7.engineering Seismology, Plate Tectonics-1

LECTURE-07
CE-312
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY & SEISMOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

University of Engineering & Technology Peshawar
Outlines of the Presentation
1. Introduction to Engineering Seismology

2. Difference Between Geologist & Engineering Seismologist
3. Some Important Questions
4. Induced Effects
5. World Seismicity
6. Plate Tectonics
a) Continental Drift Theory
b) Sea Floor Spreading
c) Elastic Rebound Theory
Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 2

Introduction To Engineering Seismology
• Seismology is science dealing with all
aspects of earthquakes:
• OBSERVATIONAL SEISMOLOGY
 Recording earthquakes (micro-seismology)
 Cataloguing earthquakes
 Observing earthquake effects (macro-seismology)
• ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY
 Estimation of seismic hazard and risk
 Aseismic building
• ‘PHYSICAL’ SEISMOLOGY
 Study of the properties of the Earth’s interior
 Study of physical characteristics of seismic sources
• EXPLORATIONAL SEISMOLOGY (Applied seismic
methods)
• Multidisciplinary science, links physics with other geosciences (geology,
geography)
• Very young science (second half of the 19th century)
Difference Between Geologist & Engineering Seismologist
Geology is composed of many sub-disciplines. Seismology is one of those sub-
disciplines. Geology is the study of the earth. Seismology is the study
of earthquakes and associated phenomena.
A geologist is someone who studies the rocks, minerals, structures and
components of the earth. This includes some knowledge of seismicity.
A seismologist is someone who specialises in the interpretation of seismic data,
and the developing of models to explain seismic responses. Seismologists
mainly study about seismic waves and interpret the seismic data to predict the
extent of natural calamities like earth quakes and tsunamis. They have some
expertise as both geophysicists and geologists.
An Engineering Seismologist provides an interface between earth science and
the fields of geotechnical and structural engineering.

Some Important Questions
Earthquakes and our built environment
1.What is an earthquake?
2.What causes earthquakes?
3.Why do earthquakes damage buildings?
4.How do you reduce the damage caused to the built environment?
5.How do you measure the size of earthquakes?
6.How do you measure the damage potential of an earthquakes?
Ground motions are important to buildings:

1.How to measure
2.How to parameterise
3.How big are the motions
4.Wave propagation and types
5.Layering, basins, non-linear soil yeilding
6.Source effects - geometrical rupture physics

Induced Effects
1.Ground Shaking
2.Structural Hazards
3.Liquefaction
4.Landslides
5.Retaining Structure Failures
6.Lifeline Hazards
7.Tsunami’s

Induced Effects
Landslides and Tsunamis
In addition to direct effects, earthquakes

produce also secondary effects, like
landslides and tsunamis, that can cause
even more damage than the earthquake
ground motion.
Effects of a tsunami at Aonae
Landslide cause by the 1995

La Conchita (California) earthquake

Induced Effects
Landslides
Turnnagin Heights,
Alaska,1964

Induced Effects
Tsunami’s
2011 Japan Tsunami

Induced Effects
Liquefaction

Induced Effects
Liquefaction
Niigata, Japan 1964

Induced Effects
Fires
Loma Prieta, CA 1989

World Seismicity
• Earthquake geography
• Effects of earthquakes
• Major earthquakes
Recall Ring of
Fire!!!

World Seismicity
95% of energy released by earthquakes originates in narrow zones that

wind around the Earth: these zones mark of edges of tectonic plates.

World Seismicity
Largest earthquakes
in the world since 1900

World Seismicity
World seismicity 1975 - 1995
http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/general/

World Seismicity
European
seismicity
1975 - 1995
The majority of the
eqs is located at
the contact of the
European and
African plates, and
around the Adriatic
microplate
http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/general/

World Seismicity
Earthquaks with the largest number of casualties

World Seismicity
San Francisco
April 18, 1906
7.9 Mw, 7.7 Ms
deaths 3000
injuries 225,000
400,000,000 $ (in 1906) damage
Brickwork thrown down by earthquake vibration

Tower of Union Ferry Building
(note clock stopped at time of quake est. 5:16a.m.
Subsidence of street in front of Aetna Building, San Francisco
Howard Street:
Buckling caused by
earth flow

World Seismicity
San Francisco
April 18, 1906
7.9 Mw, 7.7 Ms
deaths 3000
injuries 225,000
400,000,000 $ (in 1906) damage
San Francisco destruction by fire: view

looking west from Telegraph Hill, showing
Ruin of the $7,000,000 City Hall by
unburned houses on summit of Russian Hill
earthquake and fire. The building was a
St. Francis Roman Catholic Church with
monument of poor workmanship, materials
excellent brick walls in foreground.
and design.
Thiele Building, Palo Alto (cement block: collapse The Emporium Department Store, Market Street:
due to lack of tie between walls and frame. complete failure of slow-burning wood
construction.

World Seismicity
Earthquake damage
Chile to good quality,
May 22, 1960 wood-frame houses
Mw 9.5 in Valdivia
6,000 deaths
2,000,000 homeless
The land along the coast of Chile, particularly in the port city of Puerto
Montt, subsided (sank downward) as a result of the movement of the
ground during the quake. The coastal city was flooded with water.
Hilo was the hardest hit city in the Hawaiian Islands:

the runup was measured at 10.7 m

World Seismicity
Prince William Sound, Alaska
March 28, 1964
Mw 9.2 Damage to highways and
131 deaths railroads: one span of the "Million
350-500 million $ damage Dollar" truss bridge was dropped
into the Copper River
The Four Seasons Apartments in Anchorage was a six-story

lift-slab reinforced concrete building structurally complete but
unoccupied at the time of the earthquake
Tsunami damage to the north end of Resurrection Bay near

Seward

World Seismicity
San Fernando, A home in
Crestview Park on
California Almetz Street.
February 9, 1971 More than 700
M 6.5 dwellings were
58 deaths evacuated and
2,000 injured declared unsafe
511 million $ damage after the San
Fernando
earthquake.
Van Norman
Dam. For a
length of
about 1,800
feet, the
embankment
slid into the
reservoir.
Aerial view of the damage to the San Fernando Veterans

Administration Hospital and complex. The collapsed structure was
built in 1926, before earthquake building codes were in effect. Forty-
seven of the 58 deaths occurred here.

World Seismicity
The twelve-story reinforced
concrete structure housed the
Mexico City Ministry of Communications and
September 19, 1985 Transport and the nation's main
M 8.1 microwave transmitter. Failure
10,000 deaths of this structure precipitated a
50,000 injured near total collapse of long-
250,000 homeless distance communications
5 billion $ damage between Mexico City and the
rest of the world and
complicated the coordination of
international rescue efforts.
Total collapse at Juarez Hospital. Localized failures at the beam-

to-beam joints of each floor caused the collapse of this reinforced
concrete frame structure. Survivors were retrieved from the
structure as late as ten days after the earthquake by tunneling
through the debris between the floor slabs. This combined 6-floor residential and commercial building sank
more than one meter into the partially liquefied soil.

World Seismicity
Mexico City

World Seismicity
Spitak, Armenia Collapse of an old
December 7, 1988 stone masonry
M 6.9, 4 minutes later M 5.8 Armenian church
25,000 deaths in Leninakan.
15,000 injured Churches are
517,000 homeless vulnerable to
14.2 billion $ damage earthquake
damage because
of their high,
unsupported
roofs.
This five-story communications building in Spitak is

a pre-cast, concrete-frame composite structure. A
portion of the frame is still standing on the back
side of the building.
Partially collapsed five-story stone masonry building in Spitak. Such
unreinforced buildings were all heavily damaged in Spitak, but in
Leninakan many survived with little or no damage.

World Seismicity
A collapsed building in the
Marina District. The first
Loma Prieta, California story of this three story
October 18, 1989 structure failed when
M 7.1 ground shaking was
63 deaths (some say 66) intensified by liquefaction.
3,757 injuries The second story collapsed,
6 billion $ damage leaving only the third story.
Aerial view looking west of part of the

Damage to porch of wood frame house collapsed Interstate 880 double-decked
View of the damage to highway structure. Fifty-one spans of this
Pacific Garden Mall in Santa structure were involved in the collapse which
Cruz, California. Virtually killed 41 motorists. Only one 1.2 km span,
the entire mall sustained shown in the center of the photo, did not
damage and two people collapse.
died when a building in the
mall collapsed.

World Seismicity
Total failure of a mid-rise
concrete building in Rasht.
Northern Iran The building had plain
June 20, 1990 (undeformed) bars for
M 7.7 reinforcement. In the City
40,000 deaths of Rasht, far-field, long-
60,000 injured period ground motion
105,000 homeless appeared to cause the
partial or total collapse of
many such mid-rise
buildings.
Collapse of a mid-rise concrete building and damage to the

Unreinforced Masonry Widespread collapse of unreinforced adjacent building. The two adjacent five-story concrete-
masonry buildings in a mountain village near Manjil. frame buildings were both under construction at the time of
the earthquake. The structure on the right collapsed
completely damaging the corner column of the structure to
the left.

World Seismicity
Sandblow in
Cape Mendocino, California Mattole showing
April 25 & 26, 1992 liquefaction.
M 7.1 on 25 at 18:06
M 6.6 and 6.7 on 26 at 07:41 and 11:18
98 injuries
66 million $ damage
The remains of the business district in Petrolia. One- and two-story, This Victorian house in Ferndale shifted, causing the brick
wood-frame houses and commercial buildings were the most common chimney to break into two parts. The bottom of the
type of construction in Petrolia. A total of five homes were destroyed, 28 chimney shifted toward the east. The gray stripe along
sustained major damage, and 25 required minor repairs. the side of the house shows the original position of the
top half of the chimney.

World Seismicity
Damage to
Landers, California Monument Market
June 28, 1992 near Landers. The
Ms 7.6 at 11:57, Ms 6.7 at 15:05 building, probably
constructed in the
late 1960's, was a
single story
concrete masonry
unit structure with a
wood-frame roof.
Landslides in the San Bernardino Mountains The steep slopes are

white in color because of the white decomposed granite soil. Big
boulders were embedded in the soil covered slopes. The dust
clouds created by the landslides were similar to smoke clouds
from forest fires. People thought that forest fires were occurring.
The hilltop house was located about 20 yards from the fault scarp that
exhibited a 4-foot vertical offset. The north-south oriented residence,
a single-story, wood-frame construction, was set on a concrete slab
foundation. The house, anchored to the foundation with bolts, was
heaved off the foundation to the west about five feet.

World Seismicity
Northridge, California
January 17, 1994
M 6.8
57 deaths
9,000 injuries
$10 billion damage
Punching shear
failure was observed
on the Bullocks
Department Store.
One column remains
standing and the
groove on the The failure of I-10 (Santa Monica Freeway)
column shows where at Venice Boulevard in Culver City. In the
the second story westbound structure shear cracking,
would have been. compressive crushing of the concrete and
bar buckling occurred.
Collapsed parking
structure at
California State
University in
Northridge. These
are reinforced
concrete columns.
The inside of the
structure settled,
and the outside
fell toward the
inside.
Damage to upper floors of unreinforced

masonry apartments in Santa Monica.

World Seismicity
The main building of the
elementary school in
Shikotan, Kuril Islands Krabosavodskoe, Shikotan
October 4, 1994 Island, damaged by the
M 8.1 October 4, 1994,
140 deaths earthquake. The basement
340 injuries of the building was put
down on weak rocks lying
on a slightly inclined
surface. This resulted in its
cut off and movement
away from the walls during
seismic shaking.
A huge ground crack near Krabosavodskoe, Shikotan Island,

At the top of the hill, the main scarp turns to the east and
formed during the October 4, 1994, earthquake. The initial
comes out to the shore precipice at approximately 80 m
depth of the crack was 30 meters. However, it quickly filled
high. The maximum opening of the scarp is about 20-30
up with gravel and larger pieces of rock as a result of shaking
m. Its initial depth was about 15 to 20 m. A few days later
from aftershocks.
it was partially filled with gravel.

World Seismicity
A completely
destroyed apartment
Kobe, Japan complex. Most of the
January 16, 1995 1.5 million residents
M 6.9 of Kobe were asleep
5,480 deaths at the time of the
300,000 homeless quake. If the
120 billion $ damage earthquake had
occurred during the
work day instead of at
5:46 A.M., the death
toll would have been
more than 50,000.
An office building with a partially destroyed first floor. The

majority of partial or complete collapses were in the older,
reinforced concrete buildings built before 1975. However, A totally collapsed Buddhist temple in downtown Kobe. The
significant non-structural damage was also observed for buildings building of newer construction next to this temple had only
of relatively recent steel or composite construction. minimal damage.

World Seismicity

World Seismicity
Aluminum dinghy at
Nimas, the
Papua New Guinea easternmost of the
July 17, 1998 Sissano group of
Ms 7.1 villages. The dinghy
2,182 deaths moved westward when
1,000 injuries the water that had
displacing more than 10,000 people accumulated in
Sissano Lagoon
returned to the sea.
A two-story wooden school building that stood near the church at The village of Teles, between Malol and Aitape, was on the
Sissano Mission was carried 65 m by the wave until caught by a outer edge of the wave.
grove of coconut palms. The lower floor of the building collapsed,
but the upper floor class rooms were preserved.

World Seismicity
Collapsed Colegio Rufin
El Quindio, Colombia school in the Berlin
January 25, 1999
neighborhood of Armenia:
M 6.1
this school building was about
1230 deaths
75 years old
50,000 injuries
200,000 homeless
1.9 billion $ damage
Typical damage to infilled walls of a structure in the Berlin

neighborhood of Armenia
Barcelona church's delicate spire remains after

much of the rest of the structure failed

World Seismicity
In Halidere, all of the
Izmit, Turkey boats normally on the
August 17, 1999 beaches floated 30-50
Mw 7.4 meters up the streets.
17,000 to 35,000 deaths The measured runup
200 million $ damage here was between one
and two meters.
A collapsed first floor

at the Kolayli
summer resort. Note
the clothesline on the
third floor balcony.
A mosque stood
with afew other
structures amid
the rubble of
collapsed buildings
in Golcuk.
There were no casualties in this building because it was

not yet occupied when the earthquake occurred. The
building was a seven-story reinforced concrete frame
structure with hollow-brick infill.

World Seismicity

World Seismicity
Chi-Chi, Taiwan
September 20, 1999
Mw 7.6
2,415 deaths
1,441 injuries
600,000 homeless
9.2 billion $ damage
Partially collapsed
15-story high-rise
building. Building
was constructed of
reinforced concrete
with infill brick
partitions. There was
beam column joint
failure at the façade
and the first floor
collapsed in the right One to six meters in height fault scarp in the rice field
section of the
building
One of the
spectacular vertical
offsets along the
fault has formed a
new waterfall with
an 8-meter vertical
fault offset in the
Tachia River.
Tilted building: structural support on one side of the

building failed

World Seismicity
In Kaynasli, the apartment
building on the left
collapsed completely, and
Duzce, Turkey the one on the right failed
November 12, 1999 laterally, causing it to
M 7.2 slide into the building in
260 deaths the center. The columns
1,282 injured punched through the roof
102 buildings destroyed in the building on the left.
A red X indicates buildings
to be destroyed. The fault
trace passed through this
area.
Collapsed building in Duzce. Note the failed beam/column

connections in the foreground, the unbroken pane of glass in the
window frame on the ground, and the building that still stands in
Many partial collapses of structures occurred due to a soft lower
the background
story collapse on only one side of the building.

Plate Tectonics
In 1965 when Tuzo Wilson introduced the term plate for the broken pieces of the
Earth's lithosphere. In 1967, Jason Morgan proposed that the Earth's surface consists
of 12 rigid plates that move relative to each other. Two months later, Xavier Le Pichon
published a synthesis showing the location and type of plate boundaries and their
direction of movement.
Earthquakes Occur due
to Plate Tectonics:
Earthquakes primarily
occur at the interface
between rigid plates on
the earth’s surface, as
there is relative
motions between these
rigid plates (relative
motion caused by
convection currents in
the earth’s mantle)

Plate Tectonics
 The Earth as we see it today was not always like it is now. Land masses
have pulled apart and joined together by the process we call Plate
Tectonics.
 The Earth’s crust is divided into different plates which are moved in
various directions.
 This plate motion causes them to collide, pull apart, or scrape against
each other.
 Each type of interaction causes a characteristic set of Earth structures or

“tectonic” features.
 The word, tectonic, refers to the deformation of the crust as a

consequence of plate interaction.

Plate Tectonics
The distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain ranges define 7
large plates and 20 smaller plates.
Major plates
 African Plate
 Eurasian Plate
 Australian Plate
 Antarctic Plate
 Pacific Plate
 North American Plate
 South American Plate

Plate Tectonics
Hypotheses: Earth's Convection Cells
(1)
(2) (3)

Plate Tectonics
Plate Boundaries:
There are four types of plate boundaries:
1.Divergent boundaries
Where new crust is generated as the plates pull away from each other.
2.Convergent boundaries
Where crust is destroyed as one plate dives under another.
3.Transform boundaries
Where crust is neither produced nor destroyed as the plates slide
horizontally past each other.
4.Plate boundary zones
Broad belts in which boundaries are not well defined and the effects of plate
interaction are unclear.

Plate Tectonics
Plate Boundaries:

Plate Tectonics
Plate Boundaries:
Divergent boundary of two continental plates.

Creates a Rift Valley. Example: East African Rift.

Plate Tectonics
Plate Boundaries:
Convergent boundary of two oceanic plates.

Creates an Island arch and a trench. Example: Japan

Plate Tectonics
Plate Boundaries:
Convergent boundary of an oceanic plate and a

continental plate.
Forms a volcanic mountain range and a trench.
Examples: Mt. Andes

Plate Tectonics
Plate Boundaries:
Convergent boundary of two continental plates.

Forms a folded mountain range.
Examples: Himalayas, Alps
Plate Tectonics
Plate Boundaries (Summary):
Convergent (destructive) Transform (conservative)
Divergent (creative) Subduction Zones Transform Faults
Ridges
Plates move away from each Plates move towards each

Plates slide past each other
other other
Morphological expression: Morphological Expression: Morphological Expression:

Mid Ocean Ridges Trenches Faults
Tectonic Activity:
Tectonic Activity: Tectonic Activity:
Volcanism (andesitic);
Volcanism (basaltic) No Volcanism
Arc of volcanoes
Shallow Earthquakes Shallow Earthquakes
Shallow to Deep
(normal) (strike slip)
Earthquakes (reverse)
Leads to Collision
Leads to Continental Drift
Leads to Mountain Building
Type of Stress: Types of Stress: Type of Stress:

Tensional Compressional Shear

Plate Tectonics
Plate Tectonics = Continental Drift + Sea-floor Spreading
Continental Drift Sea-floor Spreading
PERMIAN TRIASSIC
225 million yrs 200 million yrs
ago ago
Jurassic Cretaceous
135 million yrs 65 million yrs
ago ago
PRESENT
DAY

Plate Tectonics
Continental Drift:
• Evolution from the beginning to now.
Continental Drift Hypothesis

PERMIAN TRIASSIC
225 million yrs ago 200 million yrs ago
• Theory proposed by Alfred Wegener
in 1912 mainly on geological and
paleo-climatological evidence.
• Continents "drifted" to present

positions.
Jurassic Cretaceous
135 million yrs ago 65 million yrs ago
• Evidence used in support of
continental drift hypothesis:
 Fit of continents
 Fossil evidence
 Rock type and mountain belts
 Paleoclimatic evidence PRESENT DAY

Plate Tectonics
Continental Drift Evidence:
Tight fit of the continents,

especially using continental
shelves.

Plate Tectonics
Fossil critters and plants.

Plate Tectonics
Correlation of mountains with nearly

identical rocks and structures.

Plate Tectonics
Glacial features of the same age

restore to a tight polar
distribution.

Plate Tectonics
The main remark to Wegener Hypothysis was the lack of a mechanism for
moving continents.

Plate Tectonics
Sea-floor Spreading:
 Harry Hess in 1962 proposed that new ocean floor is

formed at the rift of mid-ocean ridges.
 Seafloor spreading occurs along relatively narrow

zones, called rift zones, located at the crests of ocean
ridges.
 As plates are pulled apart, magma moves into

fractures and makes new oceanic lithosphere.
 New lithosphere moves from the ridge crest in a

conveyor-belt fashion.
 Newly created crust at the ridge is elevated because it

is hot and therefore occupies more volume than the
cooler rocks of the deep-ocean basin.
 Area also seems to be pushed up by mantle upwelling.

Plate Tectonics
Sea-floor spreading involves subduction zones and hot spots.
Subduction Zones
 When an oceanic plate and a continental
plate converge, the denser oceanic plate
subducts underneath continental plate thus
forming what is called Subduction Zone.
Hot spots
 A hot spot is a location on the Earth's
surface that has experienced active
volcanism for a long period of time. Hot
spots are rising magmas from deep in the
mantle. As plates move over them, new
volcanic seamounts and islands are formed.
Eventually any subaerial parts are eroded
away, and as they move away from the hot
spot, they are submerged called Guyots.
 Their lavas are datable.

Plate Tectonics
Elastic Rebound Theory:
 As relative movement of the Plates occurs
near the plate boundary, shear stresses
increase on the fault planes the separates
the plates. As the shear stress increases, the
elastic strain energy is stored in the material.
When the shear stresses reaches the shear
strength of the rock along the fault, the rock
fails and the accumulated strained energy is
released in the form of seismic waves that
radiate outward from the fault..
 If rock is weak and ductile, stored energy is

released aseismically (no earthquake).
 If rock is strong and brittle, stored energy is

released explosively: Energy is released
partly as heat, partly as earthquake.
The End

7.engineering Seismology, Plate Tectonics-1

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LECTURE-07

Department of Civil Engineering

1. Introduction to Engineering Seismology

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 2

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 4

Ground motions are important to buildings:

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 5

5.Retaining Structure Failures

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 6

In addition to direct effects, earthquakes

Effects of a tsunami at Aonae

Landslide cause by the 1995

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 7

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 8

2011 Japan Tsunami

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 9

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 10

Niigata, Japan 1964

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 11

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 12

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 13

95% of energy released by earthquakes originates in narrow zones that

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 14

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 15

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 16

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 17

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 18

Brickwork thrown down by earthquake vibration

Subsidence of street in front of Aetna Building, San Francisco

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 19

San Francisco destruction by fire: view

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 20

Hilo was the hardest hit city in the Hawaiian Islands:

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 21

The Four Seasons Apartments in Anchorage was a six-story

Tsunami damage to the north end of Resurrection Bay near

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 22

Aerial view of the damage to the San Fernando Veterans

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 23

Total collapse at Juarez Hospital. Localized failures at the beam-

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 24

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 25

This five-story communications building in Spitak is

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 26

Aerial view looking west of part of the

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 27

Collapse of a mid-rise concrete building and damage to the

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 28

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 29

Landslides in the San Bernardino Mountains The steep slopes are

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 30

Damage to upper floors of unreinforced

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 31

A huge ground crack near Krabosavodskoe, Shikotan Island,

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 32

An office building with a partially destroyed first floor. The

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 33

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 34

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 35

Typical damage to infilled walls of a structure in the Berlin

Barcelona church's delicate spire remains after

Engg. Geology & Seismology (CE-312) 36

A collapsed first floor