ARTICLE IN PRESS

Quaternary International 158 (2006) 13–22

Pedosedimentary, cultural and environmental significance of paleosols

within pre-hispanic agricultural terraces in the southern Peruvian Andes
Rob Kempa,, Nick Brancha, Barbara Silvaa, Frank Meddensa, Alan Williamsa,
Anne Kendallb, Cirilio Vivancoc
a
Department of Geography, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK
b
Cusichaca Trust, Witney OX28 1NH, UK
c
Department of Social Sciences, University of Ayacucho, Peru
Available online 30 June 2006

Abstract

Paleosols were exposed in sections through four abandoned pre-Hispanic agricultural terraces surrounding an infilled mire basin in the
southern Peruvian Andes. The two paleosols beneath the Tocotoccasa terrace represent the original ‘natural’ solum and a later soil
formed after construction of the agricultural terrace, probably during the early Middle Horizon cultural period (615–695 AD). The soil at
the current surface developed subsequent to the building up and reconstruction of the terrace, possibly during the late Late Intermediate
period (1200–1400 AD). Micromorphology revealed an unexpected abundance of clay coatings within the upper terrace paleosol and
surface terrace soil, a phenonemon attributed to the migration and/or accumulation of neoformed clay produced from the weathering of
very unstable volcanic clasts, perhaps fuelled by arid/humid climatic oscillations and/or seasonal input of irrigation waters. The paleosols
at Tocotoccasa could not be correlated with any degree of confidence with those beneath the other three terraces due to differences in
pedosedimentary properties and uncertainties over chronological controls. Thus, it seems likely that either the terraces were
(re)constructed and utilised over different cultural periods or that there is significant variation in the extent of weathering of material
used for reconstruction of the terraces. Unfortunately, it cannot be ascertained from the data available whether the terraces were
abandoned for any significant period of time prior to reconstruction and, if so, whether this was a regional phenomenon related to
climate, social, or economic changes.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The fact that pre-Hispanic Andean civilisations were
able to thrive under such harsh environmental (high
altitude, low temperatures and rainfall) conditions was in
no small part due to their innovative and efficient
agricultural systems. The different cultures spanned several
thousand years during the Late Holocene (Table 1) when,
according to ice core records, the climate varied quite
considerably (Thompson et al., 1998; Denevan, 2001).
Although recognising that other complex social, political
and ecological factors may be involved (Erickson, 2000;
Williams, 2002), a number of authorities have suggested
that the development and/or decline of certain cultures in
Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 01784 443649;
fax: +44 01784 472836.
E-mail address: r.kemp@rhul.ac.uk (R. Kemp).
Andes was largely triggered by climate change and its effect
on agricultural production. For instance, Moseley (2001)
attributed the advent of the Wari in the Central Highlands
to the successful introduction of irrigation to agricultural
terraces during an arid phase (ca. 600–700 AD) at the
beginning of the Middle Horizon (Table 1). In contrast,
Binford et al. (1997) maintained that the decline of the
Tiwanaku culture was largely brought about by the
inability of its raised field systems to cope with a period
of drought (from 950 AD) towards the end of the Middle
Horizon in the Titicaca Basin. Though providing few
specific examples, Ortloff and Kolata (1993, p. 218)
suggested that additional ‘‘climatic-induced agricultural
crises y should be detected during this period [post-950
AD] in other regions of the Andes’’.
Some of the most visible landscape features of the
Central Andes between Cusco and Arequipa in Peru
(Fig. 1) are the thousands of hectares of agricultural

1040-6182/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2006.05.013
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
14 R. Kemp et al. / Quaternary International 158 (2006) 13–22

Table 1
Generalised cultural period chronology for the Peruvian Andes

Cultural period Approximate chronology

Archaic 10,000–4000 BC
Pre-ceramic 4000–2000 BC
Initial Period/Formative 2000–800 BC
Early Horizon 800–200 BC
Early Intermediate Period 200 BC–500 AD
Middle Horizon 500–1000 AD
Late Intermediate Period 1000–1438 AD
Late Horizon 1438–1533 AD
Colonial Period 1533–1826 AD
Republican Period 1826 AD–present

Fig. 2. (a) Abandoned agricultural terraces near Andahuaylas; (b)

Pampachiri mire basin surrounded by abandoned agricultural terraces
with the CHA site in the foreground.

terraces were abandoned for unknown reasons, though a

Fig. 1. Location of the Chichas-Soras Valley and other locations
mentioned in the text.
terraces ‘carved’ out of the slopes by previous cultures, the
vast majority of which have been abandoned and are no
longer farmed (Fig. 2a). Denevan (2001) summarised an in
depth study of such terrace systems in the Colca Valley,
northwest of Arequipa (Fig. 1) and concluded that three
phases of abandonment can be identified: (i) 540–730 AD
(early Wari) when there was abandonment of non-irrigated
terraces and shift to irrigated terrace systems in response to
regional aridity); (ii) 1530–1720 AD (Colonial), when there
was widespread abandonment due to depopulation
through disease and social reorganisation and (iii) a period
in between (1040–1490? AD) when some higher irrigated
drier and cooler climate may have been a factor.
Branch et al. (in press) reported a site centred around the
village of Pampachiri in the Chichas-Soras Valley, 125 km
southwest of Andahuaylas and 500 km northwest of the
Colca Valley (Fig. 1), where there are a series of abandoned
terraces adjacent to a small (ca. 200
100 m) mire basin
(Fig. 2b). Lithological and palynological data from a
sediment core extracted from the mire indicated that there
had been three significant phases of landscape instability
during the Late Holocene, each characterised by deposition
of mineral-rich sediment: (i) after 70 AD, (ii) just prior to
1220–1330 AD, and (iii) after 1720–1890 AD. Excavation
of a section through an abandoned terrace revealed a
paleosol marking an earlier horizontal terrace surface. On
the basis of a radiocarbon date from charcoal within the
bAh horizon and the typology of pottery fragments
throughout, Branch et al. (in press) concluded that the
terrace had been originally constructed during the early
Middle Horizon (615–695 AD), and then built up or
reconstructed in the late, Late Intermediate (1200–1400
AD) before being abandoned probably during the Colonial
period. They postulated that the earliest two erosion phases
recorded in the mire stratigraphy might be linked to, and
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R. Kemp et al. / Quaternary International 158 (2006) 13–22
indeed induced by, these terrace (re)construction activities.
Supporting this interpretation is the direct pollen evidence
for Zea mays cultivation during the Late Intermediate: the
absence of maize in the mire record during the Middle
Horizon was attributed to the growth of other crops (e.g.
Chenopodiaceae/Amaranthaceae) on the terraces during
this period.
A key question left unanswered by this pilot study of
Branch et al. (in press) was whether the terrace reconstruc-
tion reflected isolated ad hoc repair during usage, or more
systematic regional restoration following a period of
abandonment or de-intensification. If the latter, subsidiary
questions would be whether terrace abandonment in the
Pampachiri region prior to 1220–1330 AD was coincident
with that recognised from the Colca Valley by Denevan
(2001), and whether it was linked to a climatic-induced
agricultural crisis of the form discussed by Ortloff and
Kolata (1993). The next logical step in this project
therefore was to excavate other terrace sections in the
vicinity and determine whether their pedosedimentary
records are replicated and the paleosols correlated. This
paper focuses on the detailed macromorphology and
micromorphology of four terrace sections containing
paleosols. The aim is to reconstruct the pedosedimentary
history of the terraces and to shed further light on the
cultural and environmental significance of the paleosols.
2. Site background and methods
Pampachiri (3364 m a.s.l.) has a mean annual tempera-
ture and precipitation of 7–10 1C and 1000 mm, respec-
tively, with a marked dry season between April and
November (Keeley and Meddens, 1993). Precipitation,
however, varies significantly from year to year. The
Chicha-Soras valley has a long history of human occupa-
tion with the earliest agricultural terracing thought to date
back to the early Middle Horizon (AD 600–700). Farming
is currently not very intensive: grazing and tuber (potato
and ulloco) crops predominate above 3400 m, whilst maize,
quinoa and tarwi are the main crops cultivated on irrigated
terraces at lower elevations (Keeley and Meddens, 1993).
The soils have formed in unconsolidated fluvial or mass
movement deposits derived from erosion of local bedrock,
mainly basalt and tuff.
This study is centred on four abandoned agricultural
terraces located within 1 km of the edge of the infilled mire
basin described by Branch et al. (in press), itself less than
2 km to the south of Pampachiri. Trenches (1
10 m) were
excavated by hand at right angles to the terrace wall from
the front towards the middle of each of the terraces. All
artefacts were logged during the excavation. A 1 m wide
profile within each section was described using the
pedological terminology of Hodgson (1976). Undisturbed
blocks (7
5
4 cm) were collected from most of the
identified horizons and were then air-dried, impregnated
with polyester resin and made into thin sections (7
5 cm)
according to standard procedures (Lee and Kemp, 1992).
15
The thin sections were described under a petrological
microscope using the micromorphological terminology of
Stoops (2003).
Bulk samples taken at 5-cm vertical intervals were air-
dried and placed on a large sheet of clean aluminium foil
inside a laminar flow cabinet with filtered air (‘ultra-clean’)
and then sorted with fine forceps. Fragments of charcoal
were isolated, weighed and stored in clean glass vials.
Although minute amounts of charcoal were isolated in
most samples, only the Ah and bAh horizons contained
significant quantities. Samples of charcoal samples from a
single depth within each of the palaeosol Ah horizons were
submitted to the NERC Radiocarbon Laboratory at East
Kilbride for AMS dating. The radiocarbon ages were
calibrated using procedures outlined in Stuiver et al. (1998)
and Bronk-Ramsey (2001), and ere expressed as 2s
calibrated age ranges. Most of the samples comprised a
number of small (o1 mg) charcoal fragments. At one site
(Infiernillo), however, three large fragments (5–10 mg)
from the same depth were submitted for separate dating
so as to help test the reproducibility of the ages and the in
situ nature of the charcoal.
3. Tocotoccasa terrace
Tocotoccasa (TOC) was the terrace site (141 110 40.1.400
S, 731 320 18.900 W; 3417 m a.s.l.) reported by Branch et al.
(in press), though its macro- and micro-morphology was
not discussed. The profile comprises a soil at the current
terrace surface and two underlying palaeosols with clearly
defined very dark grey or very dark greyish brown bAh
horizons marking (i) the original sloping land surface and
(ii) an earlier horizontal terrace surface (Fig. 3, Table 2).
Texture is quite variable with sandy silt loam or sandy silt
loam (b)Ah horizons and sandy loam to clay loam (b)Bw
or (b)Bt horizons. It is relatively stony throughout, though
boulders are only present in the original (3bAh, 3bBw) soil
beneath the terrace construction. Granular structures and
spongy or channel microstructures testify to the impact of
bioturbation throughout the profile. The large faunal
infilling in the 2 bAh horizon is probably relatively modern
and reflects material bioturbated down from the current
surface, whilst the ovoid pocket in the 3bAh horizon may
be an infilled hollow marking the position of an old tree
root. The front terrace wall extends down into the top of
the (3bBw) horizon of the original sloping soil with an
earlier truncated terrace wall foundation immediately in
front of, and running parallel, to its successor.
The occurrence of well oriented, limpid clay coatings
throughout most of the horizons in the TOC profile
(Fig. 4a) was somewhat unexpected. Argillic horizons were
reported in ‘natural’ undisturbed soils in the Colca valley
by Sandor (1987) and Eash and Sandor, (1995), and their
development within such a cool, high-altitude environment
was explained in terms of a combination of old age, easily-
weatherable parent material and high daily temperatures
at tropical latitudes. The difference here is that clay
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16 R. Kemp et al. / Quaternary International 158 (2006) 13–22
Fig. 3. TOC terrace profile with the bAh horizons of the two paleosols
highlighted.
translocation appears to have occurred over relatively
short (few hundred year) periods (i) between initial
establishment and burial/reconstruction of the terrace
leading to accumulation of coatings in the 2bBt and
(welded onto) the 3bAh horizons and, (ii) since reconstruc-
tion of the terrace leading to accumulation of coatings in
the Bw horizons and (welded onto) the 2bAh horizons.
Sedov et al. (2003) have recently debated the occurrence
of clay coatings and Bt horizons in a sequence of soils and
paleosols developed in volcanic parent materials in Central
Mexico. They concluded that age was not necessarily the
driving factor and proposed that the effect of arid/moist
climatic oscillations on clay mineral weathering pathways
and clay particle translocation was more critical. At TOC,
the soil parent material is primarily a mixture of
transported basalt and tuff components. Most of the basalt
and more crystalline dense tuff clasts and associated fine
material are only weakly weathered (Fig. 4b). In contrast,
there is a large quantity of glassy vesicular tuff that appears
to be intensely altered to a clay material that varies from
speckled and isotropic through to limpid and continuously
oriented (Figs. 4c and 4d), the latter identical in form to the
illuvial clay coatings around channels. It is proposed that
the extensive development of clay coatings over such a
short time throughout the two paleosols and the surface
soil is due to the migration and/or accumulation of
neoformed clay produced from the weathering of these
very unstable volcanic clasts, perhaps fuelled by an
oscillating climate in the way suggested by Sedov et al.
(2003) and possibly also by seasonal input of irrigation
waters. Detailed clay mineralogy and microchemical
analysis, however, would be needed to test this proposal
fully.
Sandor and Eash (1995) noted the presence of some
coarser-textured coatings within their terrace soils and
suggested that they may have originated from rapidly
suspended material washed down in irrigation water. Such
‘agricutans’, which are common in disturbed soils and
often interpreted as evidence of cultivation activity (Wilson
et al., 2002), are present in small quantities as poorly
oriented impure clay coatings in the 3bAh and 3Bw
horizons of the TOC profile (Fig. 5a), though they are
clearly distinguishable from the more abundant contin-
uous, limpid and speckled microlaminated coatings.
Unfortunately, it was not possible to obtain a radio-
carbon age from charcoal isolated from the 3bAh
horizon. The date of 1368725 BP (615–695 AD, cali-
brated) (Table 3) from the 2bAh horizon suggests that,
provided the charcoal is in situ, the first terrace surface was
established by the early part of the Middle Horizon. The
only pottery found in the terrace section is of late Late
Intermediate age (1200–1400 AD) and is concentrated
throughout the Ah and Bw horizons of the surface soil,
thus providing a plausible age estimate for the phase of
terrace reconstruction (Branch et al., in press).
4. Chapiyunhuja terrace
The Chapiyunhuja (CHA) terrace profile (141 080 51. 800
S, 731 350 00.100 W; 3413 m a.s.l.), immediately adjacent to
the southern edge of the mire (Fig. 2b), has a single
paleosol comprising a peaty moderately stony silty clay
loam 2bAh horizon overlying dark brown very slightly
stony sandy silt loam 2bAB and dark yellowish brown
slightly stony clay loam 2bBw horizons (Table 4). Clay
translocation does not appear to have been a dominant
process in the paleosol, possibly a reflection of the
imperfect drainage evidenced by concentrations of amor-
phous peaty material (Fig. 5b) in the 2bAh horizon. The
paucity of glassy vesicular tuff compared to the surface soil
may reflect a different source material, or the consequences
of intensive weathering over a long period within a moister
pedoenvironment. Certainly, there is field evidence for clast
disintegration in the 2bBw horizon, whilst the ‘fragmented
clay coatings’ (Fig. 5c) observed in thin sections might be
components of weathered vesicular tuff rather than
disrupted illuvial features.
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R. Kemp et al. / Quaternary International 158 (2006) 13–22 17

Table 2
Field and micromorphological description of the TOC terrace profile

Depth/cm Horizon Macromorphology Micromorphology

0–10 Ah1 Dark brown (7.5YR 3/2); sandy silt loam; strong
subangular blocky; many roots; abrupt boundary to
10–20 Ah2 Very dark greyish brown (10YR 3/2); sandy silt loam;
moderate fine subangular blocky & moderate fine
granular; abundant roots; clear boundary to
20–28/33 AB Very dark greyish brown (10YR 3/2); sandy silt loam; few
very small stones; moderate fine-medium subangular
Very dark greyish brown (10YR 3/2); sandy silt loam; few
very small stones; moderate fine-medium subangular
blocky; many roots; abrupt boundary to
28/33–41/45 Bw1 Dark brown (7.5YR 3/2)); clay loam; few very small and
small stones; moderate fine-medium subangular blocky;
common roots; abrupt boundary to
41/45–53/59 Bw2 Dark brown (7.5YR 3/2); sandy silt loam; few very small
and small stones; weak medium subangular blocky; few
roots; sharp boundary to
53/59–75 2bAh Very dark grey (10YR 3/1) with very dark greyish brown
(10YR 3/2) mottles; silty clay loam; strong fine
subangular blocky & strong fine granular; few roots; one
circular infilling (20 cm diameter) of very dark greyish
brown, sandy silt loam, strong fine subangular blocky &
strong fine granular; abrupt boundary to
75–85/113 2bBt Dark greyish brown (10YR 4/2); sandy silt loam; few very
small and small stones; massive; few clay coatings around
channels; few roots; clear boundary to
85/113–110/ 3bAh Very dark greyish brown (10YR 3/2); sandy silt loam; few
base very small and small stones, common large and very large
stones (in central part); massive; one ovoid pocket
(30
10 cm) of very dark grey (10YR 3/1), sandy silt
loam, moderate fine subangular blocky; abrupt boundary
to
110/base–base 3bBw Dark brown (10YR 3/3); sandy loam; common very small
stones, few large stones; massive; rare clay coatings
around channels
Spongy microstructure; c:f2 mm ¼ 1:10; c2 mm:f20 mm ¼ 5:1;
coarse materiala including commonly altered glassy
vesicular tuffb; very fewc partially decomposed roots
Channel and spongy microstructure; c:f2 mm ¼ 1:20;
c2 mm:f20 mm ¼ 4:1; coarse material including commonly
altered glassy vesicular tuff; rare charcoal fragments; rare
yellowish brown limpid and speckled, continuous, non-
laminated and microlaminated clay coatings
Blocky, channel and spongy microstructure;
c:f2 mm ¼ 1:10; c2mm:f20mm ¼ 4:1; coarse material
including commonly altered glassy vesicular tuff; rare
charcoal fragments and degraded roots ; very few
yellowish brown limpid and speckled, continuous, non-
laminated and microlaminated clay coatings
Blocky and channel microstructure; c:f2 mm ¼ 1:10;
c2 mm:f20 mm ¼ 5:1; coarse material including commonly
altered glassy vesicular tuff; few yellowish brown limpid
and speckled, continuous, non-laminated and
microlaminated clay coatings
Channel and spongy microstructure; c:f2 mm ¼ 1:3;
c2mm:f20 mm ¼ 6:1; coarse material including frequently
altered glassy vesicular tuff; rare charcoal fragments; rare
ferruginous root pseudomorphs; rare moderately
impregnated, clear, ferruginous nodules; very few
yellowish brown limpid and speckled, continuous, non-
laminated and microlaminated clay coatings; rare brown
impure, flecked continuous to discontinuous, non-
laminated clay coatings that sometimes postdate limpid
coatings
Vughy and channel microstructure; c:f2 mm ¼ 1:3;
c2 mm:f20 mm ¼ 6:1; coarse material including frequently
altered glassy vesicular tuff; rare moderately
impregnated, clear, ferruginous nodules; very few
yellowish brown limpid and speckled, continuous, non-
laminated and microlaminated clay coatings; rare brown
impure, flecked continuous to discontinuous, non-
laminated clay coatings

Notes for micromorphological descriptions:

a
Coarse grains mainly comprise glassy vesicular tuff, crystalline tuff, microcrystalline volcanic rock, feldspar, quartz , biotite, hornblende and volcanic
glass.
b
‘Altered’ glassy vesicular tuff contains yellow-brown clay lining vesicles that varies from speckled, isotropic material through to limpid, continuously
oriented material that has similar appearance to clay coatings.
c
Rare ¼ o0.2%, very few ¼ 0.2–2.0%, few ¼ 2–3%, common ¼ 3–5%, frequent ¼ 45%.

The front terrace wall was built directly on top
of boulders exposed above the 2bAh horizon, sug-
gesting that the paleosol probably represents the original
‘natural’ soil with less stony material added to the
surface in order to construct a terrace above the water
table with improved drainage and a deeper rooting
medium. The relative antiquity of the paleosol is sup-
ported by the radiocarbon date of 3537728 (1950–1740
BC, calibrated) from charcoal in the 2bAh horizon
(Table 3). The absence of pottery in any part of the
CHA section means that it is not possible to estimate
the timing of terrace construction. The soil developed at
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18 R. Kemp et al. / Quaternary International 158 (2006) 13–22

Fig. 4. Photomicrographs of key micromorphological features from TOC; plane polarised light; scale bar ¼ 600 mm. (a) Microlaminated limpid and
speckled clay coatings; 2bBt horizon. (b) Basalt and crystalline tuff clasts; 2bAh horizon. (c) Two glassy vesicular tuff clasts, one intensely weathered
throughout (bottom right) and the other showing signs of alteration along its edges; 3bAh horizon. (d) Weathered glassy vesicular tuff with accumulation
of clay alteration products; 2bBt horizon.

Fig. 5. Photomicrographs of key micromorphological features from the terrace profiles; plane polarised light; scale bar ¼ 600 mm. (a) Impure clay coating;
TOC, 3Bw horizon. (b) Bioturbated amorphous peaty material; CHA, 2bAh horizon. (c) ‘Fragmented clay coating’ or fragment of weathered tuff; CHA
2bBw horizon. (d) Weathered glassy non-vesicular tuff with accumulation of clay alteration products having similar morphology to illuvial clay; AYA,
2bBt3 horizon.

the current surface in the terrace material has an Ah,
AB, Bw, Bt horizon sequence with significant quantities
of clay coatings and weathered glassy vesicular tuff.
Similar pedogenic processes appear to have been active as
at TOC, though the relatively unweathered and thick
nature of the sandy loam Ah/AB horizons may reflect
recent flooding and addition of fresh material to the
surface.
5. Ayapampa terrace
The Ayapampa (AYA) profile (141 120 18.67979700 S, 731
320 18.68752300 W; 3360 m a.s.l.), 1 km WSW of the mire
edge, comprises a well-developed paleosol with variably
textured bAh, bBt1, bBt2, and 2bBt3 horizons marking an
earlier terrace, and overlain by ca. 30 cm of very slightly
stony sandy loam in which the surface Ah and AB horizons
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R. Kemp et al. / Quaternary International 158 (2006) 13–22 19

Table 3
Radiocarbon dates from the terrace paleosols

Laboratory code Terrace depth (cm) Material Conventional radiocarbon age (BP71s) Calibrated 2 s age range d13CPDB

SUERC-1531 TOC 70 Charcoal 1368725 615–695 AD 27.3

SUERC-1532 CHA 110 Charcoal 3537728 1950–1740 BC 21.9
SUERC-1691 AYA 45 Charcoal 2562736 720–540 BC 28.8
SUERC-1533 INF 70 Charcoal 1167725 770–900 AD 22.8
SUERC-1535 INF 70 Charcoal 1186725 770–900 AD 21.3
SUERC-1692 INF 70 Charcoal 1200738 760–900 AD 24.5

Table 4
Field and micromorphological description of the CHA terrace profile

Depth/cm Horizon Macromorphology Micromorphology

0–12 Ah Dark brown (7.5YR 3/2); sandy loam; moderate fine

granular; abundant roots; sharp boundary to
12–31/51 AB Dark brown (10YR 3/3); sandy loam; moderate fine
subangular blocky & moderate fine granular; many roots;
abrupt boundary to
31/51–52 Bw Dark brown (7.5YR 3/2); sandy loam; weak fine
subangular blocky; common roots; abrupt boundary to
52–93 Bt Dark brown (7.5YR 3/2)); sandy clay loam; few very
small and small stones; massive; few roots; few clay
coatings around channels; few semi-continuous, sub-
horizontal very dark grey (10YR 3/1), clay loam bands
(o1 cm thick); sharp boundary to
93–144 2bAh Black (10YR 2/1); silty clay loam; few very small stones &
many boulders; moderate medium subangular blocky;
clear boundary to
144–155/160 2bAB Dark brown (10YR 4/3); sandy silt loam; few very small
and small stones; massive; clear boundary to
155/160–base 2bBw Dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4); clay loam; common
very small and small stones, a few weathered; massive
Spongy microstructure; c:f2 mm ¼ 1:10; c2 mm:f20 mm ¼ 5:1;
coarse materiala including rarely altered glassy vesicular
tuffb; very fewc partially decomposed roots
Vughy microstructure; c:f2 mm ¼ 1:10; c2mm:f20mm ¼ 6:1;
coarse material including rarely altered glassy vesicular
tuff; rare partially decomposed roots; rare yellowish
brown limpid and speckled, continuous, non-laminated
and microlaminated clay coatings
Channel microstructure; c:f2 mm ¼ 1:10;
c2 mm:f20 mm ¼ 5:1; coarse material including commonly
altered glassy vesicular tuff; few yellowish brown limpid
and speckled, continuous, non-laminated and
microlaminated clay coatings irregularly distributed in
pockets
Blocky and granular microstructure; c:f2 mm ¼ 1:10;
c2 mm:f20 mm ¼ 4:1; coarse material including rarely altered
glassy vesicular tuff (lower quantities than above);
micromassd dominated by amorphous (peaty) material;
rare yellowish brown limpid and speckled, continuous,
non-laminated and microlaminated clay coatings
Vughy; c:f2 mm ¼ 1:10; c2 mm:f20 mm ¼ 2:1; coarse material
contains no glassy vesicular tuff; brown micromass with
stipple-speckled b-fabric; very few rounded limpid and
speckled, continuous fragmented coatingse embedded in
groundmass; rare yellowish brown limpid and speckled,
continuous, non-laminated and microlaminated clay
coatings;

Notes for micromorphological descriptions:

a
Coarse grains mainly comprise glassy vesicular tuff, crystalline tuff, microcrystalline volcanic rock, feldspar, quartz , biotite, hornblende and volcanic
glass.
b
‘Altered’ glassy vesicular tuff contains yellow-brown clay lining vesicles that varies from speckled, isotropic material through to limpid, continuously
oriented material that has similar appearance to clay coatings.
c
Rare ¼ o0.2%, very few ¼ 0.2–2.0%, few ¼ 2–3%, common ¼ 3–5%, frequent ¼ 45%.
d
Micromass is greyish brown with undifferentiated b-fabric unless stated otherwise.
e
Fragmented clay coatings are probably fragmented weathered vesicular tuff.

have developed (Table 5). The front terrace wall extends
down into the bBt horizons that are the original ‘natural’
subsoil. The bAh horizon of this soil was probably
modified and thickened during construction of the initial
flat terrace surface: the radiocarbon date from the bAh
horizon (Table 3) of 2561736 (720–540 BC calibrated)
certainly suggests that the charcoal was inherited and
therefore pre-dates human activity. Although there is no
direct evidence for more than one phase of wall construc-
tion as at TOC, it is clear that the terrace was built up and
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20 R. Kemp et al. / Quaternary International 158 (2006) 13–22

Table 5
Field and micromorphological description of the AYA terrace profile

Depth/cm Horizon Macromorphology Micromorphology

0–15 Ah Very dark greyish brown (10YR 3/2); sandy loam; few
very small stones; strong fine granular and strong fine
subangular blocky; abundant roots; abrupt boundary to
15–33 AB Dark greyish brown (10YR 4/3); sandy loam; few very
small stones; weak fine subangular blocky; many roots;
abrupt boundary to
33–44/53 bAh Very dark grey (10YR 3/1); sandy clay loam; few very
small and small stones; weak fine subangular blocky and
weak fine granular; common roots; abrupt boundary to
44/53–70 bBt1 Dark brown (10YR 4/3); sandy loam; few very small and
small stones; weak medium subangular blocky; few roots;
few clay coatings around channels; clear boundary to
70–80 bBt2 Dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4); loamy sand; few very
small and small stones; massive; few clay coatings around
channels; clear boundary to
80-base 2bBt3 Dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/3); sandy clay loam; few
very small, small and large stones; massive; few clay
coatings around channels and stones
Spongy and granular microstructure; c:f2 mm ¼ 1:5;
c2 mm:f20 mm ¼ 5:1; coarse materiala including rarely
altered glassy vesicular and non-vesicular tuffb;
commoncc partially decomposed roots
Spongy and channel microstructure; c:f2 mm ¼ 1:5;
c2 mm:f20 mm ¼ 8:1; coarse material including few altered
glassy vesicular and non-vesicular tuff; rare partially
decomposed roots
Spongy microstructure; c:f2 mm ¼ 1:5; c2 mm:f20 mm ¼ 5:1;
coarse material including few altered glassy vesicular and
non-vesicular tuff; rare charcoal fragments
Channel and vughy microstructure; c:f2mm ¼ 1:10;
c2mm:f20mm ¼ 6:1; coarse material including frequently
altered glassy vesicular and non-vesicular tuff; common
yellowish brown limpid and speckled, continuous, non-
laminated and microlaminated clay coatings
Vughy microstructure; c:f2 mm ¼ 1:20; c2 mm:f20 mm ¼ 5:1;
coarse material including frequently altered glassy
vesicular and non-vesicular tuff; brown micromass with
stipple-speckled b-fabric; common yellowish brown
limpid and speckled, continuous, non-laminated and
microlaminated clay coatings

Notes for micromorphological descriptions:

a
Coarse grains mainly comprise glassy and non-vesicular vesicular tuff, crystalline tuff, microcrystalline volcanic rock, feldspar, quartz , biotite,
hornblende and volcanic glass.
b
‘Altered’ glassy vesicular tuff contains yellow-brown clay lining vesicles that varies from speckled, isotropic material through to limpid, continuously
oriented material that has similar appearance to clay coatings. ‘Altered’ glassy non-vesicular tuff tends to be a dense mass of brown speckled clay with an
undifferentiated or stipple-speckled b-fabric, or occasionally a solid mass of yellow limpid, continuous clay.
c
Rare ¼ o0.2%, very few ¼ 0.2–2.0%, few ¼ 2–3%, common ¼ 3–5%, frequent ¼ 45%.

reconstructed at some stage. The only pottery found at this
site is of Middle Horizon age (o1000 AD), occurring in a
gravel drainage layer behind the terrace wall, in the bAh
and AB horizons and on the surface. This distribution is of
limited value as it simply confirms that the terrace was
constructed and then reconstructed during or since the
Middle Horizon.
The paleosol Bt horizons contain large amounts of clay
coatings and weathered glassy vesicular tuff as at TOC.
The spatially variable nature of the parent materials,
however, is demonstrated by the additional occurrence of a
weathered glassy non-vesicular tuff (Fig. 5d) at AYA.
Unlike at TOC and CHA, there is no evidence for
liberation and translocation of clay having taken place
since the establishment of the current terrace surface at this
site. In addition, the glassy vesicular tuff appears to be
significantly less weathered in the Ah, AB and bAh
horizons than below. This might be interpreted to indicate
that the terrace construction and reconstruction was
undertaken relatively recently, resulting in little time for
in situ weathering processes to manifest themselves, though
some of the covering material is likely to be redistributed
‘weathered’ topsoil from nearby. An alternative scenario is
that the differences reflect variations in proportions of
weathered clasts being deposited in the vicinity and
available for terrace fills.
6. Infiernillo terrace
The Infiernillo (INF) profile (141 120 29.400 S, 731 320
25.100 W; 3447 m a.s.l.), 1 km SE of the mire edge, is very
similar to AYA with a clearly defined bAh horizon
overlying ‘original’ strongly weathered boulder-rich bBt
horizons marking a buried horizontal terrace surface
(Table 6). The 2bAh horizon was modified during initial
terrace construction as evidenced by its thickening towards
the front terrace wall. Radiocarbon dates from three
different pieces of charcoal in 2bAh are effectively the
same: 1167725 (770–900 AD calibrated), 1186725
(770–900 AD calibrated), 1200738 (760–900 AD cali-
brated) (Table 3), providing strong support for the notion
that the charcoal is in situ and that the burning episode was
associated with an early phase of terrace agriculture during
the Middle Horizon.
The substantial amount of Middle Horizon pottery
found in the bAh and overlying horizons is not in dispute
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R. Kemp et al. / Quaternary International 158 (2006) 13–22 21

Table 6
Field and micromorphological description of the INF terrace profile

Depth/cm Horizon Macromorphology Micromorphology

0–10/12 Ah Very dark greyish brown (10YR 3/2); loamy sand; few Intergrain microaggregate microstructure; c:f2 mm ¼ 1:10;
very small stones; moderate fine granular; abundant c2 mm:f20 mm ¼ 15:1; coarse materiala including few altered
roots; abrupt boundary to glassy vesicular and non-vesicular tuffb; commonc
partially decomposed roots
10/12–53 AB Dark brown (7.5YR 3/2); loamy sand; few very small Intergrain microaggregate and spongy microstructure;
stones; weak fine subangular blocky; many roots; abrupt c:f2 mm ¼ 1:20; c2 mm:f20 mm ¼ 10:1; coarse material
boundary to including few altered glassy vesicular and non-vesicular
tuff; few partially decomposed roots
53–75 2bAh Very dark grey (10YR 3/1); sandy loam; few very small Spongy and vughy microstructure; c:f2 mm ¼ 1:10;
and small stones; weak fine subangular blocky; few roots; c2 mm:f20 mm ¼ 8:1; coarse material including rarely altered
clear boundary to glassy vesicular and non-vesicular tuff; rare charcoal
fragments; rare greyish brown speckled, continuous, non-
laminated and rarely (limpid) microlaminated clay
coatings at base
75–94 2bABt Very dark greyish brown (10YR 3/2); sandy clay loam; Channel microstructure; c:f2 mm ¼ 1:10;
few very small and small stones; moderate fine-medium c2 mm:f20 mm ¼ 4:1; coarse material including frequently
subangular blocky; few clay coatings around channels; altered glassy vesicular and non-vesicular tuff; brown
abrupt boundary to micromass with stipple-speckled b-fabric; common
yellowish brown limpid and speckled, continuous, non-
laminated and microlaminated clay coatings
94–120 3bBt1 Dark brown (10YR 4/3); sandy loam; few very small, Channel microstructure; c:f2 mm ¼ 1:20;
small and medium stones & common large stones; few c2 mm:f20 mm ¼ 5:1; coarse material including frequently
clay coatings around stones and channels; massive; altered glassy vesicular and non-vesicular tuff; brown
abrupt boundary to micromass with stipple-speckled b-fabric; common
yellowish brown limpid and speckled, continuous, non-
laminated and microlaminated clay coatings
120–base 4bBt2 Strong brown (7.5YR 4/6); clay loam; few small, medium Vughy microstructure; c:f2 mm ¼ 1:10; c2 mm:f20 mm ¼ 3:1;
and large (weathered) stones; few clay coatings around coarse material including frequently altered glassy
stones; massive vesicular and non-vesicular tuff; orange-brown
micromass with mosaic-speckled and monostriated b-
fabric; rare rounded limpid and speckled, continuous
fragmented coatingsd embedded in groundmass; common
yellowish brown limpid and speckled, continuous, non-
laminated and microlaminated clay coatings

Notes for micromorphological descriptions:

a
Coarse grains mainly comprise glassy vesicular and non-vesicular tuff tuff, crystalline tuff, microcrystalline volcanic rock, feldspar, quartz, biotite,
hornblende and volcanic glass.
b
‘Altered’ glassy vesicular tuff contains yellow-brown clay lining vesicles that varies from speckled, isotropic material through to limpid, continuously
oriented material that has similar appearance to clay coatings. ‘Altered’ glassy non-vesicular tuff tends to be a dense mass of brown speckled clay with an
undifferentiated or stipple-speckled b-fabric, or occasionally a solid mass of yellow limpid, continuous clay.
c
Rare ¼ o0.2%, very few ¼ 0.2–2.0%, few ¼ 2–3%, common ¼ 3–5%, frequent ¼ 45%.
d
Fragmented clay coatings are probably fragmented weathered vesicular tuff.

with the terrace chronology inferred from the radiocarbon
dates. The only other pottery is of Late Intermediate age
and occurs on the surface at the front of the terrace,
perhaps pointing to the timing of the reconstruction. If so,
the phases of terrace construction and reconstruction
would correlate to those at TOC. As with AYA, there
are no clay coatings and much less weathering of the glassy
tuff in the Ah, AB and 2bAh horizons than below,
reinforcing the notion that there are spatial variations in
proportions of weathered material used in the terrace
(re)constructions.
7. Summary and conclusions
The two paleosols within the TOC profile represent the
original ‘natural’ solum and a later soil formed after
construction of the agricultural terrace, probably during the
early Middle Horizon (615–695 AD). The soil at the current
surface developed subsequent to the building up and
reconstruction of the terrace, possibly during the late Late
Intermediate (1200–1400 AD). This pedosedimentary se-
quence is not in conflict with the adjacent mire record that
indicates landscape disturbance during the Middle Horizon
and, following a period of further landscape disturbance,
maize cultivation during the Late Intermediate (Branch et al.,
in press). The unexpected abundance of clay coatings within
the ‘natural’ subsoil of the lower paleosol, but more especially
within the upper terrace paleosol and surface terrace soil, is
attributed to the migration and/or accumulation of neo-
formed clay produced from the weathering of very unstable
volcanic clasts, perhaps fuelled by arid/humid climatic
oscillations and/or seasonal input of irrigation waters.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
22 R. Kemp et al. / Quaternary International 158 (2006) 13–22
The imperfectly drained paleosol within the CHA profile
marks the original ‘natural’ land surface immediately
adjacent to the mire. There has only been one phase of
terrace construction at this site with the soil at the current
surface subjected to similar pedogenic processes as at TOC,
though there may have also been periodic flooding and
addition of fresh sediment to the profile. The lack of an
adequate chronology at CHA means that it is not possible
to correlate with either phase of terrace construction at
TOC with any degree of confidence.
AYA and INF are similar in that they both have buried
terraces marked by paleosols with modified Ah horizons
and original ‘natural’ Bt horizons. Unlike at TOC and
CHA, the soils at the reconstructed terrace surfaces are not
so developed as the paleosols in terms of weathering and
clay coatings. This is most likely due to variations in the
amount of weathered material used in the terrace fills,
though reduced intervals of time available for pedogenic
development due to more recent terrace reconstruction
cannot be discounted as a factor also. Unfortunately,
whilst the replicated radiocarbon ages from INF suggest
that the initial phase of terrace construction may be
attributed to the early Middle Horizon and therefore
correlated to that of TOC, it is not possible to date the
reconstruction phase at either INF or AYA.
In conclusion, the tentative links between mire and
terrace stratigraphies established by Branch et al. (in press)
have not been confirmed in this study as it is not possible to
correlate with any degree of confidence the paleosols at
TOC with those beneath the other three terraces. The
uncertainties associated with reworking of charcoal and
pottery have been emphasised by other workers (e.g.
Keeley and Meddens, 1993; Sandor and Eash, 1995;
Denevan, 2001) attempting to date terrace (re)construc-
tions. The significant differences in pedosedimentary
properties reported here may reflect either that the terraces
were (re)constructed and utilised over different cultural
periods or that there is significant variation in the extent of
weathering of material used for reconstruction of the
terraces. Unfortunately, it cannot be ascertained from the
data available whether the terraces were abandoned for any
significant period of time prior to reconstruction and, if so,
whether this was a regional phenomenon related to climate,
social, or economic changes.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the staff of The Cusichaca Trust
for logistical help and the inhabitants of the village of
Pampachiri for their hospitality during the field investiga-
tions. We also appreciated the constructive comments of
the two reviewers, Don Johnson and Vance Holliday. The
project was supported by NERC Small Grant NER/B/S/
2001/00256 and NERC Radiocarbon Dating Allocation
991.1002.
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