line B'C' = = 0.52pu
1.44
(2) Using 100MVA as the base, the 50MVA transformers must be converted to its
equivalent value.
MVA b new
Recall: Zpu new = Zpu old . ( )
MVA b old
100
= j0.1 ( ) = j0.2 pu
50
(3) Now the generators must be converted to its equivalent pu values.
MVA b new
Again recall: Zpu new = Zpu old . ( )
MVA b old
100
Zpu (G1 & G2) = j0.1 ( ) = j0.4 pu
25
100
Zpu (G3) = j0.1 ( ) = j0.5 pu
20
(4) Draw a single line diagram of the system (100MVA system)
The neutral of the generators is used as the common point for the diagram.

G1 G2 G3
j0.4 j0.4 j0.5

A
j0.92 j0.92
B C
j0.2 j0.52 j0.2

j0.92 j0.92
D
Figure 1: Single line diagram of the system in pu
(5)Collapse the system further and simplify.
1 pu
j0.345
Figure 2: Simplified single line diagram of the system

1 1
IF SC = MVAsc = ( )= ( ) = 2.89 pu
Z pu 0.345
MVAsc = (2.89)(100) = 289MVA
ISC actual = Ipu x Ib

= 2.89 x 1749.5
= 5071A
Check: MVA = √3 VI
= √3 (33x103)(5071)
= 289 
 Additional work:
From diagram 2, find the fault level at A, B and C.
Answers: MVAA = 570, MVAB = MVAC = 198

1.3.2 Example:
132kV 3500MVAsc
A
90 MVA
22.5%
33kV
B
23MVA
23%
11kV
C
1MVA
5%
415V
D
Figure1: Fault System
Question:
Find the short-circuiting rating on each bus A, B, C and D from the diagram in figure1.
Solution:
→ The source of supply from the plant is coming from the utility.
→ It is necessary to determine the short-circuit level at the plant, that is, the rating on the
132kV bus.
Steps:
1) Select the base value
Let base = 100MVA
MVA b 100
Zpu source = = = 0.0285 pu
MVA sc 3500
2) Convert the transformers impedance to pu
Considering the transformers between A and B,

MVAb = 100
Dr. Chandrabhan Sharma P a g e | 10

100
Zpu tf A&B = 0.225 ( )
90
≈ 0.25pu
Considering the transformers between B and C,

MVAb = 100
100
Zpu tf B&C = 0.23 ( ) ≈ 1pu
23
Considering the transformers between C and D,

MVAb = 100
100
Zpu tf C&D = 0.05 ( ) ≈ 5pu
1
3) Redraw the diagram with the equivalent pu values.
1 pu
utility
0.0285 pu
132kV
A
0.25 pu 0.25 pu
33kV
B
1 pu 1 pu
11kV
C
5 pu
415V
D
Figure2: Circuit for calculating the short-circuit levels

4) Collapse the diagram into an equivalent circuit as shown in figure 3 below.
A B C D
100MVA sc
0.0285 0.125 0.5 5.0
Figure 3: Simplified diagram
1 1
MVASC A = ( )= ( ) = 35pu = 3500MVA
Z pu 0.0285
1
MVASC B= = 6.51pu = 651MVA
(0.0285  0.125)
1
MVASC C = = 1.53pu = 153MVA
(0.0285  0.125  0.5)
1
MVASC D = = 0.177pu = 17.7MVA
(0.0285  0.125  0.5  5)
5) Considering the short-circuit current, Isc.
IF A = 35 pu
MVA 3500 x 106

IB A = = = 15.3kA
3V 3 x 132 x 103
651 x 106
IF B = = 11.4kA
3 x 33 x 103
153 x 106
IF C = = 8.03kA
3 x 11 x 103
17.7 x 106
IF D = = 24.6kA
3 x 415

1.3.3 Example: Modified System (cables included)
132kV 3500MVAsc
A
j 1.09
33kV
B
j 0.12
11kV
C
415V
D
Figure 4: Modified System
It is necessary to convert the cable impedances into pu values.
Base value = 100MVA
(KVb ) 2
Zb =
MVA b
(33) 2
Zb B = =10.89
100
(11) 2
Zb C = =1.21
100
Z given 1.09
Therefore, Zpu B = = = 0.1
Zb 10.89
0.12
And Zpu C = = 0.1
1.21

1.4 Limiting Short Circuit Levels
(1) Sectionalizers
In operation, it functions in the same way as a circuit breaker. However, it cannot
interrupt a fault or load current. It is designed to carry only load currents.
(2) Installation of a reactor
Old New
5 MVA
12%
10 MVA
9%
Loads
1.4.1 Example:
j0.24 j0.24 j0.9

3.3 kV
x
10 pu
Question:
Determine the impedance of a 15MVA reactor which can be installed to limit the short-
circuit rating of the old system at 100 MVA.
Solution:
Let base value = 10MVA
j0.24 j0.24 j0.09
x
10 pu
Figure1: Single line diagram of the system

1
At F, = 10
Z pu
Therefore, we need to find the value of x for which Zpu F = 10.
Simplifying the equivalent circuit diagram of Figure 1:
j0.12 j0.09
x
F
Figure 2: Simplified Figure 1
Z = 0.12  (0.09 + x)
1
10 =
0.12 //(0.09  x)
x = 0.51 pu
MVA new
Recall: xnew = xold . ( )
MVA old
15
= 0.51 ( )
10
= 0.765 pu
1.4.2 Limitations of the reactor
(1) Voltage regulation

(2) Power factor depreciation – adding a large imaginary part (76.5% in the example)
(3) Losses – reactor has resistance

CHAPTER 2 – SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS THEORY
2.1 Introduction
The diagram of figure 1 below shows the case of a balanced fault.
 R
 120
120

120
Figure1: Balanced Fault
The vectors remained balanced such that, |VR| = |VY| = |VB| and |IR| = |IY| = |IB|.
When a fault occurs, the vectors become unbalanced such that, |VR|  |VY|  |VB|.
In such a case, the unbalanced system can be replaced with an equivalent set of balanced
systems, which can be summed to give the unbalanced system. The normal mathematical
operations can then be performed on the equivalent balanced systems.
The unbalanced system as shown in figure 2 can be replaced by:

1. A positive sequence system of three (3) balanced phasors of equal magnitude rotating
in the same direction as the original phasor system.
2. A negative sequence system of three balanced phasors rotated in the opposite

direction of the original system.

3. A zero sequence system of three phasors of equal magnitude and direction.
B R2
B1   
R0
Y0
R 120 R1  
=  + 120 120
+ B0
120 
120 
120
Y Y1
Y2 B2
Faulted System +ve sequence -ve sequence zero sequence
Figure2: Equivalent unbalanced system
From the diagram in figure 2,
VR = VR1 + VR2 + VR0

VB = VB1 + VB2 + VB0
VY = VY1 + VY2 + VY0
And
IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR0
IB = IB1 + IB2 + IB0
IY = IY1 + IY2 + IY0
The ‘j’ operator is a command to rotate a vector 90

j  190
The ‘a’ Operator: a command to rotate a vector (or anything it acts on) 120 counter
clockwise.
a  1120 = ej2/6 = 0.5 + j(3/2)
a2 = 1240 = - 0.5 - j(3/2)
a3 = 1360 = 1

Note:
-j = 1-90
but –a  1-120
since –a = (-1)(a)
= j2 (a)
= 1180(a)
= 1180(1120)
= 1300= 1-60

2.2 Consider the unbalanced system as shown in figure 3 below.
VB VR2
VB1   
VR0
VR
VY0
120 VR1  
=  + 120 120
+ VB0
120 
120 
120
VY1
VY VY2 VB2
Faulted System +ve sequence -ve sequence zero sequence
Figure 3: Equivalent representation of a typical faulted system
Recall:
VR = VR1 + VR2 + VR0 …(1)

VB = VB1 + VB2 + VB0 …(2)
VY = VY1 + VY2 + VY0 …(3)
And
|VR1| = |VY1| = |VB1|
|VR2| = |VY2| = |VB2|
|VR3| = |VY3| = |VB3| …(4)
From the positive sequence,

VY1 = a2 VR1
VR1 = a VR1 …(5)
From the negative sequence,

VY2 = a2 VR2
VB2 = a VB2 …(6)
From the zero sequence,

VR0 = VY0 = VB0 …(7)
Substituting eqns (5), (6) and (7) into (1), (2) and (3)
 VR = VR1 + VR2 + VR0 (using the red phase as the reference once the
VY = a2 VR1 + aVR2 + VR0 fault does not occur on the red phase)
VB = aVR1 + a2VR2 + VR0

In a matrix form,
VR  1 1 1  VR0 
V  =    
1 a a  VY0  …(8)
2
 Y
VB  1 a a 2  V 
   B0 
 Symmetrical component transformation matrix
I R  1 1 1  I R0 
I  =  2
  
 Y 1 a a  I Y0 
I B  1 a a 2  I 
   B0 
From inversion, we obtain
1 1 1 
1  
T-1 = 1 a a 2 
3  2 
1 a a 
VR0  1 1 1  VR 
V  = 1 1 a a 2  V 
 Y0  3    Y
VB0   2  VB 
1 a a 
I R0  1 1 1  I R 
I  = 1 1 a a 2  I 
 Y0  3    Y
I B0   2  I B 
1 a a 
1
VR0 = V0 = (VR + VY + VB) …(9)
3
 In a balanced system, V0 = 0  no zero sequence voltages.
1
IR0 = (IR + IY + IB) …(9) …(10)
3
IR + IY + IB = IN
IO = 3 IN
IN = 3 IO
Note: IN is equal to zero if the system is not earthed through the neutral  IO = 0.

2.2.1 Application
IB = 100 IR = 100  0 A
IY = 100  120 A
IB = 100  -90 A
IR = 100
Qu: Determine IR0, IR1 and IR2 .
IY = 200 Figure 4: System 1
Solution
I R0  1 1 1  I R 
  1   I 
Recall: I Y0  = 1 a a 2   Y
3  
I B0  2 I B 
1 a a 
1
IR0 = (IR + IY + IB)
3
1
= (100  0 + 100  120 + 200  -90)
3
= 41.3  -66.2 A
1
IR1 = (IR + aIY + a2IB)
3
1
= (100  0 + (1 120) 100  120 + (1 240) 200  -90)
3
= 96.98  20.1 A
1
IR2 = (IR + a2IY + aIB)
3
1
= (100  0 + (1 240) 100  120 + (1 120) 200  -90)
3
= 41.3  174 A
See resultant diagram in figure 5 below.

System 1 
120 
|IR1| = 96.98 IR2
IB2
66.2
20.1 + +
6
VB0 VY0 VR0
IY1 |IY2| = 41.3
+ve sequence -ve sequence zero sequence
Figure 5: Equivalent representation of System 1

2.3 Synchronous Generators
 The positive sequence is not equal to the negative sequence.

 Xd, Xd and Xd are positive sequence.
 The generated emfs are of positive sequence only.
 The reference bus for both the positive and negative sequence networks is the
neutral of the generator.
 The reference bus for the zero sequence network is earth.
 There are no generated EMFs in the negative and zero sequence networks.
2.4 Cables and Lines
For static equipment, the positive sequence value is equal to the negative sequence value.
The zero sequence depends on the connection to earth.

Z0  (2-5) Z1
2.5 Transformers
Zp Zs
Zm >> Zp or Zs
Vp Zm Vs
Figure1: Equivalent Circuit
Refer all impedances either to the primary or secondary side
Z1
Z1 = Z2
Vp Vs Positive sequence = negative sequence
Figure2: Simplified Circuit

2.5.1 Zero Sequence Network (Transformer)
Zo
a P S a
b b
Figure3: Diagram to determine the different transformer configurations

for the zero sequence network
 Close contacts at ‘a’ iff zero sequence currents can flow. The result is an earthed
star configuration.
 Close contacts at ‘b’ iff zero sequence currents can circulate. The result is a delta
configuration.
 Else leave both contacts open to result in an unearthed star configuration.
2.5.2 Different transformer configurations
Zo
a P S a
b b
Zo
a P Io S a
b b
Io

Zo
a P S a
b b
Zo
a P Io S a
b b
2.5.2.1 Static Loads
Z Z

Z
Z Z

Z


Z Z

3Io 3Zn
Zn
Z
Z
Z

Z Z

2.6 Single Line to Ground Fault
Example:
A 3-phase star connected solidly earthed generator has it’s a-phase subjected to a solidly
grounded earth fault. Calculate the fault currents developed and the line-to-line voltages
attained due to a fault.
Given: Prefaulted LN voltage of generator as 100V, Z1 = j1, Z2 = j0.5, Zo = j0.1.
Diagram
IA Z X
A
IB Z
B
100V
Ea = 100V
100V
Ic Z
C
Figure1: System with a SLG Fault
Analysis:
From figure 1, it can be seen that
IB = IC = 0
VAx = 0 (Z = 0)
Z1 Z2 Z0
I1 I2 I0
E V1 E V2 E V0
positive sequence negative sequence zero sequence
Figure 2: Circuit diagrams of the positive, negative and zero sequences
I A0  1 1 1  I A 
  1   I 
Now I A1  = 1 a a 2   B
3  
I A2  2 I C 
1 a a 

1
Io = IA = I1 = I2
3
From the relationship above, it can be seen that all SLG faults can be analysed by
connecting the three (3) networks in series.
I1
Z1
V1
E
I2
Figure 3: Connection of the three networks
Z2
V2
in series
E IA/3
I0
Z0
V0
IA E 100 0 o
= I1 = I2 = I0 = = = -j 62.5A
3 Z1  Z 2  Z 0 j1.6
 IF A = IA = 3(-j62.5) = -j187.5 A
IB and IC can now be determined.
I A  1 1 1  I 0 
   
Recall: I B  = 2
1 a a  I1 
I C  1 a a 2  I 
   2
Considering the voltages,
VA  1 1 1  V0 
   
Recall: VB  = 2
1 a a  V1 
VC  1 a a 2  V 
   2

Expanding the above matrix gives the following,

VA = V0 + V1 + V2 …(1)
VB = V0 + a2V1 + aV2 …(2)
VC = V0 + aV1 + a2V2 …(3)
From the network in figure 3,

V1 = EA – I1Z1
= 100 0 o - (-j 62.5)(j10)
= 37.5V
V2 = EA – I2Z2
= 0 - (-j 62.5)(j0.5)
= - 31.25V
V0 = E – I0Z0
= 0 - (-j 62.5)(j0.1)
= - 6.25V
Substitute V1, V2 and V0 into eqns (1), (2) and (3)

VA = V0 + V1 + V2 = 0
VC = 60.23
VB = (- 9.37 – j59.5)

= 60.23  -98.9 8.9
o
VC = -9.37 + j59.5

= 60.23  -98.9
o
8.9
VAB = 60.23  -81.1

VBC = 119  -90 VB = 60.23
VCA = 60.23  -98.9 Figure 4: Resultant System

2.7 Double Line Fault (Line to line)
IA Z
A
EA
EC
EB
IB Z
B
IC Z
XC
Figure1: System with a Double Line Fault
Analysis:
From the diagram in figure 1, neglecting load currents:
IA = 0
IB + IC = 0
And VB = VC
I A0  1 1 1  I A  0 
I  = 1 a a 2 
1 I 
 A1  3    B 
I A2   2  I C  I B 
1 a a 
1
IA0 = (0 + IB - IB) = 0
3
1
IA1 = (0 + aIB – a2IB)
3
1
IA2 = (0 + a2IB - aIB)
3
IA0 = 0 (no zero sequence network)
1
IA1 = - IA2 = IB (a – a2)
3
(a – a2) = j3
 I1 = - I2 = j0.58IB

The above relationship indicates that the networks are connected in parallel as shown in
figure 2 below.
I1 X I2
X
Figure 2: Connection of the two networks

Z1 Z2
in parallel
V1 V2
EA
N
N
From the diagram above in figure 2,
EA 100
I1 = = = - j 66.7A
Z1  Z 2 j1.0  j 0.5
I2 = 66.7A
I1 = j0.58IB
- j66.7
IB = = -114.9A
j 6.55
 IC = 114.9A
Considering the voltages,
V1 = EA – I1Z1 VA
100 V B
= 100 + (j66.7)(j1.0) 33.33
AV
= 33.33V VC 66.66
100 V C
33.33
V2 = -I2Z2 VB
100
= 33.33V
Figure 3: Resultant System

2.8 One line Open Circuit
IA X Y
A
IB VA
B
IC VB
C
VC
Figure 1: System with a One Line Open Circuit Fault
From inspection, IA = 0 and

VB = VC = 0
V0  1 1 1  VA 
 
Recall: V1  = 1 a a 2  V 
1
3   B
V2  2  VC 
1 a a 
VA
And V0 = V1 = V2 =
3
I1 X
I2 X
I0 X
Z1 Z2 Z0
V1 V2 V0
EA
Y
N
N
Figure 2: Connection of the three sequence networks in parallel
Collapsing the system further to obtain Z0 and Z1. See Figure 3.

I1
Z1 V1
Figure 3: Simplified System
V2 Zp (Z0 // Z2)
100 V0
1000
I1 = = -j92.31
j (1.0)  j (0.083)
V1 = V2 = V0 = 100 – I1Z2
=100 – (-j92.31)(j1.0)
=7.69V
 V2
I2 = = -j15.38A
Z2
 V0
I0 = = 76.9A
Z0
VA= 3V1 = 23.07V
Using these values, IA, IB and IC can be found.

2.9 Double Line to Ground (DLG) Fault
Question:
Each end of two parallel three phase 66kV feeders has a 3 star connected 100MW
synchronous generator connected. Each end is fed through a star-star solidly earthed
transformer. Z1, Z2 and Z0 per unit are j0.15, j0.1 and j0.03 respectively for each
generator and j0.4, j0.4 and j0.7 for each line.
The pu sequence reactances for the transformer at A is j0.15 and j0.1 for the transformer
at B. All star points are solidly earthed, except that of generator B which is unearthed. All
pu values are on the 100MVA base.
Calculate the fault current for a DLG fault at the feeder terminals of transformer A.
Solution:
Draw a diagram of the system described above. See Figure 1 below.
66kV
TF A TF B
A B
Figure 1: Diagram of the Power System
Base value = 100MVA
Considering the positive, negative and zero sequence equivalent diagrams. See figures 2,
3 and 4.

neutral(ref bus)
A B
Figure 2: Positive Sequence
Diagram
j0.15 j0.15
j0.4
j0.15 j0.1
TF TF
j0.4
neutral
Figure 3: Negative Sequence
A B Diagram
j0.1 j0.1
j0.4
j0.15 j0.1
TF TF
j0.4
reference Figure 4: Zero Sequence

A B Diagram
j0.1 j0.1
j0.4
j0.15 j0.1
TF A TF B
j0.4
Each of the above networks can be further simplified to determine the respective currents
flowing through them.

For the positive sequence network, the network can be simplified as shown in figures 5
and 6 below.
I1
A B
j0.3 j0.45 V1
j0.18
Figure 5: Positive Sequence network Figure 6: Simplified Diagram
The negative sequence diagram in figure 3 can be simplified as shown in figures 7 and 8.
I2
j0.25 j0.4
V2
j0.154
Figure 7: Negative Sequence network Figure 8: Simplified Diagram
The zero sequence diagram in figure 4 can be simplified to that shown in figure 9.
I0
V0
j0.18

Figure 9: Simplified Zero Sequence Diagram
Now for a double-line to ground fault, the networks must be connected in parallel as
shown in figure 10.
Ip
I1
I2 I0
10
V0
j0.18 j0.154 j0.18 V1
V2 Figure 10: Connection of sequence
networks in parallel
Figure 10 can be further simplified to that in figure 11.
I1
Ip
10
j0.18 j0.083
(Z2//Z0)
Figure 11
I1 can now be calculated, from which I2 and I0 can be found.
10
I1 = = -j3.8 pu
j (0.018  0.083)
 I1 Z 0
I2 = = j2.05 pu
Z0  Z2
 I1 Z 2
I0 = = j1.75 pu
Z0  Z2
Note: a check can be performed to verify the results obtained using the relationship
IA = I1+ I2 + I0 = 0
IR, IY and IB can now be determined.

I R  1 1 1  I 0 
   
Recall: I Y  = 2
1 a a  I1 
I B  1 a a 2  I 
   2
IR = (I0 + I1 + I2) = 0
IY = (I0 + aI1 + a2I2) = 5.7223.37 pu
IB = (I0 + a2I1 + aI2) = 5.27152.7 pu
And IF = IY + IB = j5.26
100x 10 6
Iactual = Ipu x Ibase where Ibase = = 874.8A
3 x 66x 103
IF = j4601.5A
IY = 5003.9 23.37
IB = 5003.9 152.7
 Further work:
For the same system described in the question above (section 2.9), calculate the fault
current assuming that the fault is a single line to ground fault.
Ans: IF = -j5.84 pu

Chapter 3 - Power System Protection
Loads
B
IF
Figure1: Zoning
3.1 Criteria for a Proper Protection System
1. Reliability  system must operate when called on.

2. Selectivity  operation in its prescribed zone.
3. Speed of Operation  the longer the fault is ‘on’, the greater the danger of fire.
4. Discrimination  must be able to distinguish between normal, overload and fault
load currents.
3.2 DETECTION  V, I
CT Characteristic
Vsec
knee point
ankle point
Iexciting
Knee point – point at which a 10% increase in secondary voltage produces a 50%
increase in current excitation.
3.3 Equivalent Circuit of a Current Transformer (CT)
I1 I 2' X2
I2
E2 Xe XL
Ie
Figure 2: Equivalent circuit of transformer
N1
I2 = I1
N2
I2 = I2 + Ie
E2 = I2 (X2 + XL)
E2 = I2 - Ie (X2 + XL)

N
= (X2 + XL) ( 1 I1 - Ie)
N2
I2   I2  I2 
CT error  =   %
I2   I2  
3.3.1 Example:
Sec
voltage
120
100
80
60
40
E2 = 5(4 – Ie)
20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Figure 1
Ie
0.6A

Given:
C.T ratio = 500:5
X2 = 0.5 
Find I2 and the CT error for XL = 4.5 (burden on secondary of CT), X1 = 400A and
IF = 4000mA.
Solution:
N1
E2 = (X2 + XL) ( I1 – Ie)
N2
1
E2 = (0.5 + 4.5)( (400) – Ie)
100
E2 = 5(4 - Ie)
0.6
 CT error = = 15%
4
Note: If a fault occurs beyond the knee point, the CT ratio must be adjusted such that it
operates in the linear region.

3.4 Potential Transformer (PT, VT)
(1) EM PT
V2 n2
=
V1 n1
V1 V2
For high voltages, the cost of insulation of windings is very high resulting in increased
cost and therefore the capacitor voltage transformer is used.
(2) Capacitance PT
For voltages  132kV

C1 C1
V2 = . V1
C1  C 2
V1
C2 Voutput
V2
3.5 Protection relays
(1) EM Attraction
F = K1I2 – K2
At threshold, F = 0
 K1I2 = K2
K2
I=
K1

(2) Balance Beam
The rod moves in the direction of the side with the greatest current.
(3) Electromagnetic Induction Type (IDMT relay)
An IDMT relay is referred to as a split phase induction motor since the relay uses the
principle of induction to develop a torque in the rotor disk.
Figure 1
Operation:
When the relay detects a current, this current induces a magnetic flux in the core of the
relay. The shorting rings split this flux in two (2) and causes opposing fluxes to be
induced in the disk, causing rotation (hence the term “split phase”). See diagram in figure
2.

where  - flux
2 1 i - current
F - force
F2 F1
i1 i 2
Figure 2
1 = Φ1sint
2 = Φ2sin (t + )
 = angle between 1 and 2
i1  d1  Φ1cost

dt
i2  d 2  Φ2cos(t +  )
dt
Net force = F = F2 – F1  (2 i1 - 1 i2)
F  Φ1Φ2 [sin (t + )cost + - sint cos(t +  )]
F  Φ1Φ2 sin
Fmax occurs at  = 90

3.6 Current Voltage Relays
T = k1VI cos( -  ) – k2
Where V = rms voltage
I = rms current
 = angle between V and I
 = angle for maximum torque
At balance point, T = 0
k1VI cos( -  ) = k2
k2
VI cos( -  ) = = constant
k1
3.7 General Relay Equations
Relays are of two (2) types:
1. Amplitude comparators
2. Phase comparators
 An inherent Amplitude Comparator operates like a phase comparator if the inputs are
changed to the sum and differences of the original inputs.
 Similarly, an inherent Phase Comparator operates like an amplitude comparator if the

inputs are changed to the original inputs. See figures 1 and 2.
A
R |A|  |B|
B
Figure 1: An amplitude comparator

A+B
R |A+B|  |A-B|
A-B
Figure 2: An amplitude comparator as a Phase comparator
3.7.1 Example
A k 1A + k 2B
B N1
input #1 B

R  A
Ref
input #2
A
N2
B k 3A + k 4B
Figure 3: A comparator network
General equations for the inputs with A as reference:
Input #1  k1|A| + k2|B| [cos( - ) + j sin( - )] …(1)
Input #2  k3|A| + k4|B| [cos( - ) + j sin( - )] …(2)
Where k1, k2, k3 and k4 are design constants.
Amplitude Comparator (R)
At threshold, input #1 = input #2
 [k1|A| + k2|B| cos( - )]2 + [k2|B| sin( - )]2 = [k3|A| + k4|B| cos( - )]2 + [k4|B|
sin( - )]2 …(3)
Rearranging eqn (3) gives,

(k12 – k32) |A|2 + 2(k1k2 – k3k4) |A| |B| cos( - ) + (k22 – k42) |B|2 = 0 …(4)

Dividing eqn (4) by (k22 – k42) |A|2 gives,
B
2
k k k k  B  k 12  k 3 2 
+ 2  1 22 3 2 4  cos( - ) +   = 0 …(5)
k 2 k 2 
A  k2  k4  A  2 4 
2
B B
Eqn (5) is of the form: + 2C cos( - ) + C2 = r2 …(6)
A A
(the equation of a complex plane)
Comparing coefficients for eqns (5) and (6),
 k k  k 3k 4 
 C =  1 22  = -C
2 
 2k  k 4 
 k k 2
2 
and C 2 – r2 =  1 2 3 2 
 k2  k4 
 k k  k 2k 3 
 r =  1 42 
2 
 2k  k 4 
j B
A
Region of operation
r of the relay
C

B
A
Figure 4: Region of relay operation

3.7.2 R is a Phase Comparator
Input #1  k1|A| + k2|B| [cos( - ) + j sin( - )] …(1)
Input #2  k3|A| + k4|B| [cos( - ) + j sin( - )] …(2)
The relay only operates when the product of the inputs is positive.
Let  be the phase angle of input #1

Let  be the phase angle of input #2
Threshold for operation occurs when ( - ) =  90
 for threshold, tan( - ) = 
tan   tan 
 =
1  tan  tan 
 1 tan  tan  = 0
1
tan  = …(3)
tan 

Imag k 2 | B | sin(   )
For a complex number, tan  = = …(4)
 
real k 1 | A |  k 2 | B | cos(   )

k 4 | B | sin(   )
tan = …(5)
 
k 3 | A |  k 4 | B | cos(   )
Substitute eqns (4) and (5) in (3),
 k2k4 |B|2 sin( - ) = -k1 k3 |A|2 - k1 k4|A||B| cos( - ) – k2k3|A| |B| cos( - )
-k2k4|B| cos2( - )
Divide across by k2k4|A|2
2  k k   k k   B  k k  

B
+  1 4 3 2 
cos( - ) +  1 3  = 0 …(5)
A     A   
 k2 k4   k2 k4 

Equation (5) is in the form of a circle in the complex plane with
 k k   k k    k k   k k  
Radius, r =  1 4 2 3 
and centre, C = -  1 4 2 3 
       
 2k 2 k 4   2k 2 k 4 
3.7.3 Summary
The general equation of a relay is given by
W2 + 2C cos + C2= r2
Such that,
Amplitude comparator Phase comparator

k 1k 4  k 2 k 3    
k1 k 4  k 2 k 3
r
k2  k4
2 2
 
2k 2 k 4
k 1k 2  k 3 k 4    
k1 k 4  k 2 k 3
C -  
k2  k4
2 2
 
2k 2 k 4

3.7.4 Example:
Given a percentage differential relay which operates if the difference of the currents
entering or leaving the ____ exceeds 5% of the sum of these currents or 10% of the main
through current.
Determine the characteristic equation of this relay in the complex plane.
I1 – I2
10
100 I1  I 2
2
Solution:
I1  I 2
I1 – I2 > s ( )
2
Set I1 – I2 = k1| I1 | + k2 | I2 | (cos - jsin)
3 I1  I 2
( ) = k3 ( | I1 | + k4 | I2 | (cos + jsin)
2 2
where  is the angle between I1 and I2.
Comparing coefficients gives,

s
k1 = - k2 = 1 and k3 = k4 =
2
k 1k 4  k 2 k 3 k 1k 2  k 3 k 4
Using r = and C = -
k2  k4 k2  k4
2 2 2 2
2
s
1  
r=
s
C=  2
2 2
s s
1-   1-  
 2  2

For s = 0.1,
 r = 0.1004 and C = 1.004 
The equation now becomes,
2
I2 I
- 2C 2 cos + C2 = r2
I1 I1
 Further work:
Assume you have a phase comparator operating at this characteristic. Determine the
equation for the phase comparator which would act as an amplitude comparator for
protection.
s
Ans: k1 = k4 = 1
2
s
k2 = k3 = 1
2

Chapter 4 Over Current Relays
4.1 Introduction
Magnetic saturation
t1
I1 I
Figure 1: Relay Characteristic
There are four (4) types of relays:

1. Definite Time
2. Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) (most popular)
3. Very Inverse
Have been replaced by
4. Extremely Inverse static relays
4.2 The IDMT Relay Characteristic
t1 saturation
Ip I
Log(t) = C1 + C2 log M + C3 (log M)2
Where Cn = curve fitting coefficients

t = operating time
M = plug setting multiplier
4.3 Over Current Protection
1. Non-directional time and current grading

2. Directional time and current grading
4.3.1 Non-directional time and current grading
Two(2) ways to protect a system:

1. Time grading
2. Current grading
Discrimination time between successive breakers is made up of:

1. Fault Clearance time of CB ( 0.153)
2. Finite contact gap ( 0.15)
3. Overshoot (saturation) ( 0.05)
4. Relay and CT tolerances ( 0.1)
Total = 0.4s
Discrimination time = 5s
4.3.2 Time grading
1.85 1.35 0.8 0.35
If2
4.3.3 Current grading
Ip4 Ip3 Ip2 Ip1
4000 3000 2000 1000

4.4 Time Multiplier Setting (TMS)
This gives the actual operating time of the system where
T
TMS = where T = actual operating time (secs)
Tm
Tm = operating time obtained from the 1.0 TMS characteristic
4.5 Plug Setting (PS)
This indicates the minimum operating current.
This value can be determined in two (2) ways:

a) Actual values eg. 2, 4, 6, 8
4  Minimum operating current of the relay = 4A
b) As a percentage of CT secondary current eg. 100%, 200%, 500%

CT ratio 100/1  setting 150% = 150% of 1 = 1.5
CT ratio 5005  setting 150% = 150% of 5 = 7.5
4.6 Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM)
Primary current Actual current in relay

PSM = =
Primary Operating current Minimum Operating current
 Recall: Primary Operating Current = Actual current into relay x CT ratio

4.7 Relay Co-ordination
A B C D
600/5 500/5 300/5 200/5
IL = 100A
6000 A 5000 A 3000 A 2000 A
Figure 1: System for relay co ordination
4.7.1 Question:
Coordinate each relay such that they back up each other. (Assume all CTs are connected
to a relay)
Station If (A) IL CT ratio PS TMS

A 6000 100 120 2 0.67
B 5000 100 100 2 0.476
C 3000 100 60 2 0.314
D 2000 100 40 4 0.1
Table 1: Relay Information and results obtained
Assume that the available plug settings for the relay are: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
Discrimination time = 0.5s
Steps:
(1) Start at the furthest relay  D
Select the lowest TMS available = 0.1 (from characteristic curve)
For a load of 100A,

100
Relay current = = 2.5A
40
Therefore, choosing the most appropriate PS from the set  PSD = 4
For a fault at D,
Primary current 2000
PSMD = = = 12.5
Primary Operating current 4 x 40
For a TMS = 1.0 and PSM = 12.5,

Operating time = 2.7s (from the characteristic curve)
Actual operating time of relay ‘D’ = 2.7 x 0.1 = 0.27s

Relay C must operate at (0.27s + discrimination time) to back up relay D.
Step 2:
For a fault at D,
C must back up in (0.27 + 0.5) = 0.77s
100
Relay current = = 1.67A
60
 choosing a PSC = 2
2000
PSMC = = 16.67
2 x 60
For a TMS = 1.0 and PSM = 16.67,

0.77
TMSC = = 0.314
2.45

For a fault at C,
3000
PSMC = = 25
2 x 60
For TMS = 1.0 and PSMC = 25,

Operating time for relay C = 2.2s
Actual operating time for fault at C = (2.2)(0.314) =0.69s
For relay B to back up relay C, relay B should operate in

= time for relay C to clear fault + discrimination time
= 0.69 + 0.5 = 1.19s
At location B,
100
Relay current = = 1A
100
 choosing a PS = 2
For a fault at C,
3000
PSMB = = 15
2 x 100
For a TMS = 1.0 and PSM = 15,

Operating time = 25s (from the characteristic curve)
1.19
TMSB = = 0.476
2.5
For a fault at B,

5000
PSMB = = 25
2 x 100
For a TMS = 1.0 and PSM = 25,

Actual operating time = 2.2 x 0.476 = 1.05s
Relay A to back up relay B, should operate in (1.05 + 0.5) = 1.55s
100
Current to relay B = = 0.8
120
 PSA = 2
For a fault at B,
5000
PSMA = = 20.8
2 x 120
Operating time (for TMS = 1.0) = 2.3

1.55
TSMA = = 0.67
2.3
4.7.2 Modification
A B C D
IL = 300
600/5 500/5 300/5 200/5
IL = 100A
IL = 200

300
Now, PS = = 2.5
120
 choose PS = 4
5000
PSMA =
4 x 120
200
At E, PS = =2
100
 PSE = 4

4.8 Earth Fault Relays
The different earth fault relay configurations are shown in figures 1, 2 and 3 below.
R R R
OC Relays
Figure 1
EF Relay
R R
OC Relays
EF Relay Figure 2
ia IA
A
ib IB
B
ic IC
C
Figure 3
ir
EF Relay

From figure 3,
Let CT turns ratio = n
I A  I Ae I B  I Be I C  I Ce
ia = ; ib = ; ic =
n n n
ir = ia + ib + ic
1 1
= (IA + IB + IC) - (IAe + IBe + ICe)
n n
1
Ir = (3Io) – Ifr
n
4.9 UNIT PROTECTION
 Transformer Protection
 Differential Protection
 Mertz Price System
IA IB If IA > IB  operation
U
Ia Ib
Ic

Figure 4
Nr Nr
2 2
Ia Ib
No Ic
Figure 5
Relay operates when Ia  Ib
At the decision node, Ic = Ia – Ib …(1)
Nr N
Relay operates when (NoIc)2  ( I a  r I b )2 …(2)
2 2
Let Nr = kNo (0 < k < 1) …(3)
At the threshold,
Nr N
(NoIc)2 = Ia  r Ib
2 2
Substituting eqns (1) and (3) into (2) gives,
2k
Ib = ( ) Ia
2k
Ib
Ib = Ia
operate
Restrains
2k
Ia = ( ) Ib
2k
operate
Dr. Chandrabhan Sharma Ia P a g e | 63

4.9.1 Question:
A 100kVA 2400/240 V step down transformer is to be differentially protected. Determine
Nr
the ratio if the relay is to tolerate a mismatch in current of up to 20% primary
No
current.
Given: CT ratios: 500/5 (primary) and 5000/5 (secondary).
Solution:
Rated Full Load Current
100
Primary = = 41.7 A
2.4
Related secondary = 417 A
For a 20% mismatch, Ia = 0.8Ib

For threshold,
2k
Ib =   Ia …(1)
2k
2k
Ib =   (0.8 Ib) …(2)
2k
Solving equations (1) and (2)  k = 0.222

Ia  Ib I  Ib
> a
k 2
Ia  Ib I  Ib
2 2
> a
k 2

Problem with application of the system:

1. Unmatched CT characteristics
2. Tap changing
3. Inrush Magnetic Current
4. Zero Sequence Circuit
4.10 Stator Protection
x
If
(1 - x)
Rm V
Figure 6
Let If = primary fault setting for the differential relay (pick up current to the relay)
For the given conditions,

V
If = (1 - x)
R
V
Let If = Is = (1 – x)
R
Note: the relay operates for If > pick-up current (Is).

V
IR =
R
 I  I R 
x = 1  s  or (1 – x) =  s x100 
 IR   V 
where (1 – x) = % winding unprotected
4.10.1 Question:
The neutral point of a 3 20MVA, 11kVA alternator is earthed through a 5 resistor. The
relay is set to operate for an out of balance of 1.5A. The CT has a ratio of 1000:5.
Determine:
1. the percentage of winding protected against earth fault (x)
2. what should be the minimum value of the earthing resistance to protect 90% of
the winding.
Solution:
1000
Current to relay, Is = 1.5 x = 300 A
5
Is R
% of winding unprotected = x 100
V
300 x 5 x 3 x100
= = 23.6 %
11 x 10 3
x = 76.4 %
However, we want to protect 90% of the winding  10 % unprotected
Is R
10 = x 100
V
10 x 11 x 10 3
R= = 2.12
3 x 360 x100

Chapter 5 Parallel Operation of Transformers
5.1 Introduction
The following characteristics must be the same in all transformers:
1. Polarity
2. Phase Sequence
3. Ratio
4. P.U. Impedance
5. Vector Group
5.1.1 Polarity
 Additive or Subtractive
Additive: For two transformers, the vector on outputs would be in the opposite direction.
Subtractive: The vector on outputs would be in the same direction.
a2 a1
supply
A2 A1
Figure 1: Configuration of two parallel transformers
a2 A2, a1
A2,a1 a2

A1 A1A2 < supply A1 A1A2 > supply
Additive Subtractive

5.1.2 Phase Sequence
R C
 A
B Y
B
Figure 2
From figure 2,
R must be connected to A
Y must be connected to B
B must be connected to C
5.1.3 PU Impedance
The pu impedance must be the same despite different MVA ratings.
5.1.4 Vector Group

There is a vector shift when transformers are paralleled ( 30). See figure 3.
1:1
V 0 V 
30
Figure 3

Note:
The following conditions MUST be satisfied: Polarity
Phase Sequence
Vector Group
5.2 Equal Ratios
Consider the diagram in figure 4 below.
I1
Z1
I2 I1 + I2 = IL
i/p Z2 o/p V ZL
Figure 4:Parallel connection of two single phase transformers
Z1 and Z2 are the leakage impedances of the transformer
V = I1Z1 = I2Z2 = ILZL

Z1Z 2
= ILZ12 where Z12 = Z1 // Z2 =
Z1  Z 2
Z2 Z
 I1 = . IL = 12 . IL
Z1  Z 2 Z1

Z1 2
and I2 = . IL
Z2
 the power output of each transformer is given by:

Z2 Z2
S1 = VI1 = VIL . = ST . where ST = total power (to the load)
Z1  Z 2 Z1  Z 2
Z1 Z1
S2 = VI2 = VIL . = ST .
Z1  Z 2 Z1  Z 2
S1 Z
= 2
S2 Z1
S1Z1 = S2Z2 = k where k is a constant
5.3 Unequal Ratios
Let the output of transformer 1 = E1

Let the output of transformer 2 = E2
Such that | E1| > | E2|
E1  E 2
Ic (circulating current) =
Z1  Z 2
 New Power output from tf #1 = E1 …(1)

New Power output from tf #2 = E2I2 – E2Ic …(2)
Eqn (1) + (2) = ST
Solve for Ic and define E1 and E2 in terms of pu. Refer to figure 5.
E1
I1
E2
IL IL
I2 Figure 5

Question:
A 500kVA single phase transformer with impedance 0.01 + j 0.05 pu is to share a load of
750kVA at 0.8 power factor lag with a 250kVA transformer of impedance 0.015 + j0.04
pu. Find the loading of each transformer when:
1. secondary voltages are both 400V
2. open circuit secondary voltages are 405V and 415V respectively.
Solution:
(1) Equal voltages = 400
Z1 = (0.01 + j0.05) pu
= 0.051  79
Z2 = (0.03 + j0.08) pu
= 0.085  69
Z1 + Z2 = 0.04 + j0.13
= 0.136  73
Load ST = 750 at 0.8 lag

= 750  37
0.08569
S1 = (750  37)( )
0.13673
= 468.8  33 kVA
0.05179
S2 = (750  37)( )
0.13673
= 218  43 kVA

(2) Finding the circulating current
E1  E 2 10 / 400
Ic = = = 0.184  -73
Z1  Z 2 0.13673
415
Transformer #2 new loading = x (0.184  -73) + 218  43
400
= 1.04 x (0.184  -73) + 218  43
= 253.6  23.2 kVA
Power supplied by tf #1 from tf #2 = IcE1

= (0.184  -73) x 1.01x 500
= 93.15  -73
Power supplied by tf #1 = (468.8 33) – (93.15  -73)

= 502.6  43.3
Note: Both transformers are slightly overloaded because they both have to provide power
to the circulating current.

Chapter 6 CIRCUIT BREAKERS
110V dc
Fixed
Medium
1) Air
2) Oil
3) SF6
4) Vacuum
Figure1: Diagrams of Circuit Breakers
Slepian’s Theory
 If the medium can be replaced faster than the rate of build-up of the voltage, then the
result is circuit interruption.

Vacuum
Fixed
movable
Figure 2: Vacuum Circuit Breaker
Advantages:
1. Highest Insulating strength known
2. Interruption at the first current zero
3. Low maintainence
Disadvantages:
1. If arc constriction occurs, circuit breaker is useless
2. Once contact melts, metal bridges form and circuit breaker is inoperative

Single Frequency Oscillation
Assume fault on circuit breaker occurs at its terminal as shown in the diagram of figure 3.
L CB
If = 0 L = lumped inductance
V
of circuit
Vm cos w t
C Vc
C = lumped capacitance
to ground
Figure 3
It is necessary to find the voltage across the circuit breaker to determine if interruption
will occur.
Looking at the first current zero,

Applying Kirchoff’s Law,
Vm cost = L di/dt + Vc …(1)

Vc = 1/C  i dt or i = C dV/dt
Substitute eqn (2) in (1) gives,
LC (d2Vc / dt2) + Vc = Vm cost …(2)
Solving eqn (2) using the Laplace Transform gives,

Vc (s) = (o2Vm / o2 - 2) [(s / s2 + 2) - (s / s2 + o2)]
Taking the inverse LT gives,
Vc(t) = (o2Vm / o2 - 2) (cost - cosot)
Now, o2 >> 

 Vc(t) = Vm (cost - cosot)
Note: the higher the value of o, the greater the probability that the circuit breaker fails.
Real situation
Vm cos w t wo w1
wo w1
Figure 4
fo = 1/(2LC)
time =  /o = LC
Rate of rise of recovery voltage, RRRV = 2Vm /t kV/s

Chapter 7 SYSTEM EARTHING
7.1 Introduction
 Normal person can feel 1mA.

 For (10-25) mA  lose muscular control.
 At 100mA  Ventricular fibrillation (death)
Ib
Rg
Ig earth rod
resistivity of the soil must be
very low to ensure that most
of the current flows to ground.
Conduction  electrolytic process

 moisture content > 22% by weight
In rocky terrain,
Earth mat
Cu
0.116
Ib = where Ib = body (heart) current
T
T = duration of currents (relay operating time)

7.2 Design
7.2.1 Touch Voltages
I
I
A Ib
Rb
VAB Rg1 Rb
B
Rf/2 Rf/2
Rg2
A Rg1 B Rg2
Figure 1: Condition for Touch Voltages
To decrease Ib, VAB must be reduced by reducing I or Rf/2 or Rg2.
7.2.2 Step Voltages
I
Rg1
I
A
Rf Ib
Rg2 Rb
Rb
B
Rf Rf Rf
Rg3
A Rg1 B Rg2 Rg3
Figure 2: Condition for Step Voltages
Take Rb  1000
Rf = 3s where s = soil resistivity at the surface.

Assuming the foot is equivalent to circular plate electrode,

For touch voltages,
Rf
Rh = Rb + = (1000 + 1.5s) 
2
For step voltages,

Rh = Rb + 2Rf = (1000 + 6s) 
0.116 116 + 0.17 s

ETOUCH = [(1000 + 1.5s) ]V=
T T
0.116 1 ρ
ESTEP = [(1000 + 6s) ]V=
T 2Π r
116 + 0.17 s
Ensure ETOUCH !> …(1)
T
116 + 0.696 s
ESTEP !> …(2)
T
EMESH = touch voltage that arise in the center of the mesh. (See figure 3.)
Figure 3

7.3 EARTH MAT DESIGN
Primary requirements:
1. Ground resistivity ()
2. Available fault current
3. Grid geometry
(1) Ground resistivity ()
Eg.
Type of Soil Approximate  (m)

Wet organic 10
Moist 102
Dry 103
Bedrock 104
(2) IF for SLG
3V
IF =
3R g +(R1 +R 2 +R 0 )+j(X1 +X 2 +X0 )
Where V = prefault phase voltage

Rg = ground resistance to ground
R1, R2, R0 = positive, negative and zero sequence resistance
 Design for maximum fault current.
Decrement factor, D – utilised to compensate for the fact that the current is not steady.
Cycles (60Hz) Time (s) D

½ 0.08 1.65
6 0.10 1.25
15 0.25 1.1
>30 >0.5 1.0
Above the decrement factor (30 cycles) steady state is reached.

1 1 X  -2ωT 
D= T+ 1-e
x/R
 where T = relay operating time
T  W R   
 = system frequency
X = system reactance
R = system resistance
(3) Grid Geometry
i. Grid burial depth

ii. Length and diameter of conductors
iii. Spacing between the conductors
iv. Duration of fault current
v. Proximity of fault electrode to the ground
7.4 Earthing Electrodes
(1) Hemispherical Electrode at the earth’s surface
dx
Assume fault current enters the
I
electrode and dissipates
r
uniformly into the grid.
Figure 4:Hemispherical Electrode at earth’s surface
Current density at a distance X from hemisphere = i

I
= (A/m2)
2 x 2
 Potential gradient at distance X across a hemispherical shell, dx:

Voltage drop = i dx
= I / 2x2 dx (V)

 Potential gradient = I / 2x2 = ex (V/m)
 Vx = voltage drop from r to x

x I
=  dx
r 2 x 2
I 1 1
= [ - ]
2 r x
ρI
Voltage at surface of electrode = Eo =
2Πr
ρI
Ex =
2Πx
Eo ρi
R= = 
I 2Πx 2
1 ρ
=
2Π r
Question:
For a hemispherical electrode of radius 0.5m,  = 10m and I = 100A, find the resistance
at the electrode surface and the potential gradient at distance 0.6m from the electrode
reference.
Answer:
ρ 10
R= = = 3.18
2Πr 2Π (0.5)
ρi 10 x 100
Ex = 2
= = 131.5 V/m
2Πx 2Π(0.5+0.6) 2

7.5 Spherical Electrode
Radius = r
Burial depth = h
i. h is very large
ρI
ex =
4x 2
ρI
Eo =
4 r
ρI ρI
Ex = ,R=
4 x 4 r
ii. h is finite such that h >> r
image
rod electrode
h
x'
P2
x
h I
r
P1
electrode
Potential at P1 due to both electrodes,

ρI  1 1 
EP1 =   
4  x1 x 
For a point on the surface of the electrode,

(x1 = r , x = 2h)
ρI  1 1 
Eo =   
4Π  r 2h 

ρI  r 
= 1  
4  2h 
Eo ρ  r 
R= = 1  
I 4 r  2h 
Using P2 to find the step voltage,
ρI 2
EP2 =
4 x  h2
2
dE P2 ρI 2x
The potential gradient at the surface = = eP2 =
4
x 
3
dx 2
 h2 2
Potential at the earth’s surface vertically above (x = 0),

ρI 2
EV =
4 h
Potential difference between surface of the sphere and the earth’s surface vertically above
(Touch voltage)
ρI  1 3 
Eo – EV =   
4  r 2h 

7.6 Rod Electrode
Assumption: l >> d
i
Can break up rod into two hemispheres: shells and spheres
I 3l
R = 0.366 1
log ( )
d
l 2x(l 2  x )
2 2
I
ex = 1
d 2x(l  x )
2 2 2
2x
Eo – Ex = 0.366 i log where I = current/length
d
X = horizontal distance
on earth’s surface

7.7 EARTH MAT DESIGN
1. Determine the soil characteristics.

2. Determine the maximum possible fault current (SLG)
3. Preliminary design of earth mat
4. Calculate the resistance of the mat in (3)
5. Calculate the maximum grid potential rose
6. Calculate the step voltages at periphery
7. Calculate the internal step and touch voltages
8. Refine the design so as to satisfy 5, 6 and 7 for safety
9. Construct the mat as per design (make sure measured values compares favourably
with the calculated values)
10. Review 5, 6, 7, 8 based on actual measurement.
7.8 Methodology for Earth Mat Design
(1), (2) Steps 1 and 2 completed.
(3) Preliminary Grounding Design.
(3.1) Determination of conductor size
Tm  Ta
log(  1)
234  Ta
I=A
33S
Where I = current in A
A = cross-sectional area of conductor in circular mils
(1974 circular mils = 1mm2)
S = duration of fault time in seconds
TA = ambient temperature C
Tm = maximum allowable temperature C
(3.2) Length of conductor required
Step = 1m
Touch = 1m (not realistic but caters for worse case scenario)
Laurent developed three (3) relationships:

Estep = (0.1  0.5)I
Etouch = (0.6  0.8)I
Emesh = I

I
Emesh = KmKi 
L
Where Km = coefficient which takes into account the physical dimensions of the mesh
Ki = irregularity factor
L = length of burial conductor
116  0.17ρ. I
Emesh safety = = KmKi 
t L
K m K i ρI t
L= …(1)
116  0.17 S
Where S = resistivity on surface

 = average resistivity
t = relay operating time/shock time
(4) Resistivity of Mat (Grounding System)
 ρ ρ
R =   
 4r L 
Resistance To compensate for

assuming area the fact that it is not
was circular circular (removes
where ‘r’ is radius the errors)
(5) Maximum grid potential rise, E

E = IR where I = maximum SLG s/c current
116  0.17 s
Iff Emesh < Etouch =  Good design
t
(6) Voltage at periphery (assume  = s)

I 116  0.17 s
Estep max = kskm <  Good
L t

(7) Let d = diameter of conductor

D = spacing
n = # of parallel conductors
h = burial depth
1 D2 1 2 5 7 2n  1
km = ln + ln [ ( )( )( ) …( )]
2 16hd  4 6 8 2n  2
1 1 1 1 1
ks = [( ) + ( )+ + +…]
 2n Dh 2D 3D
(8)(a) If the design is not good, decrease R by (1) increasing the grid area (r )
(2) increasing L (n )
(b) Space the conductors closer to each other (D )
(c) Increase s by addition of a high resistance surface  washed gravel ( > ¾ “)

Question:
An electric utility plans to install a new 132kV system to feed an industrial load. The
proposed area of the substation is a rectangle of dimensions 42m x 100m. The soil in the
area is non-homogenous with s = 300m and  = 1316m.
The system has the following impedances: X = 40.5, X = 41.0, X0 = 100.
The protection is so designed that the cleaning time for a fault is 0.4s. Given that km =
0.568 and ks =0.814 and irregularity factor ki = 20.
Estimate taking account of a decrement factor  of 1.3 and future growth of fault level to
125%.
(a) The minimum length of copper conductor required to keep touch and step
voltages within the same limits.
(b) The resistance of the earth mat using the estimated copper used in (a).
(c) Give a proposed layout of the grid calculating the actual length of copper
conductor used. Maximum grid spacing = 6m,length of copper earth rods
available = 3m.
(d) For the layout in (c) check whether the maximum step voltage developed
is within tolerable limits.
Solution:
3Vin 3 x 132 x 103

Estimate the fault lines in Amps…(SLG) = = = 1260A
XT 3 x 181.5
Design Fault current = 1260 x D x growth

= 1260 x 1.3 1.25
Idesign = 2047.5A

K m K i ρI t
(a) Conductor length = L =
116  0.17 S
0.568 x 2 x 1316 x 2047.5 x 0.4

=
116  0.17(3000)
= 3092.5m
 ρ ρ
(b) R =   
 4r L 
1 1
= 1316 [  ]
4r 3092.5
 r2 = area of substation = 42 x 100
 r = 36.6m
 R = 9.4
Maximum Grid Potential Rise, E = IfR

= (2047.5)(9.4)
= 19.28kV
(c) Layout
Let spacing on 100m side = 4m
Let spacing on 42m side = 6m
Then the length of Cu needed on Grid:

 100   42 
  142 +   1100 = 1892m
 4   6 
(short of 3092.5,  change spacing on sides and recalculate)
 3092.5  1892 
Length of Cu still needed =    400
 3 
Note: use 10% more (safety factor to ensure extra protection)

Therefore, the number of earth rods = 440

 length of Cu actually utilised = 1320 + 1892 = 3212m
(d) Checking Touch and Step Voltages

I
Maximum Estep = kiks   
L
 0.814 x 2.0 x 1316 x 2047.5

=  = 1365.7V
 3212 
116  0.7 s
Tolerable Vstep =
t
116  0.7(3000)
=
0.4
= 3503.8V
Figure 5: Earth Mat

Chapter 8 ILLUMINATION ENGINEERING
Types of Illumination:
1. Incandescence
2. Flourescent
3. Mercury Vapour
4. Metal Halide
5. Sodium Vapour
Entities in Illumination Engineering
Symbol Concept English Unit SI unit

I Luminous intensity Candela (cd) Candela
 Luminous flux lumen (lm) Lumen
E Illuminance lumen foot candle /ft2 (lfc) lm/m2 , lux (lx)
M Luminous exitance lm/ ft2 lm/m2
L Luminance cd/ ft2 (foot lambert) cd/m2
Q Quantity of light lm.s lm.s
Note:
lumen  watt
lm.s  joule
1 foot candle  10.76 lux
1 foot lambert  1/ cd/ ft2

Luminous Intensity (I)

The intensity of a spermecetic candle of a particular weight burning at a particular rate
emits a luminous intensity = 1 cd.
Luminous flux ()

A luminous flux of 1 lumen is the rate at which the luminous intensity on a surface of
area 1m2 which is placed 1m from a luminous source of 1cd.
 = AI/D2 (lm) where A = area of surface (m2)

D = distance from source (m)
I = candela
If A is kept constant, lum flux ()  1/D2
Illuminance (E)
The illuminance of a surface is the density of the luminous flux incident on a surface.
E = /A (lux) (lm/ m2)
Luminous exitance (M)

This is the flux density which leaves the surface.
M = reflected/ transmitted x reflective index
Luminance (L)
The density of the luminous intensity leaving a surface in a particular direction is the
luminance (L) of that surface.
L = luminous intensity (in a particular direction) / area of viewing (cd/m2)

Question:
Assume the unit sphere with 1cd source is translucent. It has the property of transmitting
80% of the luminous flux it receives and absorbs the remaining 20% (non – reflected).
Find the luminance, L and the quantity of light, Q.
Solution:
Luminous flux leaving the sphere = 4 (1)2 (0.8) = 3.2 lm
Luminous exitance (M) = 3.2 / 4 = 0.8 lm/m2
L = 0.8/r2 = (0.8/) cd/m2
Quantity of Light, Q = luminous energy ( in 1 min)

= flux x 60s
= 3.2 x 60
= 192 /min
Question:
The upper hemisphere of a glass globe is silvered on the inside so that 90% of the lumen
incident on it is reflected to the lower hemisphere. The latter is translucent glass and has a
transmittance of 75% and an absorbance of 25%. The sphere has a radius of 0.5m with a
100cd source at its center. The lamp emits lumens uniformly in all directions as does the
lower hemisphere. Find the illuminance on the inside of the lower hemisphere, the
luminance exitance and luminance on outside of the lower hemisphere.
Solution:
1. Luminous flux emitted by source
 = (4) (100) = 400 lm
(of which 200 goes up and 200 lumen goes down, sharing up the flux emitted by source
equally)
Total flux to lower hemisphere
= (200 ) + (0.9 x 200 )

= 380 lm

Φ 380π
Illuminance = =
A 2π(0.5) 2
= 760 lux (on lower hemisphere)
2. Luminance exitance (m)
luminous flux transmitted = (0.75) (380)

= 285 lm
m = 285 = 570 lm / m
2r2
3. L = luminous Intensity in particular direction

Area of viewing
285π
Idist =
2π
= 142.5 CD
142.5 142.5
L= = = 181.44 cd/m
πr 2
π(0.5) 2
Inverse Square Law
I
ISL  E= (assume surface vertical)
D2
I
E 
D2
Now assume surface not vertical or perpendicular
I cosβ
E=
D2

Example:
2000cd
stop sign

200m
5m
50m
B= 16.7 (from geometry)
I cosβ 2000 cos16.7

E= = = 0.7 lux
D 2
152  502
Now from a horizontal plane,

D
h 
Ep = I () cos 
D2
= I () cos 
(h2 + d2 )
= I () cos 
h2

Example:
A flat circular fixture of 15 cm diameter is mounted on a ceiling in a recreation room. Its
luminance (luminous flux) in the direction of a point P on a table is 40cd/cm2. Find its
intensity in the direction of P and the horizontal illuminance on the table at P.

D
2m 
3m P
Area of light surface = r2 = 56.25 cm2
Luminance = ______I______
Area of viewing
I () = (L x A) cos 
= (40 x 56.25) cos (56.3)
= 3918.5 cd.
E = I () cos 
D2
= (3918.5) cos 56.3

13
=167.24 lux

All Ices Notes

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

All Ices Notes

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

The University of the West Indies

EE36C – Industrial and Commercial Energy Systems

Chapter 1 – THE PER UNIT SYSTEM

The per unit system has several advantages which include:

(2) Per Unit Conversion

Actual value of ' A'

Note: Apu is dimensionless

Z given Zgiven .MVAb Vb

Dr. Chandrabhan Sharma P age |1

(4) To compare two power systems with different MVAs

KVb old 2 MVA b new

If the base value chosen is 200, then

Figure 1: Resultant system

Dr. Chandrabhan Sharma P age |2

The result is a 1pu generator whose voltage is 1pu.

(6) Convert the pu values to the actual values

Isc actual (Amps) = Isc pu x Ib

MVA sc pu = MVAsc pu x MVAb

Dr. Chandrabhan Sharma P age |3

1.2 Three Phase Fault Calculations

There are 2 types of faults:

1.2.1 Symmetrical Faults

Figure 2: Symmetrical Fault

1xOC – 1 line open circuit (has no power)

Note: If the system is unbalanced, the relationship V = IR does not hold.

Dr. Chandrabhan Sharma P age |4

1.2.2 Circuit Breakers

Circuit breakers are needed:

Figure 3: Transient Impedance Graph

x'' – for current flow within the first 3-4 cycles

 x'' < x' < x

Dr. Chandrabhan Sharma P age |5

1.3 Fault Calculations

Figure 4: Fault System

For the 33kV bus,

MVA 100 x 106

Dr. Chandrabhan Sharma P age |6

For 12kV bus,

MVA 100 x 106

(3) Now the generators must be converted to its equivalent pu values.

(4) Draw a single line diagram of the system (100MVA system)

Dr. Chandrabhan Sharma P age |7

j0.4 j0.4 j0.5

j0.2 j0.52 j0.2

Figure 1: Single line diagram of the system in pu

(5)Collapse the system further and simplify.

Figure 2: Simplified single line diagram of the system

Dr. Chandrabhan Sharma P age |8

MVAsc = (2.89)(100) = 289MVA

ISC actual = Ipu x Ib

Answers: MVAA = 570, MVAB = MVAC = 198

Dr. Chandrabhan Sharma P age |9

Figure1: Fault System

Let base = 100MVA

2) Convert the transformers impedance to pu

Considering the transformers between A and B,

Dr. Chandrabhan Sharma P a g e | 10

Considering the transformers between B and C,

Considering the transformers between C and D,

3) Redraw the diagram with the equivalent pu values.

Figure2: Circuit for calculating the short-circuit levels

Dr. Chandrabhan Sharma P a g e | 11

4) Collapse the diagram into an equivalent circuit as shown in figure 3 below.