TOPIC: FILTERED POWER SUPPLY, VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS AND REGULATORS

Power Supply Filters

As previously indicated, the operation of most electronic circuits is dependent upon a direct current
source. It has been shown how alternating current can be changed into a pulsating direct current;
that is, a current that is always positive or negative with respect to ground. Although this current is
not of a steady value, it has "ripple." Ripple can be defined as "the departure of the waveform of a
rectifier from pure DC." Ripple is the amplitude excursions, positive and negative, of a waveform
from the pure DC value the alternating component of the rectifier voltage. Ripple contains two factors
that must be considered: frequency and amplitude. Ripple frequency, in the rectifiers that were
presented, are either the same as line frequency for a half-wave rectifier, or twice the line frequency
for full-wave rectifiers. In the half-wave rectifier, one pulse of DC output was generated for one cycle
of AC input; the ripple frequency is the same as the input frequency. In the full-wave rectifiers
(center-tapped and bridge), two pulses of DC output were produced for each cycle of AC input: the
ripple frequency is twice that of the line frequency. With a 40Hz input frequency, there is a 40Hz
ripple frequency in the output of the half-wave rectifier and an 80Hz ripple frequency in the output of
the full-wave rectifier. The purpose of power supply filters is to smooth out the ripple contained in the
pulses of DC obtained from the rectifier circuit while increasing the average output voltage or
current. Filter circuits used in power supplies are of two general types: Capacitor input and Choke
input. There are several combinations that may be used, although they are referred to by different
names (Pi, RC, L section, etc). The closest element electrically to the rectifier determines the basic
type of filter being used. Figure 6 depicts the basic types. In the capacitor input filter, a capacitor is
placed in parallel with the load resistor. Rapid variations in voltage are shunted to ground by the
capacitor. This provides a smoother overall output for the output.

The choke input filter uses an inductor in series with the load resistor. The inductor opposes
changes in current to provide smoother output for the load. The capacitor input filter will keep the
output voltage at a higher level compared to a choke input. The choke input will provide a steadier
current under changing load conditions. From this, it can be seen that a capacitor input filter would
be used where voltage is the prime factor and the choke input filter is used where a steady flow of
current is required.

Capacitor Input Filter

First, an analysis will be made of the simple capacitor input filter depicted in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Power Supply With Simple Capacitor Filter

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The output of the rectifier, without filtering, is shown in Figure 7B, and the output, after filtering, is
shown in Figure 7C. Without the capacitor, the output across RL will be pulses as previously
described. The average value of these pulses would be the EDC output of the rectifier. With the
addition of the capacitor, the majority of the pulse changes are bypassed through the capacitor and
around RL. As the first pulse appears across the capacitor, changing it from negative to positive,
bottom to top, the peak voltage is developed across the capacitor. When the first half-cycle has
reached its peak and starts its negative going pulse, the capacitor will start to discharge through RL
maintaining the current through RL in its original direction, thereby holding the voltage across RL at
a higher value than its unfiltered load. Before the capacitor can fully discharge, the positive pulse of
the next half cycle is nearing its peak, recharging the capacitor. As the pulse again starts to go
negative, the capacitor starts to discharge once again. The positive going pulse of the next half cycle
comes in and recharges the capacitor; this action continues as long as the circuit is in operation. The
charge path for the capacitor is through the transformer secondary and the conducting diodes, and
the discharge path is through the load resistor. The reactance of the capacitor, at the line frequency,
is small compared to RL, which allows the changes to bypass RL and, effectively, only pure DC
appears across RL.

Choke Input Filter

The next filter to be analyzed is the choke input filter, or the L section filter. Figure 8 shows this filter
and the resultant output of the rectifier after filtering has taken place.

Figure 8: L Section (Choke Input) Filter

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The series inductor of Figure 8 will oppose rapid changes in current. The output voltage of this filter
is less than that of the capacitor input filter since the choke is in series with the output impedance.
The parallel combination of RL and C in connection with L smoothes out the peaks of the pulses and
results in a steady, although reduced, output. The inductance "chokes" off the peaks of the
alternating components of the rectified waveform and the DC voltage is the average, or DC value, of
the rectified wave. The choke input filter allows a continuous flow of current from the rectifier diodes
rather than the pulsating current flow as seen in the capacitor input filter. The XL of the choke
reduces the ripple voltage by opposing any change in current caused by the positive and negative
pulses of the rectifier output voltage. This keeps a steady current flowing to the load throughout the
entire cycle. The pulsating voltage developed across the capacitor is maintained at a relatively
constant value approaching the average value of input voltage because of this steady current flow.

Multiple Section Choke Input Filter

Using more than one section can enhance the filtering action provided by the choke input
filter. Figure 9 shows two sections with representative waveforms approximating the shape of the
voltage with respect to ground at different points in the filter networks.

Figure 9: Multiple Section Choke Input Filter

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While Figure 9 shows two choke input sections being used as a multiple section filter, more sections
may be added as desired. While the multiple section filter does reduce the ripple content, and they
are found in applications where only a minimum ripple content can be tolerated in the output voltage,
they also result in reduced regulation. The additional sections add more resistance in series with the
power supply, which results in increased voltage variations in the output when the load current
varies.

Pi Filter
The Pi filter, named because of its resemblance to the Greek letter Pi is a combination of the simple
capacitor input filter and the choke input filter. This filter is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10: Pi Filter

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The resistor, R, is known as a bleeder resistor and is found in practically all power supplies. The
purpose of this resistor is two-fold: when the equipment has been working and is then turned off, it
provides a discharge path for the capacitor, preventing a possible shock to maintenance personnel;
it also provides a fixed load, no matter what equipment is connected to the power supply. The Pi
filter is basically a capacitor input filter with the addition of an L section filter. The majority of the
filtering action takes place across C1, which charges through the conducting diode(s) and
discharges through R, L, and C2. As in the simple capacitor input filter, the charge time is very fast
compared to the discharge time. The inductor smoothes out the peaks of the current pulses felt
across C2, thereby providing additional filtering action. The voltage across C2, since C2 is in parallel
with the output, is the output voltage of the power supply. Although the voltage output is lower in this
filter than it would be if taken across C1 and the load, the amount of ripple is greatly reduced. Even
though C1 will charge to the peak voltage of the input when the diodes are conducting, and
discharge through R when they are cut off, the inductor is also in the discharge path and opposes
any changes in load current. The voltage dividing action of L and C2 is responsible for the lower
output voltage in the Pi filter when compared to the voltage available across C1. As shown in Figure
10 the charge path for both C1 and C2 is through the transformer secondary, and, in the case of C2,
through L. Both charge paths are through the conducting diode. However, the discharge path for C1
is through R and L while the discharge path for C2 is through R only.

RC Capacitor Input Filter

While the Pi filter previously discussed had an inductor placed between two capacitors, a resistor
can replace the inductor, as shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11: Capacitor Input Filter

The main difference in operation between this Pi filter and the one previously discussed is the
reaction of an inductor to AC when compared to the resistor. In the former filter the combination of
the reactance of L and C2 to AC provides better filtering, giving a relatively smooth DC output.
In Figure 11, both the AC and DC components of the rectified current pass through R1. The output
voltage is reduced due to the voltage drop across R1 and the higher the current, the greater this
voltage drop. This filter is effective in high voltage, low current applications. As in choke input filters,
the capacitor input filters shown may be multiplied; i.e., identical sections may be added in series.
The choice of a filter for a particular use is a design problem, but the purpose and operation of filters
should be understood by all, because of their importance to the proper operation of equipment
following the power supply.

REFERENCE:

https://www.myodesie.com/wiki/index/returnEntry/id/2968#Power%20Supply%20Filters
 FILTERING

FILTERING In power supplies, capacitors are used to smooth (filter) the pulsating DC output after
rectification so that a nearly constant DC voltage is supplied to the load. The pulsating output of the
rectifiers has an average DC value and an AC portion that is called ripple voltage. Filter capacitors reduce
the amount of ripple voltage to a level that is acceptable. It should be noted that resistors and inductors
can be combined with the capacitors to form filter networks. Here we will concentrate on capacitive
filters only. In a filter circuit the capacitor is charged to the peak of the rectified input voltage during the
positive portion of the input. When the input goes negative, the capacitor begins to discharge into the
load. The rate of discharge is determined by the RC time constant formed by the capacitor and the
load's resistance. See Timing paper for explanation of RC time constants. The capacitance value needed
to supply the power supplies output current (I) with the specified amount of ripple current (Vrms) with
full wave rectification is

REFERENCE:

https://www.illinoiscapacitor.com/pdf/Papers/filtering.pdf
How Power Supplies Filter Rectified
Current in Electronic Circuits

By Doug Lowe

Although the output from an electronic rectifier circuit is technically direct current
because all of the current flows in the same direction, it isn’t stable enough for
most purposes. Even full-wave and bridge rectifiers produce direct current that
pulses in rhythm with the 60 Hz AC sine wave that originates with the 120 VAC
current that’s applied to the transformer. And that pulsing current isn’t suitable for
most electronic circuits.

That’s where filtering comes in. The filtering stage of a power supply circuit
smoothes out the ripples in the rectified DC to produce a smooth direct current
that’s suitable for even the most sensitive of circuits.

Filtering is usually accomplished by introducing a capacitor into the power supply

circuit. Here, the capacitor is simply placed across the DC output.

A capacitor has the useful characteristic of resisting changes in voltage. It

accomplishes this magic feat by building up a charge across its plates when the
input voltage is increasing. When the input voltage decreases, the voltage across
the capacitor’s plates decreases as well, but more slowly than the input voltage
decreases. This has the effect of leveling out the voltage ripple.
The difference between the minimum DC voltage and the maximum DC voltage
in the filtering stage is called the voltage ripple, or just ripple, which is usually
measured as a percentage of the average voltage. For example, a 10% ripple in
a 5 V power supply means that the actual output voltage varies by 0.5 V.

The filter capacitor must usually be large to provide an acceptable level of

filtering. For a typical 5 V power supply, a 2,200 μF electrolytic capacitor will do
the job. The bigger the capacitor, the lower the resulting ripple voltage.

Don’t forget to watch the polarity on electrolytic capacitors. The positive side of
the capacitor must be connected to the positive voltage output from the rectifier,
and the negative side must be connected to ground.

One way to improve the filter circuit is to use two capacitors in combination with a
resistor. In this circuit, the first capacitor eliminates a large portion of the ripple
voltage. The resistor and second capacitor work as an RC network that
eliminates the ripple voltage even further.

The advantages of this circuit are that the resulting DC has a smaller ripple
voltage and the capacitors can be smaller. The disadvantage is that the resistor
drops the DC output voltage. How much depends on the amount of current
drawn by the load.

For example, if you use a 100 Ω resistor and the load draws 100 mA, the resistor
will drop 10 V (100 0.1). Thus, to provide a final output of 5 V, the rectifier circuit
must supply 15 V because of the 10 V drop introduced by the resistor.
You can also use an inductor in a filter circuit. Unlike a resistor-capacitor filter, an
inductor-capacitor filter doesn’t significantly reduce the DC output voltage.
Although inductor-capacitor filter circuits create the smallest ripple voltage,
inductors in the range needed (typically 10 henrys) are large and relatively
expensive. Thus, most filter circuits use a single capacitor or a pair of capacitors
coupled with a resistor.

REFERENCE:

https://www.dummies.com/programming/electronics/components/how-power-supplies-filter-rectified-
current-in-electronic-circuits/
 Power supply filters

Power supply filters: The output voltage of a rectifier is pulsating in nature i.e. it consists of (a)
desired dc component of voltage and (b) unwanted ripple components. These ripple components are
removed by placing a filter circuit at the output of the rectifier.

Types of power supply filters

Power supply filters may be put in following categories:

 Capacitor Filter

 Series Inductor Filter

 L-C Filter of following two types:

 Capacitance input filter

 Inductance input filter

These are considered here briefly.

Capacitor Filter | Power supply filters

This filter consists of a high value capacitor placed directly across the load resistor. This capacitor
then gets charged i.e. it stores energy during the conducting period and delivers this energy to the
load during the non-conducting period. Through this process, the time duration during which the
current flows through the load resistor gets prolonged and ripple component gets considerably

reduces. The function of the capacitor filter may be viewed in terms of impedance to the ripple
component of frequency f. this ripple, component of current, therefore, gets bypassed through C and
only dc component flows through the load resistor RL.

Half wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter

Figure 1 gives the circuit of a half wave rectifier with capacitor filter.

Figure 2 shows the waveform of a.c. input voltage and rectified and filtered output voltage V 0 During
the positive half cycle, the capacitor charges almost in step with the applied voltage and the voltage
vc (=v0) rises as shown in figure 2. However, during the nonconducting period, capacitor C discharges
 through load resistor RL and losses charge. Voltage vc (or v0) decreases exponential with time
constant C RL along the curve AB as shown in figure 2.

Beyond point B, vi exceeds vc. Hence, the diode draws current, capacitor charges quickly and voltage
vc almost follows vi along the curve BC. A heavy charging current flows in this short duration.
Beyond point C, vc exceeds vi charging current stops flowing and capacitor C is repeated for each
cycle of the applied a.c. voltage. Thus, the diode acts as a switch permitting flow of charge into the
capacitor C when the input voltage exceeds the capacitor voltage vc and subsequently disconnects the
power source when vi falls below the capacitor voltage. Obviously, the dc component of output of
output voltage has increased considerably.

Ripple Factor | half wave rectifier with capacitor filter

The rms valuer of the ripple component of almost triangular wave is independent of the slope or the
length of the almost straight-line AB and BC but depends only on the peak value VR. Taking the time
axis along the Vdc curve, it can be shown that for this triangular wave, the rms value of the a.c.
component of voltage is given by,

Merits of capacitor filter

At light loads, capacitor filter has a merit of

 Small ripple voltage and

 High output voltage.
The no load voltage theoretically equals the peak voltage Vm.

Disadvantages of Capacitor Filter

 Relatively poor regulation
 High ripple at large loads and
 Peaked diode current
 Example 1: A half wave rectifier uses load resistor R L = 8 k-ohm and filter shunt capacitor C =10uF.
Applied sinusoidal voltage has amplitude Vm = 24 volts and frequency 50 Hz. Calculate

 dc load current Idc

 dc output voltage Vdc
 ripple voltage VR and
 ripple factor gamma
Use results of approximate analysis.

Full wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter | Power supply filters

In the case of full wave rectifier, capacitance C discharges twice during one full cycle. Figure 3
shows the approximate nature of waveform of rectifier voltage and the output voltage v o (or vc across
C). Since both the diodes conduct, period of nonconducting has reduced and as a result, ripple
voltage VR has reduced and Vdc has increased relative to half wave rectifier.

Equation (12) shows that the voltage regulation in this case is better than that in full wave rectifier.
Series Inductor Filter | Power supply filters
Figure 5 gives the circuit of a full wave rectifier with series inductor filter. Here a high value inductor
or choke is connected in series between the rectifier and load resistor. This inductor opposes the
changes of current and thus smoothens the output.

Stated alternatively, this chowk offers a high impedance to the ripple components but offers almost
zero impedance to the desired d.c. component. Thus, the ripple components are removed to a large
extent. Figure 6 shows the nature of output voltage vo (= iL RL). Simple series inductor filter is not
popularly used. It is preferred to associate a shunt capacitor C with series inductor L thereby
converting it into an L-C filter

L-C Filters | Power supply filters

Simple shunt capacitor filter reduces the ripple voltage but increases the current through the diode.
This large current may damage the diode and at the same time it causes greater heating of the power
transformer resulting in decreased efficiency. On the other hand, a simple series inductor reduces
both the peak and the effective values of the output current and output voltage. Hence, a combination
of shunt capacitor C and series inductor L results in enough removal of ripple and simultaneously
restriction on the diode current.
 These L-C filters may be of the following two types:

 Capacitor input L-C filter

 Inductor input L-C filter
Figure 7 shows one section of capacitor input L-C filter while Figure 8 shows one section of inductor
input L-C filter. In actual practice, two or more such L-C sections are used to achieve enough
removal of ripple components.

https://electronicspani.com/power-supply-filters/