Content

Pg No. Topic

3-9 Theory

11-15 Experiment

17 Bibliography

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Physical properties of compost
The rate at which composting occurs depends on physical as well as chemical
factors. Temperature is a key parameter determining the success of
composting operations. Physical characteristics of the compost ingredients,
including moisture content and particle size, affect the rate at which
composting occurs. Other physical considerations include the size and shape
of the system, which affect the type and rate of aeration and the tendency of
the compost to retain or dissipate the heat that is generated.

The physical properties — your compost pile’s size, temperature, moisture

content and particle size — that determine success.

Particle Size
If you’ve ever read anything about composting, you’ve read that small
particles will compost more quickly than big ones. This is because the micro-
organisms that do the work can only get at the outside of a particle. The
more surface area they can reach, the quicker they can do their work. Small
particles, having more surface area for their volume, decompose more
quickly. As a result, temperature will shoot up rapidly in a newly-constructed
hot heap if the ingredients are small.

So particle size can influence how fast the pile temperature rises and how
long the entire composting process takes. However, it does not determine
whether composting will happen. It only influences the rate at which it
happens.

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Pile Size, Shape & Shrinkage
Pile size and shape also influence composting rates and temperatures, again
through the ratio of inside volume to outside surface area. But whereas the
goal with particles is to maximize contact with their environment (by
maximizing their surface area), the goal with piles is precisely the opposite.

All composters who work with heaps (as opposed to sheet or trench
composting) know in their bones that the environment inside the pile should
be independent of the environment outside it. The temperature inside an
active pile will barely change overnight even if the air temperature drops by
forty degrees. And – ideally – a pile should not be soaking wet even after
three days of heavy rain.

This independence is achieved in part by minimizing contact between the pile

and the air around it, in other words, by minimizing the pile’s surface area.

Translated into practical terms, this means that at least up to a certain point,
bigger is better. Below a certain size, a pile simply won’t heat up significantly
because too much of it is exposed to the cooler air surrounding it. As it gets
bigger, volume and surface area will both increase, but the volume will
increase more quickly.

So what limits the size of the heap? Three things. First, manageability.
There’s a point at which a pile simply becomes unmanageably large, at least
if you’re turning it by hand. The second issue is weight. An excessively large
pile bears down on its bottom layers inhibiting air circulation. Such a pile is
likely to go anaerobic. Finally, even if you manage to turn it frequently
enough to keep it aerated, a large pile could heat up enough to kill off some
of the micro-organisms you probably want to add to your soil. One reason
commercial, agricultural and municipal composting systems reach such high
temperatures is that they are so large.

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As composting materials break down, the pile shrinks. Some of this shrinkage
occurs simply because contents settle and compact under their own weight.
But as the composting process cuts materials into smaller and smaller bits,
they pack against each other more and more efficiently, taking up less and
less room. In general, a finished pile is only a quarter to a third the size of the
original pile.

Oxygen Flow
Since aerobic microbes require oxygen, efficient air flow is essential to a
good pile. But too much surface area, or too much air circulation, cools a pile
down. If you want a hot pile, then, you’ll need to strike a balance between
oxygen supply and temperature.

Efficient decomposition can only occur if sufficient oxygen is present. The

Compost Turner is an effective way to add oxygen and bring microbes into
contact with newly added material. Piles that are not aerated may produce
an unpleasant odor that’s symptomatic of anaerobic decomposition. Mixing
with an aeration tool keeps it fresh.
The easiest way to ensure an adequate oxygen supply is to maximum surface
area; however, conserving heat requires minimizing it. It is extremely difficult
to build a pile which achieves a true balance between these two competing
requirements. Occasionally someone does come up with the specs for a hot,
self-oxygenating pile; a hot pile that does not need turning or frequent
aeration. Such a system usually involves elevating the pile somewhat to allow
air to flow in from beneath it, and some additional way to aerate the center
of the heap. This can be achieved by building it around perforated pipes,
poking air holes after initial construction, or even mechanical aeration using
fans or forced air.

Instead, most back yard piles employ a sort of see-saw approach. The pile
swings first towards high temperature, then towards aeration and then back

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again until the composting process is over. The working arrangement here is
to start by giving temperature priority. The composter tries to minimize
surface area so as to encourage microbial proliferation and the attendant rise
in temperature.

When microbes at the center of the pile run out of oxygen, as they inevitably
will, and temperature starts to fall, aeration takes priority. The composter
turns the pile which amounts to maximizing surface area. As soon as this is
done, the pile is reconstructed to minimize surface area and the see-saw
swings back towards temperature maximization. This alternation continues
until the pile stops heating up and is ready for curing.

Moisture Content
Like all living creatures, the microbes in a compost pile require water. Most
thrive in a damper climate than would suit us. If the ingredients are initially
saturated with water, further watering is unnecessary and will actually leach
away some of the nutrients in the pile. This is why it’s a good idea to protect
the pile from rain.

In any pile exposed to air, the outer layer will tend to dry out. That dry
outside layer does perform an important function — it insulates the inside
from the cooling, drying air — but it will not itself break down very quickly.

A moisture content of 50-60% is generally considered optimum for

composting. Microbially induced decomposition occurs most rapidly in the
thin liquid films found on the surfaces of the organic particles. Whereas too
little moisture (<30%) inhibits bacterial activity, too much moisture (>65%)
results in slow decomposition, odor production in anaerobic pockets, and
nutrient leaching. The moisture content of compostable materials ranges
widely, as shown in the table below:

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 Moisture
Material
(wet basis)
Peaches 80%
Lettuce 87%
Dry dog food 10%
Newspaper 5%
Often the same materials that are high in nitrogen are very wet, and those
that are high in carbon are dry. Combining the different kinds of materials
yields a mix that composts well. You can calculate the optimal mix of
materials, or use the less precise "squeeze test" to gauge moisture content.
(Using the squeeze test, the compost mixture should feel damp to the touch,
with about as much moisture as a wrung-out sponge.)

Temperature
One of the main by-products of microbial activity is heat. Microbial activity
raises the temperature of a compost pile.

The bacteria to begin the composting process are the psychrophilic, active at
50-70°F (10-21°C). If conditions are right, the temperature rises and
the psychrophilic bacteria shortly pass the baton to the mesophilicbacteria,
which operate at 70-100°F (21-38°C). In a poorly oxygenated pile or one that
lacks sufficient nitrogen to support a high microbial population, the
temperature of a compost heap may hover here for months. Many
continuous piles (where new material is constantly tossed on top but the pile
is not turned) never rise above this range.

The Compost Thermometer is 20″ long to measure the core temps of a

compost bin or pile. Measures up to 200°F and includes three important
temperature zones — steady, active, hot — to keep your pile “cooking!”

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However, if conditions are good — plenty of oxygen, moisture and nitrogen
— the temperature continues to rise to the point where the thermophilic
bacteria begin to operate. These can raise the temperature to 140°F (60°C)
degrees or more. How long it stays this high depends largely on its size. In a
back yard pile, thermophilic bacteria can keep a pile at 130-160°F (54°-71°C)
for several weeks, as long as it is periodically turned to introduce new
oxygen. Big agricultural or municipal systems can reach higher temperatures
and maintain them longer than backyard heaps simply because they are
larger. It takes the thermophilic bacteria longer to eat through them. The
high surface-area-to-volume ratio also favors high temperatures.
Cornell University’s Compost Physics page offers a clear explanation of the
three processes — conduction, convection and radiation — by which a hot
pile can lose heat during the thermophilic stage. Pile size, shape and the
resulting ratio between surface area and volume (discussed above) largely
determine the extent to which these lower the temperature of a hot pile.
A hot pile cools down when it has run out of fuel. The thermophilic bacteria
can no longer find enough carbon to support them in the dense
concentrations necessary to maintain the pile at its peak temperature.
One other observation about temperature needs to be included here. When
temperatures in a pile drop below freezing, microbial activity stops.
However, the alternation of freezing and thawing that occurs in many cold-
climate piles during the autumn and early spring will continue to break down
materials physically. Freezing water cracks, pries and breaks organic matter
just as it will rock or cement. When the material thaws, water flows into new
crevices where, as it freezes, it will exert pressure on new points.

This process is not the biological and chemical process of decay. It’s the
physical splitting of leaves, twigs and apple cores into smaller pieces. And as
has been mentioned many times, smaller pieces decay more rapidly. The
freeze- thaw cycle does not chemically change any of the constituents in the
pile. But it does prepare the way for swifter decay once warmer
temperatures return with the spring.

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Temperature Curve
Compost heat is produced as a by-product of the microbial breakdown of
organic material. The heat production depends on the size of the pile, its
moisture content, aeration, and C/N ratio. Additionally, ambient (indoor or
outdoor) temperature affects compost temperatures.

You can chart the health and progress of your compost system by taking
periodic temperature measurements. A typical temperature curve for an
unturned pile is shown below. How do you think that periodic turning would
change this curve?

Bulk Density
The bulk density is the weight of the composting material per volume,
usually expressed in kilograms per cubic meter. The composting material
should have a bulk density of between 600 and 700 kg per cubic meter.
Material having a bulk density lower than this is likely too dry, or the
particles are too large to compost properly. Material having a higher bulk
density is likely too wet, or has particles that are too small to allow oxygen to
enter the material.

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Experiment
Aim: to compare the physical properties like temperature and density of
organic compost and soil.

Requirements: laboratorial thermometer, compost, soil, cylindrical bucket,

scale.

(i) Temperature:
Procedure:
1. Place the bucket full of compost on the floor
2. Using a normal thermometer, measure the temperature of the
compost
3. In a similar fashion, measure the temperature of the soil too.
4. Compare both of them

Observation:

Temperature
(In oC)

soil 22 25 20
compost 63 60 65

Mean value: soil - 22.3oC

Compost - 62.6oC
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(ii) Density
Theory: a) density=mass/volume
b) volume of mug= πd2h/4
Procedure:
1. Fill a bucket full of compost
2. Place it on a weighing machine and record its weight
3. Now measure the diameter and height of the bucket to find the
volume
4. Divide mass by volume to find its density
5. Record your observation in the table

Observation:

sample Mass Diameter Height Volume Density

(M) In cm In cm (V) (M/V)
In g Πd2h/4 In g/cm3

SOIL 1252.58 10 12 942cm3 1.33

COMPOST 659.4 10 12 942cm3 0.7

The density of: compost - 0.7g/cm3

Soil -1.33g/cm3

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Result:

 The temperature of soil is 22.3oC where as

temperature of compost is 62.6oC.
 The density of soil is 1.33g/cm3 where as the density
of compost is 0.7g/cm3.

Note:

Cool season vegetable crops will germinate when soil temperatures reach
the mid 40s-50sOC. They grow best when in day time air temperature of
between 60-70OC.

In general bulk densities greater than 1.6 g/cm3 tend to restrict root growth.
Sandy soils usually have higher bulk densities (1.3–1.7 g/cm3) than manure
and compost (o.6-0.7 g/cm3) due to which plant growth is not favorable in
sandy soil.

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Bibliography
 http://compost.css.cornell.edu/physics.html
 https://stonesoup.in/pages/compost
 https://www.epa.gov/recycle/composting-home
 http://www.ecochem.com/t_compost_faq2.html
 http://www.ecochem.com/t_composting.html
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compost
 https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Main-bio-
chemical-reactions-of-composting-
process_fig2_226558627
 Composting being done at my home

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