ADVANCES IN I-OOD KEStARCH, VOL..

28

FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF XYLITOL

LEA HYVONEN, PEKKA KOIVISTOINEN,

Department of Food Chemistty and Technology, Uriiversig of Helsinki, Helsinki. Finland

FELIX VOIROL

Xyrofn Ltd.. Baar, Switzerland

I. Introduction . .......................... ...... 313

11. The Occurren of Xylitol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 314
A. Natural Occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 374
B. History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 375
C. Large-Scale Xylitol Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
111. Physicochemical and Food Technological Properties of Xylitol. . . . . . . . . . . 382
A. Physicochemical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
B. Food Technological Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
IV. Food Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
A. Confectionery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 392
B. Ice Cream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
c. Yogurt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ...... 396
D. Jams, Jellies, and Marmalades.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
E. Bakery Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
F. Drinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 398
V. Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
VI. Research Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

I. INTRODUCTION

The sensation of sweetness and the concept of a sweetener have undoubtedly

been meaningful and important to man throughout his entire existence. During
much of the relatively recent culinary history, i.e., the last 15CL200 years, and
indeed continuing to the present day “sweetness” and “sweetener” have for

313
Copyright 0 1982 by Academic Press, Inc
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
ISBN 0-12-016428-0
374 LEA HYVONEN ET AL

most people meant the respective taste and functional use of sucrose, which in
turn has simply been referred to as “sugar.”
The world of food science, however, is not so simple. On the one hand, there
are numerous substances which have the property of sweetness and hence have
the potential to be used as sweeteners.
On the other hand, the various potential sweeteners have many other proper-
ties in addition to sweetness which have important and varying functional charac-
teristics, both positive and negative in nature.
As knowledge about the various kinds of sweet-tasting substances has in-
creased, it has become generally recognized that there are valid roles which each
of them can play. Sweetness and the enhancement of food palatability are,
perhaps, the common denominators in the use of any sweetener in foods. The
choice of sweetener for a particular food system, however, is based on other
considerations as well. The food technologist may require bulking, preservative,
or humectant functions, or other physical and chemical properties such as sta-
bility to heat processing and storage. Most of these requirements are adequately
fulfilled by the traditional sucrose or hydrolyzed starch sweeteners.
From the nutritional and health point of view, however, there may also be
objectives such as reducing the amount of energy which the sweetening compo-
nent brings into the food system, avoidance of too rapidly absorbed carbohy-
drates, or reducing the exposure to types of food which are known to cause dental
decay, to note only a few of the more obvious considerations.
In recognition of the validity of these other requirements there has been an
intensive search in recent years for suitable alternative sweeteners. The search
has not been in vain, because there are a number of sweeteners which hold
promise in fulfilling some of the divergent special sweetening needs currently
being developed and commercialized. One of the most promising of these from
the standpoint of special dietary applications, is xylitol, particularly in the areas
of noncariogenic confections and disturbances of carbohydrate metabolism, and
from the standpoint of fulfilling many of the food technological requirements
traditionally expected of the conventional sweeteners.
The metabolic pathways of xylitol and the effects of xylitol on human metabo-
lism as well as the tolerability and toxicity of xylitol have been discussed pre-
viously in Advances in Food Research by Ylikahri (1979). The dental aspects of
xylitol have also been reviewed in this series (Makinen, 1979). The manufacture,
properties, and food applications of xylitol are discussed in this article.

II. THE OCCURRENCE AND MANUFACTURE OF XYLITOL

A. NATURAL OCCURRENCE
Xylitol occurs widely in nature. Frerejacque (1943) showed the occurrence of
xylitol in lichens, seaweed, and yeast. Kratzl and Silbernagel (1963) found
 FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF XYLITOL 375

xylitol in mushrooms (Psalliota campestris). Xylitol has been found in small

quantities in many fruits, berries, and vegetables (Table I) (Washiittl et al., 1973;
Makinen and Soderling, 1980), and is also a normal metabolic intermediate in
mammalian carbohydrate metabolism, including that of man (Hollmann and
Touster, 1956, 1957; Bassler, 1972). The normal xylitol concentration of blood
is 0.03-0.06 mg/100 ml blood.
Commercially produced xylitol is a nature-identical product similar in struc-
ture and properties to the natural substance.

B. HISTORY

Xylitol is by no means a new substance, having been first prepared as a syrup

90 years ago almost simultaneously in the laboratories of Bertrand (1891) and
Fischer and Stahel (1891). Wolfrom and Kohn (1942) succeeded in obtaining
crystalline xylitol upon hydrogenation of highly purified xylose. Carson et al.
(1943) demonstrated the existence of two crystalline forms: the stable rhombic
and the unstable monoclinic forms.
Chiang et al. (1958) reduced xylose to xylitol by Penicillium chrysogenum and
Onishi and Suzuki (1966) by yeasts. Later Onishi and Suzuki (1969) produced
xylitol from glucose via D-arabitol and D-xylulose by certain yeasts.
Since the time when xylitol was found to be a normal intermediate in carbohy-
drate metabolism (Touster, 1960) there has been an ever-increasing volume of
knowledge about its metabolic behavior in parenteral nutrition (e.g., Horecker et
al., 1969; Brian and Miller, 1974; Thomas et al., 1974; Ritzel and Brubacher,
1976; Ylikahri, 1979) as well as its use as a sweetener in diabetic diets, which
was first considered by Mellinghoff (1961).
By the end of the 1960s xylitol had drawn the attention of dental scientists as
being possibly less cariogenic than other known nutritive sweeteners.
Miihlemann and his colleagues (1970) confirmed this in the rat model. Scheinin
and Makinen and their colleagues (1 974, 1975a) found in the Turku sugar studies
that when xylitol was substituted for sucrose in the human diet the result was a
90% reduction in the incidence of new carious lesions, as well as indications of a
remineralizing effect on existing caries. Later Scheinin et al. (1975b) made a 1-
year chewing gum study, the findings of which indicated a therapeutic, caries-
inhibiting effect of xylitol even for a partial sucrose replacement in the diet.
Before 1975 the production of xylitol was centered in Italy, Germany, the
Soviet Union, Japan, and China, with the largest quantity being produced in the
Soviet Union, where xylitol is the principal nutritive sweetener used in special
dietary foods for diabetics. Total world production was estimated to be under
2000 tonslyr. In 1975 the first truly large-scale production of xylitol was begun
in Kotka, Finland, at the sucro-chemical plant of the Finnish Sugar Co. Ltd.,
Helsinki, with a capacity for producing xylitol of over 3000 tons/yr. In 1976
ownership of the Kotka plant was transferred to Xyrofin Ltd., a joint venture
 TABLE I
OCCURRENCE OF XYLITOL IN FRUITS"

Relative ripenessh

Fruit A B XylitoP

Raspberryd 1 0.030e Unripe, green, hard 7.5

(Rubus idaeus) 2 0.300 Half ripe, reddish, hard 405
3 0.420 Ripe, red 26
Strawberryd 1 0.196f Half ripe, reddish, hard 150
(Fragaria vesca) 2 0.740 Ripe, red 280
Red whortleberryd 1 0.0308 Unripe, green, hard 58
(lingonberry) 2 0.040 Unripe, green, hard I1
(Vaccinium vitis idaeu) 3 0.120 Unripe, reddish, hard 36
4 0.600 Half ripe, reddish, hard 9
5 0.740 Half ripe, reddish, hard 64
6 1.100 Ripe, red 17
Cranberryd 1 0.0128 Unripe, reddish, hard -
(Vaccinium oxycoccus, 2 0.030 Unripe, reddish, hard 37
Oxycoccus quadripetalus) 3 0. I28 Half ripe, reddish, hard 18
4 0.600 Ripe 21
B il berryd 1 0.124e Unripe, green, hard 38
(Vaccinium myrtillus) 2 0.353 Half ripe, reddish, hard 28
3 2.0 Ripe 21
Sea buckthornd 1 0.310" Unripe, slightly orange. hard 91
(Hippophae rhamnoides) 2 0.380 Unripe, orange, hard 15
3 0.400 Half ripe, orange 26
4 0.412 Ripe, orange 25
Rowan berryd I 0.030h Unripe, green, hard 160
(Sorbus aucuparia) 2 0.050 Unripe, reddish, hard I30
3 0.242 Half ripe, reddish 1 I9
4 0.410 Ripe, red 81
Bog whortlebenyd 1 0.050e Unripe, green, hard 77
(bog bilbeny) 2 0.413 Half ripe, bluish 100
(Vaccinium uliginosum) 3 1.460 Ripe, blue 34
Cloudberryd 0.250' Ripe, yellow 85
(Rubus chamaemorus)
Black curranv 1.oooe Ripe, black 70
(Ribes nigrum)
Red curranv 0.450g Ripe, red 100
(Ribes rubrum)
Apple (Malusp Unripe, green, hard 128
Apple, Yellow Cinnamon, Ripe 48
Apple, Astrakan' Ripe 67
Plums (a Romanian variety)' 0
Plums (a South African variety)' 53
Pruned 20
Bananai 93
Grapd 105
White wine (Bordeaux
Blanc-77) 35
Dubonnet (-77) 135

UReprinted from Makinen and Soderling (1980). Copyright 0 by the Institute of Food Technologists.
bRelative ripeness is given as extinctions (A) determined from sample homogenates, and by estimating the ripeness visually and observing the collection time (B).
cThe values are in micrograms per 1 g of edible portion (fresh weight).
dCrown in the wild state.
eAt 540 nm.
fAt 520 nm.
gAt 500 nm.
hAt 410 nm.
'At 370 nm.
Kultured.
378 LEA HYVONEN ET AL.

established between the Finnish Sugar Co. and F. Hoffmann-La Roche & Co.
Ltd., Basel, Switzerland.
The annual world production of sugar alcohols was about 345,000 tons in
1978, and of that amount 330,000 tons were sorbitol. The amount of xylitol and
mannitol produced was 6000 tons. The production amounts of maltitol, iso-
maltitol, galactitol, and lactitol amounted to less than 1000 tons/yr (Albert et al.,
1980).

C. LARGE-SCALE XYLITOL PRODUCTION

Production of xylitol by means of extraction from its natural sources is imprac-

tical and uneconomical because of the relatively small amounts in which it
occurs. Xylose, a pentose which can be hydrogenated to xylitol, is known to be
widely distributed in plant material. It does not occur in the free state in plants,
but is usually in the form of xylan, a polysaccharide composed of D-xylose units,
which occur in association with cellulose. Xylose is also found as part of glyco-
sides (Spalt et al., 1973).
Despite its wide occurrence in nature, xylose is difficult to produce commer-
cially because of the problems encountered in separating it, particularly from
other carbohydrates such as glucose. However, the fact that xylan is more easily
hydrolyzed than cellulose provides the technical possibility for xylose extraction
and xylitol production. Accordingly, the recovery of xylose from plant materials
and its subsequent hydrogenation is the basic principle of xylitol production
(Fig. 1).
Plant materials which contain a suitable amount of xylans to be used in this
process include hardwoods such as birch and beech, oat and cottonseed hulls,
corn (maize) cobs, sugar cane bagasse, straw, and various nut shells. The xylan
or xylose content of such materials is 2&30% of the dry substance.
The choice of raw materials for the manufacture of pure xylitol is important.
Most of the alternatives are bulky and of low density. Optimally, therefore, the
raw material for large-scale production should be one which is centrally available
in large quantities and of relatively high xylan content. In some of the existing
processes agricultural by-products are being utilized, e.g., almond shells in Italy
and apparently rice and cotton seed hulls, respectively, in China and the Soviet
Union. The large Finnish production is based on birchwood chips, whereas other
hardwood chips have been utilized in Germany. Xylan-containing sulfite waste
from the paper and pulp industries has been proposed as a more economical
alternative to hardwoods. Production in the United States will probably be based
on corn cobs. All of these raw materials contain relatively small amounts of
polymers of other sugars such as glucose, mannose, arabinose, and galactose in
their hemicelluloses. The hydrolyzates require extensive purifications and sepa-
rations to remove these sugars from xylose and xylitol. Nevertheless, it is possi-
ble to recover about 50-60% of the xylans as xylitol.
 CHO CH20H
I I
H-C-OH H-C-OH
Hydrolysis I Hydrogenation I
HO-C-H HO-C-H
H20 I H2 I
t acid H-C-OH +catalyst H-C-OH
I I
CH20H CH20H

D - Xylose Xylitol

C5H1005 12’5

FIG. 1. Principle of xylitol production.

H y d r o l y s i s o f pentasan-
containinq r a w m a t e r i a l s

p e n t o s e sugar
material

Ion exclusion

r--------I
I
I Final
I purification and
I c o l o r removal

I
I purified pentase solution

Hydrogenation

I polyol s o l u t i o n

Fractionation and

1_ _ _ _ _ _ _
molasses crystallization crystallization molasses
I

+
J
4
XYLOSE XYLlTOL
FIG. 2. Production of xylitol aild xylose
380 LEA HYVONEN ET AL.

The main steps in the xylitol production process are illustrated in Fig. 2 and
described in detail below.

I. Hydrolysis

In mass production plant material is treated with a dilute acidic solution under
heat and pressure to hydrolyze the hemicelluloses and to precipitate the lignins.
The monomeric sugars dissolve in the reaction media together with other soluble
products. Fortunately, the cellulose is not attacked, otherwise the xylose would
be contaminated with large amounts of glucose which would be troublesome and
costly to separate. The simultaneous occurrence of undesired side reactions and
the considerable nonspecificity are the restrictions of acid hydrolysis.
Von Puls et al. (1978) have described the use of immobilized xylanolytic
enzymes in the total hydrolysis of xylans. An enzymatic hydrolysis would be a
more subtile method without chemicals, high temperatures, and high pressures,
but the specificity of xylanases may disturb hydrolysis and therefore a number of
different xylanases are required to complete hydrolysis. However, enzyme hy-
drolysis has not yet been used in mass production.

2. Xylose Purification

In the next phase of the process the hydrolysate is processed via a series of
complicated purification steps to remove the undesirable by-products. These
substances originally comprised part of the hemicelluloses and were solubilized
during the hydrolysis. Two basic routes have been reported for the desired
purification. These differ in whether or not xylose is isolated as such.
a. Isolation ofXylose. A patented process obtaining xylose from vegetable
matter uses oxalic acid treatment (Steinert and Lindlar, 1970). Relatively pure
crystalline xylose is produced from the hydrolysate by successive operations of
ion exchange, decolorization, and crystallization from methanol (Jaffe et al.,
1974). In an alternate process xylose is isolated from impurities with alcohol
precipitation and crystallized from an aqueous concentrate diluted with acetic
acid (Spalt et al., 1973).
The pentose-rich solution obtained by acid hydrolysis is purified by mechan-
ical filtration and ion-exclusion techniques for color removal and desalting. This
solution is then subjected to chromatographic fractionation to obtain a highly
purified solution of xylose (Melaja and Hamalainen, 1977).
b. Nonisolation of Xylose. In this approach the hydrolysate is treated in a
series of ion-exchange exclusion and decolorization processes to remove all by-
products except the carbohydrates from the main xylose stream. The mixed
xylose and other carbohydrates contained in the solution are in a high state of
chemical purity (Melaja and Hamalainen, 1977).
 FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF XYLITOL 38 1

3 . Hydrogenation

For the conversion to xylitol the isolated xylose dissolved in water or the
mixed xylose-carbohydrate solution is hydrogenated at temperatures ranging
from 80 to 140°C and hydrogen pressures up to 50 atm, in the presence of a metal
catalyst. With the nonisolated xylose stream, all other sugars present are also
hydrogenated to their respective polyols (Wisniak et al., 1974). Some 80% of the
world production of sugar alcohols is manufactured in batch suspension pro-
cesses using Raney nickel catalysts (Albert et al., 1980).

4. Xylitol Purification

After removal of the catalyst by filtration and ion exchange the hydrogenated
solutions are further processed to obtain xylitol by purification, concentration,
and crystallization. In the isolated xylose route, decolorization and crystalliza-
tion from either alcoholic solvents or aqueous solutions have been used for the
isolation of pure crystalline xylitol (Jaffe et al., 1974; Melaja and Hamalainen,
1977).
Puritied pentose solution

From
isolated
xylose

I
L-- 1 Xyli tol-rich
fraction

Xylltol Crystallization

Recycle of
xyli tol-rich
fraction

X Y l l to1
solution fractionation

+
Mixed
polyols
FIG. 3. Chromatographic fractionation and crystallization of xylitol.
382 LEA HYVONEN ET AL

2 6 10 1L lk 22 26
FRACTIONS 18-30
3L 38
T l M E x 10 min

FIG. 4. Distribution of xylitol and other polyols in ion-exchange chromatography. From Melaja
and Hamalainen (1977). (1) Arabinitol, (2) xylitol, (3) rnannitol, (4) galactitol, ( 5 ) sorbitol, ( 6 )
unhydrogenated sugars and unknown impurities. Cationic resin: Ca2+ form; bed: 350 cm, 4 22.5
cm; temperature, 49°C; feed, 17 litersihr.

With the nonisolated xylose, the separation of nonxylitol polyols must be

made before xylitol crystallization (Fig. 3 ) . This purification has been effectively
carried out by ion-exchange chromatographic fractionation with cationic ex-
change resins (Fig. 4). Pure xylitol is then crystallized from aqueous solutions
separated in the fractionation (Melaja and Hamalainen, 1977).

Ill. PHYSICOCHEMICAL AND FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL

PROPERTIES OF XYLITOL

A. PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES

I. Structure of Xylitol

Xylitol is a pentahydric sugar alcohol, or pentitol with the empirical formula

C,H,,O, and MW of 152.15. Xylitol is a meso compound completely lacking in
optical activity in solution. Its structure is indicated in Fig. 5 .

2. Crystdlization

a. Bimorphism and Melting Point. Wdfrom and Kohn (1942) reported the
first successful attempt at crystallization. They obtained hygroscopic crystals,
 FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF XYLITOL 383

CHZOH
I
H-C-OH
I
HO-C-H
I
H-C-OH
I
CHZOH

FIG. 5. The structure of xylitol.

melting at 61°C. Carson et al. (1943), when repeating the former experiment,
produced a new form of crystals melting at 93-94.S"C. By seeding with the low-
or high-melting material they were able to grow either form. No melting point
depression was shown in a mixture of both, but the low-melting form changed
into the high-melting form after a few days. The stable form melting at 94°C was
found to be orthorhombic, whereas the metastable form melting at 61°C was
monoclinic. Apparently the monoclinic form is very elusive, since Kim and
Jeffrey (1969), among others, were unable to crystallize the monoclinic form.
Instead Kim and Jeffrey (1969) obtained two different morphologies of the
orthorhombic form.
This behavior is reminiscent of that observed with D-mannitol, in which poly-
morphism has been reported, but it is difficult to reproduce the crystals (Berman
et al., 1968; Kim et al., 1968). All xylitol produced by industrial processes,
microbiologically or chemically, is in the orthorhombic form with a melting
point of 94°C.
b. Supercooled Melts. One of the outstanding properties of xylitol is its
capability to form metastable melts under certain conditions. The phenomenon is
known for a number of organic and inorganic substances. When completely
melted and subsequently cooled to ambient temperature in a closed container,
xylitol will remain in the molten state. The melt is colorless, clear, and of a
honey-like viscosity. In addition to seeding with xylitol microcrystals, crystal-
lization can be triggered by ultrasonic cavitation or by scratching the container's
inner surface (Voirol, 1979).
Contaminants, such as dust, soil, iron powder, or sodium chloride, added to
the crystals before melting did not influence the metastability of the melt. How-
ever, 10% sorbitol or 5% mannitol will cause crystallization of the mixture after
1 hr or S min, respectively (Voirol, 1979).
Xylitol melt at 20°C in an open container will crystallize within a few hours
wherever dust particles have fallen. A sample of open melt kept for 6 weeks in a
low-dust atmosphere did not crystallize, confirming the role of dust in initiating
crystallization at the surface. Supercooled melts can be kept stable in closed
aluminum tubes, sealed plastic bags, and rubber-stoppered glass flasks (Voirol,
1979).
384 LEA HYVONEN ET AL

3 . Boiling Point

In contrast to sugars (sucrose, glucose, and fructose), xylitol has a distinct

boiling point below decomposition. It will show only slight discoloration when
boiled at a constant temperature of 216°C under atmospheric pressure (Kracher,
1975a).

4. Specific Heat

The specific heat of liquid xylitol between the melting point and 25°C is 167.9
J/g (40.1 cal/g) as determined by differential thermoanalysis (Schildknecht, per-
sonal communication). The heat required to bring crystalline xylitol from room
temperature to the melting point (AHs),the heat required for melting (AH,), the
heat liberated by supercooling back to room temperature (AH,), and the subse-
quent heat of crystallization (AH,) represent a cyclic process (Fig. 6) in which
the energy balance is zero
AH, + AHm + AH,+ AHc = 0
I I I

AH, .
257.7 J l g

AH,
(-189.2 J l g )
100 -

A HS
99 L Jlgl
-

25 50 75 93 T('C)
Room Temperature Melting Temperature
FIG. 6 . Heat capacity of xylitol ( A H = 0 at 25°C). H,, heat capacity of the solid phase; H,, heat
of melting; H,, specific heat of the liquid phase; H,, heat of crystallization. From J. Schildknecht
(personal communication).
 FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL EVALUATION O F XYLITOL 385

Calorimetric measurements of crystallization heat have shown 189.2 J/g (45.3

cal/g) to be available in supercooled melts. It is difficult to find a substance
capable of forming metastable melts with a higher heat of crystallization (Voirol,
1979).

5. Solubility

The solubility of xylitol is the same as that of sucrose (68 g/lOO g solution) at
30°C. Below that temperature it is less, above it is more soluble than sucrose
(Ape1 and Rossler, 1959; Manz et al., 1973; Virtanen, 1973). The increase of
xylitol solubility with increasing temperature is significantly greater than that of
sucrose solubility (Fig. 7). Xylitol is only slightly soluble in alcohol: 1.2 g/100 g
solution of 96% ethanol, and 6.0 g/lOO g of 96% methanol (Kracher, 1975a).

6. Heat of Solution

Another remarkable characteristic of xylitol is its endothermic dissolution.

The heat required to dissolve 1 g of this pentitol is the highest of known sugars or
sugar alcohols (Mangold, personal communication). The heats of solution of the
common alternative sweeteners are as follows:
sucrose: 18.1 Jig (4.34 calig),
dextrose: 59.4 Jig (14.2 calig),
sorbitol: 97.0 J/g (23.2 calig),
xylitol: 153.0 Jig (36.6 calig).

In food use this means that the consumption of xylitol in crystalline form results
in an actual cooling of the saliva. This property lends a true cooling effect to

-
I I,

10 20 30 LO 50 60 70
TEMPERATURE ('C)
FIG. 7. Solubility in water of xylitol and sucrose. Data from Virtanen (1973) and Schneider et al.
(1968).
386 LEA HYVONEN ET AL.

foods containing solid xylitol. The cooling effect is desirable in some foods,
often proclaimed and even patented (Hammond and Streckfus, 1975).
Ten percent xylitol reduces the temperature of an aqueous solution by 3"C,
whereas the preparation of a 50% xylitol syrup reduces the temperature by 12°C
(Voirol, 1980).

7. Viscosity

The viscosity of sugars and sugar alcohols depends on many factors: solids
concentration in solution, molecular weight, temperature, and composition of
solids (von Graefe, 1975). Consequently, the viscosity of a xylitol solution is,
for instance, significantly lower than that of the sugar alcohol or sugar of a higher
molecular weight (Fig. 8). The viscosity of a saturated xylitol solution is signifi-
cantly lower than that of sucrose, for instance.
The viscosities of sugar solutions as well as that of the xylitol solution de-
creases with increasing temperature (Fig. 9). The temperature dependence of
viscosity for a saturated aqueous xylitol solution shown by H. E. Keller (un-
published) is presented in Table 11.

10 20 30 LO 50 60
% SOLIDS(WIWI
FIG. 8. Viscosity of sweetener solutions at 20°C. ( I ) DE 42 glucose syrup, (2) sucrose, ( 3 )
fructose, (4) xylitol. From Nicol (1980).
 FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF XYLITOL 387

10 000

- I000
-a>
0

k
v)
0
0
? 100

0 LO 80 'c
TEMPERATURE r C )
FIG. 9. Viscosity of some carbohydrate sweeteners at different temperatures. Glucose syrup DE
40, 78 wt. %; glucose syrup DE 60, 77 wt. %; isoglucose, 70 wt. %; fructose solution, 70 wt. %;
xylitol solution, 70 wt. %. From von Hertzen and Lindqvist (1980).

8. Density

Figure 10 shows the lower density of aqueous xylitol solutions as a function of

concentration in comparison with solutions of sorbitol and sucrose.
The density of a supercooled melt at 20°C was determined to be 1.42 and that
of xylitol crystals 1.49, indicating an approximate contraction of 4.7% at the
point of crystallization (Voirol, 1980).

9. Hygroscopicity

Sorption isotherms show that an equilibrium moisture content of xylitol is low

at relative air humidities lower than 80%, after which the moisture adsorption

TABLE I1
TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF VISCOSITY FOR A SATURATED AQUEOUS
XYLITOL SOLUTIONa

Temperature Viscosity
("C) (CP)

20 37
40 15
60 7
70 5
80 4

aFrom H . E. Keller (unpublished).

388 LEA HYVONEN ET AL

""
xylitol
sorbitol

LO

20 -

1,000 1.100 1.200 1.300

DENSITY (g/rnl)
FIG. 10. Densities of xylitol, sorbitol, and sucrose solutions as a function of concentration. Data
from Hirschmuller (1953) and G. Pongracz (personal communication).

increases sharply (von Schiweck, 1971; Kammerer, 1972). Fructose, sorbitol,

and corn starch are distinctly more hygroscopic than xylitol at relative air humid-
ities between 60 and 80% (Fig. 11).
There is hardly any difference between the behavior of crystalline and
powdered xylitol during storage. Both show an increasing tendency to pick up
moisture above 70% relative air humidity. Below 60% relative air humidity they
behave similarly to sucrose and powdered sugar (W. J. Mergens, personal
communication).
Table I11 shows the relative hygroscopicity of sucrose and three sugar alcohols
at a high relative air humidity and room temperature. Sorbitol is the most hygro-
scopic and sucrose the least hygroscopic in these conditions. The moisture pick-
up of mannitol increases only slightly, whereas that of xylitol clearly increases
with time (W. J. Mergens, personal communication).

!Nl&&zzdY
fructose

corn s t a r c h
20 20 LO 60 80 100

RELATIVE HUMIDITY (%)

FIG. 11. Adsorption isotherms for crystalline carbohydrates. From Kammerer (1972). Reproduced
with permission from Kakao and Zucker.
 FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF XYLITOL 389

TABLE 111
MOISTURE PICKUP OF GRANULAR MATERIAL DURING STORAGE AT 84% RELATIVE
HUMIDITY AND 20"Ca

Days Sucrose Mannitol Sorbitol Xylitol

1 0.03 0.51 1.89 0.05

2 0.05 0.60 3.20 0.08
3 0.05 0.59 4.45 0.14
4 0.04 0.58 5.53 0.13
9 0.07 0.66 10.53 0.33
11 0.08 0.65 - 0.68
18 0.08 0.67 15.90 1.10
65 0.04 0.67 29.00 13.89

aFrom W. J. Mergens (personal communication).

B. FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES

1. Caloric Value

Calorimetric determinations have shown xylitol to be isocaloric with most

carbohydrates. Its combustion value is 16.7 kJ/g (4.06 kcal/g).

2. Browning Reactions

Due to the absence of aldo or keto groups, xylitol does not take part in
browning reactions of the Maillard type. This may be regarded as an advantage
or a disadvantage when contemplating its use as a food ingredient.
No color formation or sweetness reduction was noted in an aqueous xy-
litol-aspartame solution (27.17 g xylitol + 0.6467 g aspartame/l000 ml) after
sterilization (20 min at 121"C), whereas the sweetness of fructose-aspartame
+
solution (34.3 g fructose 0.5571 g aspartame/l000 ml) was noticeably reduced
after sterilization. The color of the solution was yellow and had a honey-like
flavor, probably due to the Maillard reaction (Hyvonen, 1981).
Xylitol even does not caramelize at elevated temperatures (Kammerer, 1971).
A slight yellow color formed when heated over 150°C is thought to be due to
small amounts of aldose impurities in xylitol (Kracher, 1975a).

3 . Fermentation

Most microorganisms are incapable of utilizing xylitol. It has been shown that
xylitol is not fermentable by cariogenic oral microorganisms (Gehring et a l . ,
1974; Lamas et a l . , 1974). The common baking yeast Saccharomyces cere-
390 LEA HYVONEN ET AL.

visiae cannot ferment xylitol either. The buns sweetened with xylitol did not rise
and even the fermentation of sucrose in the buns, where xylitol was also used,
was retarded (Varo et al., 1979; Hyvonen and Espo, 1981b).
Salminen and Branen (1978) noted a prolonged fermentation time in pre-
sweetened xylitol yogurt. A lower acid production was also noted in xylitol-
sweetened yogurt than in sucrose-sweetened yogurt by Hyvonen and Slotte
(1981).

4 . Sweetness

a. Chemical Basis. Xylitol, a meso-pentitol, has little structural similarity

to sucrose, but they have been reported to taste almost equally swket on a weight
basis (Gutschmidt and Ordynsky, 1961; Yamaguchi et al., 1970a; Hyvonen et
al., 1977).
Qualitatively the sweetness of xylitol tended to fall near that of fructose and
glucose in a three-dimensional space by a multidimensional scaling procedure
(Schiffman et al., 1979).
In assessing the sweetness of several pentitols, Lindley et al. (1976) found that
xylitol was much sweeter than the stereoisomers, L-( -)-arabitol and ribitol. On
the basis of molecular models the oxygen-oxygen distances between all four
pairs of oxygen atoms of xylitol in a planar “zigzag” conformation is 2.9-3.0
A, which is ideal for eliciting sweetness according to the AH, B theory (Shallen-
berger and Acree, 1967). A strong IR absorption peak at 3440 cm- suggests
that the nonbonded hydroxyl groups must cause the intense sweetness of xylitol,
whereas the intramolecular hydrogen bonding reduces the sweetness of ribitol
and arabitol (Lindley et al., 1976).
b. Relative Sweetness. Relative sweetness of a sweet-tasting compound is
determined as the relation of the concentrations needed to evoke the same sweet-
ness perception. Sucrose has mainly been used as the reference. The relative
sweetness is dependent on concentration. The relative sweetness of xylitol was
found to increase from 86 to 115 as concentration increased from 1 to 20%
(Gutschmidt and Ordynsky, 1961). According to Yamaguchi et al. (1970a), the
change was from 96 to 118, when concentration increased from 2.5 to 30%.
According to Hyvonen et al. (1977), the relative sweetness values of xylitol
solutions tasted at room temperature varied from 103 to 115 as compared to
5-20% sucrose references.
The sweetness of xylitol was thought to be largely invariant with temperature,
since as a sugar alcohol it does not undergo mutarotation in solution (Fratzke and
Reilly, 1977). However, this proved incorrect. The relative sweetness of xylitol
decreased significantly, for instance, from 103 to 78, when a 5% sucrose refer-
ence was used and when the temperature changed from 5 to 50°C (Hyvonen et
al., 1977).
 FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF XYLITOL 39 1

In general the relative sweetness of xylitol was noted to be slightly reduced in

acid solutions (Hyvonen et al., 1978a). In 0.0175% o-phosphoric acid solution
the relative sweetness of xylitol was exceptional. This acid caused a significant
reduction (from 103 to 97) in the sweetness of xylitol at refrigerator temperature,
and at hot drink temperature the sweetness was significantly higher in the phos-
phoric acid solution (87) than in the corresponding water solution (80) (Table
IV) .
c . Synergistic Effects in Xylitol-Containing Mixtures. Synergism is in-
ferred when the sweetness of a mixture of sweeteners is greater than the sum of
the sweetnesses of its components. Synergistic effects have been noted especially
in the mixtures of sweeteners with greatly diverging chemical structures and
dissimilar relative sweetnesses.
Weickmann et al. (1969) suggested that synergism is at its maximum when the
components of a mixture contribute about the same amount to the sweetness of a
mixture, which applies to xylitol-saccharin mixtures also. Yamaguchi et al.
(1970b) also reported synergistic interrelationships in xylitol-saccharin and xy-
litol-cyclamate mixtures.
TABLE IV
RELATIVE SWEETNESS OF XYLITOL IN WATER AND ACID SOLUTIONS”
~~

Temperature Acid ( W ) Relative sweetness

6 t 2°C No acid 103 t 3

Citric acid (0.01) 100 2 1
Citric acid (0.05) 102 t 5
Malic acid (0.007) 105 t 2
Malic acid (0.035) 102 t 2
Phosphoric acid (0.0035) 104 t 1
Phosphoric acid (0.0175) 97 t I ”
23 t 2°C No acid 103 t 2
Citric acid (0.01) 102 2 1
Citric acid (0.05) 101 2 3
Malic acid (0.007) 102 t 1
Malic acid (0.035) 102 t 1
Phosphoric acid (0.0035) 103 t 1
Phosphoric acid (0.0175) 99 2 2
50 2 3°C No acid 80 2 2
Citric acid (0.01) 79 ? 4
Citric acid (0.05) 77 2 2
Malic acid (0.007) 79 2 3
Malic acid (0.035) 78 2 2
Phosphoric acid (0.0035) 77 2 4
Phosphoric acid (0.0175) 87 2 1c

aFrom Hyvonen e t a / . (1978a). Copyright 0 by Forster Publishing, Inc.

bDifference significant by t-test at 10% risk level.
<Difference significant by t-test at 0.1% risk level.
392 LEA HYVONEN ET AL

About 5&60% of extra sweetness was noted in aqueous xylitol-saccharin

solutions at the predicted isosweetness with a 5% sucrose solution (Hyvonen et
al., 1978b). In the corresponding xylitol-cyclamate mixture the degree of syner-
gism was 6&66% at the maximum. At the higher sweetness level, at the pre-
dicted isosweetness with a 10% sucrose solution, the degree of synergism in the
xylitol-cyclamate mixture was still greater, as high as 7 6 9 8 % in the most ideal
combination at each of the temperatures 8, 25, and 50°C (Sipila, 1977; Hyvonen
and Sipila, 1977). In xylitol-aspartame mixtures the synergism noted was 77% at
maximum (Hyvonen, 1981).
Enhanceh sweetness of the sweetener mixtures could be used advantageously
in reducing the energy content of sweetened drinks such as coffee, tea, juice, and
soft drinks. Conventional sweetness levels with 50-70% less calories could be
achieved without the deterioration of other taste qualities (Hyvonen and Sipila,
1977; Hyvonen, et al., 1978b).

IV. FOOD APPLICATIONS

A. CONFECTIONERY

Not all confections can be made using xylitol as the only sweetener. There are
problems in all those sweet preparations which require crystallization inhibitor.
Many standard formulations call for both sucrose and glucose syrup in specified
proportions. Due to crystallization properties, it is not possible to make fondant
creams, chews, toffees, and transparent hard candies with xylitol alone.
Glucose should not be used as a crystallization inhibitor in xylitol confection-
ery because its cariogenicity would preclude the product’s primary intended use.

1. Chewing Gum

Chewing gum is a cariogenic product, since through constant release of sugar

during chewing the time of contact with the teeth is quite long and intensive.
In normal chewing gum glucose syrup acts as a softener. It has been shown by
Kracher (1975b) that a pure xylitol gum can be made by replacing glucose with
gum arabic solution. The use of gum arabic has been found necessary because
xylitol solutions have insufficient viscosity, which would otherwise appreciably
lengthen the mixing times. The kneading operation also can be controlled with an
aqueous xylitol solution or with glycerol (Voirol, 1978).
Gums made of pure xylitol and others made of polyol mixtures are on the
market in a number of countries. The forms manufactured include laminated
“sticks,” extruded bubble gum-type blocks, and coated gums.
One of the first xylitol-containing chewing gums was given to students four to
 FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF XYLITOL 393

five times a day during 1 year in a caries study carried out by Scheinin et al.
(197%). Under a moderately cariogenic diet the regular chewing of xylitol
chewing gum was shown to be an effective means of caries prevention.
There are only a few processing steps by which xylitol gum manufacture
differs slightly from that of the normal sucrose/glucose type (Kracher, 1975b).
The xylitol used must be in the form of a powder. Particle size of the powdered
xylitol should not exceed 50 p,m. Kneading of the gum base should take place at
a temperature on average 10°C below that normally used in sucrose/glucose gum.
The unusually low melting point of xylitol entails the danger of caking. The
addition of water should be kept at a minimum to avoid hardening. Furthermore,
the “shorter” structure may require an adjustment of extruder or roller param-
eters (Voirol, 1978).

2. Hard Candy

Hard caramels (hard candy, high-boiled sweets) represent another class of

high-caries-risk confectionery. Since they are mainly consumed by children, the
substitution of sucrose by xylitol, yielding a product both noncariogenic and
acceptable in taste, would be meaningful indeed.
However, the production of hard candy using xylitol is problematic. Trials
carried out with high-boiled hard candy made exclusively with xylitol produced a
product in which crystallization had already begun during the cooling phase. The
drops became brittle (Manz et al., 1973).
The industrial manufacture of normal hard candy takes place in either of two
ways: pulling and die-cutting of a formable mass or depositing (casting into
molds). The plastic method requires the use of glucose syrup, which must be
excluded if the product is to be noncariogenic. Because no plastic phase exists in
pure xylitol, this leaves the depositing method, for which a procedure has been
developed, resulting in a pure xylitol candy. The product is hard as glass and
suckable but not transparent.
The process involves melting the xylitol, adding natural coloring agents, heat-
ing to 120°C to evaporate all water introduced with the color, cooling to slightly
below the melting point (92”C), seeding to 25% of the total weight with
powdered xylitol, adding crystalline acid and flavor, and mixing. If the mixture
is stirred constantly and thermostatically kept between 88 and 92°C in a hopper,
melt and microcrystals will coexist as do ice and water at 0°C. The viscosity of
the mass at these temperatures is sufficient to use customary nozzles and molds.
Teflon-coated aluminum molds with expeller pins give the best results. In con-
trast to sucrose/glucose deposited sweets, xylitol candies do not need long con-
veyors or cooling tunnels. Although heat is generated during crystallization, the
setting time is ;bout 1 min for a 1.3-g, lenticular-shaped deposit and 3 min for a
4-g, oval deposit (Voirol and Brugger, 1976).
394 LEA HYVONEN ET AL.

3. Toffees

Soft caramels containing milk solids can be made with xylitol. The charac-
teristic flavor forms when heating the mass to obtain Maillard-type browning
reactions between lactose and milk proteins. Xylitol does not participate in these
reactions; thus in caramels it is merely a sweetener, not a flavor precursor.
The differing properties of xylitol in relation to those of sucrose only have a
slight effect on the properties of toffee-like products. Since the proportions of the
individual raw materials (proteins, fat, polysaccharides) are not critical, appeal-
ing products are obtained by the use of xylitol. Xylitol toffees tend to have a
shorter structure, a structure similar to that which would be obtained using a low
glucose content (Kracher, 1975b).

4. Gum Drops

Chewable confectionery using gum arabic, pectin, or gelatin with xylitol as

the sweetener tends to harden during storage. Formulations have been developed
using a minimum amount of sorbitol to prevent crystallization. Storage tests have
shown that the shelf life of combination products exceeds 12 months.
Telemetric tests on humans using gum drops of this type have shown that the
plaque pH remains above the critical value during consumption, which justifies
the claim “tooth saving” according to Swiss regulations (Imfeld, 1977).

5 . Confectionery Jellies

Pectin jellies with conventional soluble solids cannot be made with xylitol.
Kracher (1975b) states that crystallization will occur if 75% xylitol is used. If the
xylitol proportion is lowered, the pectin will no longer gel. A favorable effect has
been obtained by slightly increasing the proportion of gelatin or agar-agar.

6. Compressed Tablets

Tablets can be compressed either from crystalline material or granulated xy-

litol. The Finnish market offers peppermint-flavored tablets consisting of
99.25% xylitol. The direct compression technique uses crystalline xylitol
(0.6-0.4 mm), 1.6% stearic acid, and flavor (R. Etter, personal
communication).
The main problem in the process appears to be the friability of the tablets. On a
laboratory scale good results have been obtained by sintering the tablet surface in
a hot air stream so that only the surface is melted and the core is protected.
This process approaches a “coating” procedure in which no coating pan is
 FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF XYLITOL 395

required. It is another example of new technology made possible by the proper-

ties of xylitol (low melting point). If a regular coating layer by melting and
subsequently crystallizing the surface is desired, the airflow must be laminar and
of homogenous temperature over the surface of the tablets. It will be necessary to
reverse the flow or turn the tablets over on the sieves for processing the other
side. If the initial friability of the tablets is low enough, better results are
obtained in a fluidized bed dehydrator (R. Etter, personal communication).

7. Coatings

Xylitol-only coatings have been successfully applied to centers of compressed

tablets, hard candies, and chocolate. Certain deviations from the customary
technique using sucrose/glucose must be observed.
The best results were obtained with a supersaturated (85%) aqueous xylitol
solution at 40°C panned in layers in a hot air stream (60°C). Calcium carbonate
can be used as an isolation powder, if the centers must not be visible through the
coating. Dusting is preceded and followed by application of the warm syrup (W.
Thurkauf, M. Grossmann, and K. Munzel, personal communication).
Contrary to sucrose, xylitol will not cover irregular surfaces of the centers.
Twenty percent of a 1:2 gum arabic-water solution in the coating syrup helps in
obtaining a smooth surface. The final coatings may contain pigments if desir-
able, and wax can be applied for surface polishing. The surface of the finished
dragCes is milky-opaque, and natural colors, applied with the final coating syrup,
tend to be less stable on it than on sucrose surfaces. Cross sections examined
under the microscope seem to indicate a “rougher” surface. Flavors applied in
the form of natural oils improve the surface structure. Peppermint oil, added at
0.5% in the syrup during final coatings, results in a pearl-glossy surface (Voirol,
1979, 1980).

8. Chocolate

When sucrose is replaced by xylitol in chocolate on a weight basis, some slight

changes must be made in the production process, mainly because of the lower
viscosity of the xylitol product. The viscosity may be adjusted by the use of
additives (Kracher, 1975b).
A coarse sandy texture was noted in the xylitol chocolate after storage, when
the relative humidity of the atmosphere in the manufacturing locality had exceed-
ed 85%. This may have been caused by a kind of hydrate film around the xylitol
particles (Voirol, 1978).
The concentration of xylitol in the chocolate bars sold in Finland, the Federal
Republic of Germany, and the Soviet Union ranges from 17 to 42% (Voirol,
1979).
396 LEA HYVONEN ET AL

B. ICE CREAM

In principle, sucrose can be replaced by xylitol on a weight basis in ice cream,

however, the melting properties of the product are appreciably altered. Xylitol
ice cream has a considerably softer consistency than sucrose ice cream at the
same temperatures.
Kracher (1975b) reported that no change occurred in xylitol ice cream during
storage for 6 months at -24"C, in particular, there was no recrystallization.
The melting of xylitol ice cream as well as its overall acceptance were judged
to be better than those of the sucrose reference after 3-month storage at -25°C
(Hyvonen and Torma, unpublished).

C. YOGURT

Both Salminen and Branen (1978) and Hyvonen and Slotte (1981) found 8%
xylitol to be the most preferred concentration in yogurt. Xylitol had no effect on
the pH of yogurt when added after incubation. If xylitol was added to the milk
before incubation, the pH of the xylitol-sweetened yogurt was distinctly higher
(4.4) than that of the corresponding sucrose-sweetened yogurt (4.0) (Hyvonen
and Slotte, 1981).
The post-incubation-sweetened xylitol yogurt was judged to be as good as the
sucrose reference by sensory evaluation. The flavor of the presweetened xylitol
yogurt was regarded as poorer than that of the corresponding sucrose reference,
mainly due to the lower acidity of the xylitol yogurt according to Hyvonen and
Slotte (1981), whereas Salminen and Branen (1978) reported that the lower
acidity of the xylitol yogurt was the reason for its more preferred flavor. This
could reflect differences in national taste habits.
The viscosity of the presweetened xylitol yogurt was lower than that of the
sucrose-sweetened yogurt. However, the texture of the xylitol yogurt was not
scored lower in the sensory evaluation (Hyvonen and Slotte, 1981).

D. JAMS, JELLIES, AND MARMALADES

In jams, jellies, and marmalades sugar acts as a preserving agent by its osmo-
tic pressure. Xylitol, in addition to its nonfermentability by most yeasts, molds,
and bacteria, is an effective preserving agent due to its higher osmotic pressure
even at low concentrations. For instance, a 30% xylitol solution and a 70%
sucrose solution have about the same osmotic pressure.
Sucrose also has an important role in the gelatinization of gel products. Ka-
wabata et al. (1976) studied the effect of sugars and sugar alcohols on the texture
of pectin jellies and found that in HM-pectin jellies the jelly strength of the
xylitol jelly had a pattern as a function of concentration similar to that of the
sucrose jelly (Fig. 12). In LM-pectin jellies the increase of xylitol or sorbitol
 FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF XYLITOL 397

A
55 60 65 70 75 55 60 65 70 75

Concentration of sugars (%I Concentration of sugars (%I

FIG. 12. Effect of concentration of sucrose, sorbitol, and xylitol on the hardness and adhesiveness
of the HM-pectin jelly: (0)sucrose, (0)sorbitol, (0)xylitol. From Kawabata et al. (1976).
Reproduced with permission from the Japanese Journal of Nutrition.

concentration did not change the jelly strength; when using sucrose the jelly
strength increased with increasing sucrose concentration (Fig. 13).
According to Hyvonen and Torma (1981), as well, the gelling properties of
xylitol with LM-pectin differed from those of sucrose. A calcium salt addition
was needed for gelatinization and yet the texture of the strawberry jam prepared
with xylitol was softer than the sucrose-sweetened one.
Xylitol jams and marmalades prepared for the Turku sugar studies had good
keeping qualities. The tastes and flavors of xylitol products were judged to be
better than those of the corresponding sucrose references. Better color stability
was noted in xylitol cranberry and strawberry jams than in the sucrose-sweetened
jams (Manz et al. , 1973). Good color stability of the xylitol-sweetened strawber-
ry jam was noted also in the studies of Hyvonen and Torma (1981).

10 20 30 LO 50 10 20 30 LO 50
Concentration of sugars 1%) Concentration of sugars 1%)
FIG. 13. Effect of concentration of sucrose, sorbitol, and xylitol on the hardness and adhesiveness
of the LM-pectin jelly: (0) sucrose, ( 0 )sorbitol, (0) xylitol. From Kawabata er al. (1976).
Reproduced with permission from the Japanese Journal of Nutrition.
398 LEA HYVONEN ET AL

E. BAKERY PRODUCTS

For the sake of complete replacement of sucrose by xylitol, the test subjects in
the Turku sugar studies were regularly provided with fresh bakery products. If
such products ever become of commercial interest, they would have to be weakly
cariogenic or more suitable for diabetics.
The characteristic baking flavor is the result of a series of nonenzymatic
browning reactions dependent on the presence of keto or aldo groups as in added
inverted sucrose, fructose, or glucose. With only xylitol added, this flavor pre-
cursor is missing. Nevertheless, some browning can be expected from the reduc-
ing sugars present in the flour.
In fact, xylitol proved to be a good substitute for sucrose in sugar cake. The
color and texture of the xylitol cake closely resembled those of sucrose cake.
Xylitol was also a good sweetener in this type of product (Hyvonen and Espo,
198 1a).
Xylitol cookies were brown-spotted, probably because of the poor solubility of
xylitol in the cookie dough, which contained fat. Xylitol cookies were found to
be more friable than the sucrose reference and the mouthfeel of xylitol cookies
was more finely divided than that of the sucrose cookies (Hyvonen and Espo,
198 1a).
The fact that xylitol is not fermented by Saccharomyces cerevisiae was dis-
tinctly seen when buns were sweetened with xylitol. The xylitol buns did not
rise, having small volumes, moist interiors, and dense textures (Hyvonen and
Espo, 1981b). In addition, the presence of xylitol seemed to retard the inversion
of sucrose added for the nourishment of yeast into the bun dough (Varo et al.,
1979). Consequently, xylitol is not a suitable sweetener in yeast-leavened
doughs, in addition to its unsuitability for the nourishment of yeast.

F. DRINKS

Due to its laxative effect xylitol alone is not recommended in beverages such
as soft drinks, where consumption may easily exceed the recommended single
dose intake.
Hyvonen and Sipila (1 977) used a mixture of xylitol and cyclamate to sweeten
citrus-base and cola-type soft drinks. The drinks contained 3.9% xylitol and
0.133% cyclamate. The energy content of the mixture-sweetened drinks was
60%lower than that of the isosweet sucrose reference. Using mixtures of suitable
sweeteners is one means to reduce the carbohydrate and energy content of a drink
and to produce a dietetic drink also suitable for diabetics.
Four percent xylitol proved to be a suitable amount of the sweetener in an
UHT-sterilized milk-base chocolate drink. The physical properties (viscosity,
color) of xylitol product did not significantly differ from the sucrose reference.
 FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF XYLITOL 399

The sensory properties of the xylitol drink were judged to be as good as those of
the sucrose drink, both when fresh and after 1-month storage at room tempera-
ture (L. Hyvonen and A. Espo, unpublished).

V. OUTLOOK
It is realistic to expect only a relatively small future replacement of sugar by
xylitol. Health consciousness in the industrialized countries will, however, in-
crease the demand for suitable sugar substitutes. The new alternative sweeteners
meet many requirements. They are expected to be physiological substances
(well-tolerated, natural, or nature-identical). Their sweetnesses and tastes should
be as similar to those of sucrose as possible. Diabetics should be able to consume
them when advised of their energy content, and they should not be cariogenic. In
food processing they should not pose unusual technological problems.
Xylitol fulfills most of these requirements satisfactorily, which makes it not
only a valuable alternative to sucrose and sucrose substitutes but also one of the
few new discoveries in the field of foods today.
However, the production and technological realities dictate that the price of
xylitol will never fall to the level of common sugars, which will limit its use.
Xylitol’s special characteristics, particularly its dental and metabolic aspects,
justify its higher price. Indeed, the Turku sugar studies have shown that 5-10 g
xylitol/day as between-meal sweets is as effective in bringing dental caries under
control as the complete dietary substitution of xylitol for sucrose. Consequently,
a realistic and useful application of xylitol in foods will be in confectionery and
snack products, where the unique properties of xylitol can be best utilized.

VI. RESEARCH NEEDS

1. The published data on the physicochemical properties of xylitol are insuffi-
cient. A filling of this gap of knowledge is needed.
2. The threshold level of xylitol to stop microbial growth in substrates con-
taining available carbohydrates is of interest.
3. The gelling properties of different types of xylitol-containing gels, and the
inhibition of xylitol crystallization in jellies should be studied.
4. The color stability-improving effect of xylitol should be studied
thoroughly.
5 . Crystallization inhibitors for xylitol melts of supersaturated xylitol solu-
tions are needed. Since the primary xylitol application in foods is in non-
cariogenic sweets, such additives should also fulfill the prerequisite of being
noncariogenic. Until a permissible noncariogenic crystallization inhibitor can be
found, xylitol chews will be an unsolved problem.
400 LEA HYVONEN ET AL.

6. The possibility of preparing high-acid fruit-flavored xylitol candies which

do not become sticky should be clarified. A promising fact is that when xylitol is
used, no inversion takes place and no fructose is formed.
7. The combinations of xylitol and artificial sweeteners seem to have many
potential applications. A nonsweet and possibly noncaloric bulking agent for
these combinations to make the sweetening mixture isosweet with sucrose on a
volume basis is worth studying.

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