PEDAGOGY

the method and practice of teaching, especially as an academic subject or theoretical concept.

"the relationship between applied linguistics and language pedagogy"

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Pedagogy (/ˈpɛdəɡɒdʒi, -ɡoʊdʒi, -ɡɒɡi/) (most commonly understood as the approach to teaching)
refers more broadly to the theory and practice of learning, and how this process influences, and is
influenced by, the psychological development of learners. Pedagogy, taken as an academic discipline, is
the study of how knowledge and skills are imparted in an educational context, and it considers the
interactions that take place during learning. Both the theory and practise of pedagogy varies greatly, as
they reflect different social, political, and cultural contexts.[1]

Pedagogy is often described as the act of teaching.[2] The pedagogy adopted by teachers shapes their
actions, judgments, and other teaching strategies by taking into consideration theories of learning,
understandings of students and their needs, and the backgrounds and interests of individual
students.[3][4] Its aims may include furthering liberal education (the general development of human
potential) to the narrower specifics of vocational education (the imparting and acquisition of specific
skills). Conventional western pedagogies, views the teacher as knowledge holder and student as the
recipient of knowledge (described by Paulo Freire as "banking methods"[5]), but theories of pedagogy
increasingly identify the student as an agent, and the teacher as a facilitator.

Instructive strategies are governed by the pupil's background knowledge and experience, situation, and
environment, as well as learning goals set by the student and teacher. One example would be the
Socratic method.[6]

The teaching of adults, as a specific group, is referred to as andragogy.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogy

HEEBARTIANISM (HISTORY)
The educational philosophy and pedagogy of Johann Friedrich Herbart (4 May 1776 – 14 August 1841)
highlighted the correlation between personal development and the resulting benefits to society. In
other words, Herbart proposed that humans become fulfilled once they establish themselves as
productive citizens. Herbartianism refers to the movement underpinned by Herbart's theoretical
perspectives.[11] Referring to the teaching process, Herbart suggested five steps as crucial components.
Specifically, these five steps include: preparation, presentation, association, generalization, and
application.[12] Herbart suggests that pedagogy relates to having assumptions as an educator and a
specific set of abilities with a deliberate end goal in mind.[13]

LEARNING APPROACH IN PEDAGOGY

Pedagogy is often described as the act of teaching. The pedagogy adopted by teachers shapes their
actions, judgments, and other teaching strategies by taking into consideration theories of learning,
understandings of students and their needs, and the backgrounds and interests of individual students.

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4 learning approach in Pedagogy.

People often talk about their 'pedagogical approach' to teaching.

...

The different pedagogical approaches could be broken down into four categories: behaviourism,
constructivism, social constructivism, and liberationist.

Behaviourism. ...

Constructivism. ...

Social constructivism. ...

Liberationism.

BEHAVIORISM

Behaviorism is a learning theory that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts any
independent activities of the mind. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the
acquisition of new behavior based on environmental conditions

Experiments by behaviorists identify conditioning as a universal learning process. There are two
different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioral pattern:

Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. We are biologically “wired” so
that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response. One of the more common examples of classical
conditioning in the educational environment is in situations where students exhibit irrational fears and
anxieties like fear of failure, fear of public speaking and general school phobia.

Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically,

operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or reinforcement follows the response to
a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable in the future. For example, leading behaviorist
B.F. Skinner used reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball in a mini-alley.

There have been many criticisms of behaviorism, including the following:

Behaviorism does not account for all kinds of learning, since it disregards the activities of the mind.

Behaviorism does not explain some learning–such as the recognition of new language patterns by young
children–for which there is no reinforcement mechanism.
Research has shown that animals adapt their reinforced patterns to new information. For instance, a rat
can shift its behavior to respond to changes in the layout of a maze it had previously mastered through
reinforcements.

EFFECTS IN LEARNING

This theory is relatively simple to understand because it relies only on observable behavior and
describes several universal laws of behavior. Its positive and negative reinforcement techniques can be
very effective– such as in treatments for human disorders including autism, anxiety disorders and
antisocial behavior. Behaviorism is often used by teachers who reward or punish student behaviors.

https://www.funderstanding.com/theory/behaviorism/

Behaviorism is a worldview that operates on a principle of “stimulus-response.” All behavior caused by

external stimuli (operant conditioning). All behavior can be explained without the need to consider
internal mental states or consciousness[1].

https://www.learning-theories.com/behaviorism.html

COGNITIVISM

Cognitivism is a learning theory that focuses on the processes involved in learning rather than on the
observed behavior. As opposed to Behaviorists, Cognitivists do not require an outward exhibition of
learning, but focus more on the internal processes and connections that take place during learning.
Cognitivism contends that “the black box” of the mind should be opened and understood. The learner is
viewed as an information processor. Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental
constructions and learning is defined as change in a learner’s schemata. Some important classroom
principles from cognitive psychology include meaningful learning, organization, and elaboration

Cognitivist theory developed as a reaction to Behaviorism. Cognitivists objected to behaviorists because

they felt that behaviorists thought learning was simply a reaction to a stimulus and ignored the idea that
thinking plays an important role. One of the most famous criticisms addressed to Behaviorism was
Chomsky’s argument that language could not be acquired purely through conditioning, and must be at
least partly explained by the existence of some inner abilities. Behaviorism for example falls short to
explain how children can learn an infinite number of utterance that they have never heard of.

EFFECTS IN LEARNING
Cognitivist theory developed as a reaction to Behaviorism. Cognitivists objected to behaviorists because
they felt that behaviorists thought learning was simply a reaction to a stimulus and ignored the idea that
thinking plays an important role. One of the most famous criticisms addressed to Behaviorism was
Chomsky’s argument that language could not be acquired purely through conditioning, and must be at
least partly explained by the existence of some inner abilities. Behaviorism for example falls short to
explain how children can learn an infinite number of utterance that they have never heard of.

https://www.myenglishpages.com/blog/description-of-cognitivism/

CONSTRUCTIVISM

Constructivism is basically a theory -- based on observation and scientific study -- about how people
learn. It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through
experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something new, we have
to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience, maybe changing what we believe, or maybe
discarding the new information as irrelevant. In any case, we are active creators of our own knowledge.
To do this, we must ask questions, explore, and assess what we know.

In the classroom, the constructivist view of learning can point towards a number of different teaching
practices. In the most general sense, it usually means encouraging students to use active techniques
(experiments, real-world problem solving) to create more knowledge and then to reflect on and talk
about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing. The teacher makes sure she
understands the students' preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and then
build on them.

Constructivist teachers encourage students to constantly assess how the activity is helping them gain
understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies, students in the constructivist classroom
ideally become "expert learners." This gives them ever-broadening tools to keep learning. With a well-
planned classroom environment, the students learn HOW TO LEARN.

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Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview posits that learning is an active, constructive process. The
learner is an information constructor. People actively construct or create their own subjective
representations of objective reality. New information is linked to to prior knowledge, thus mental
representations are subjective.

NOTE: A common misunderstanding regarding constructivism is that instructors should never tell
students anything directly but, instead, should always allow them to construct knowledge for
themselves. This is actually confusing a theory of pedagogy (teaching) with a theory of knowing.
Constructivism assumes that all knowledge is constructed from the learner’s previous knowledge,
regardless of how one is taught. Thus, even listening to a lecture involves active attempts to construct
new knowledge.

EXPERIENTIAL

A four-stage cyclical theory of learning, Kolb’s experiential learning theory is a holistic perspective that
combines experience, perception, cognition, and behavior.

Building upon earlier work by John Dewey and Kurt Levin, American educational theorist David A. Kolb
believes “learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of
experience" (1984, p. 38)[1]. The theory presents a cyclical model of learning, consisting of four stages
shown below.

One may begin at any stage, but must follow each other in the sequence:

CONCRETE EXPERIENCE (OR “DO")

The first stage, concrete experience (CE), is where the learner actively experiences an activity such as a
lab session or field work.

REFLECTIVE OBSERVATION (OR “OBSERVE")

The second stage, reflective observation (RO), is when the learner consciously reflects back on that
experience.

ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION (OR “THINK")

The third stage, abstract conceptualization (AC), is where the learner attempts to conceptualize a theory
or model of what is observed.
ACTIVE EXPERIMENTATION (OR “PLAN")

The fourth stage, active experimentation (AE), is where the learner is trying to plan how to test a model
or theory or plan for a forthcoming experience.

Kolb identified four learning styles which correspond to these stages. The styles highlight conditions
under which learners learn better[3]. These styles are:

assimilators, who learn better when presented with sound logical theories to consider

convergers, who learn better when provided with practical applications of concepts and theories

accommodators, who learn better when provided with “hands-on" experiences

divergers, who learn better when allowed to observe and collect a wide range of information

https://www.learning-theories.com/experiential-learning-kolb.html

SOCIAL

Social Learning Theory, theorized by Albert Bandura, posits that people learn from one another, via
observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist
and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.

People learn through observing others’ behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors[1]. “Most
human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea
of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide
for action.” (Bandura). Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal
interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.

NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE MODELING

Attention — various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes distinctiveness,
affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. One’s characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities,
arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect attention.

Retention — remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding, mental images,
cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal
Reproduction — reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-observation of
reproduction.

Motivation — having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such as past (i.e. traditional
behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model)

Social learning theory has sometimes been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning
theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation. The theory is related to Vygotsky’s
Social Development Theory and Lave’s Situated Learning, which also emphasize the importance of social
learning

https://www.learning-theories.com/social-learning-theory-bandura.html

Concept learning, also known as category learning, concept attainment, and concept formation, is
defined by Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin (1967) as "the search for and listing of attributes that can be
used to distinguish exemplars from non exemplars of various categories". More simply put, concepts are
the mental categories to help nts, or ideas, building on the understanding that each object, vent, or idea
has a set of co evant features. Thus, concept learning is a strategy which requires a learner to compare
and contrast groups or categories that contain concept-relevant features with groups or categories that
do not contain concept-relevant feature learning task in which a human or machine learner is trained to
classify objects by being shown a set of example objects along with their class labels. The learner
simplifies what has been observed by condensing it in the form of an example. This simplified version of
what has been learned is then applied to future examples. Concept learning may be simple or complex
because learning takes place over many areas. When a concept is difficult, it is less likely that the learner
will be able to simplify, and therefore will be less likely to learn. Colloquially, the task is known as
learning from examples. Most theories of concept learning are based on the storage of exemplars and
avoid summarization or overt abstraction of any kind.
Concept Learning: Inferring a Boolean-valued function from training examples of its input and output.

A concept is an idea of something formed by combining all its features or attributes which construct the
given concept. Every concept has two components:

Attributes: features that one must look for to decide whether a data instance is a positive one of the
concept.

A rule: denotes what conjunction of constraints on the attributes will qualify as a positive instance of the
concept.

Concept learning must be distinguished from learning by reciting something from memory (recall) or
discriminating between two things that differ (discrimination). However, these issues are closely related,
since memory recall of facts could be considered a "trivial" conceptual process where prior exemplars
representing the concept are invariant. Similarly, while discrimination is not the same as initial concept
learning, discrimination processes are involved in refining concepts by means of the repeated
presentation of exemplars.

Concrete or Perceptual Concepts vs Abstract Concepts

Defined (or Relational) and Associated Concepts

Complex Concepts. Constructs such as a schema and a script are examples of complex concepts. A
schema is an organization of smaller concepts (or features) and is revised by situational information to
assist in comprehension. A script on the other hand is a list of actions that a person follows in order to
complete a desired goal. An example of a script would be the process of buying a CD. There are several
actions that must occur before the actual act of purchasing the CD and a script provides a sequence of
the necessary actions and proper order of these actions in order to be successful in purchasing the CD.

Methods of learning a concept

Discovery – Every baby discovers concepts for itself, such as discovering that each of its fingers can be
individually controlled or that care givers are individuals. Although this is perception driven, formation
of the concept is more than memorizing perceptions.
Examples – Supervised or unsupervised generalizing from examples may lead to learning a new concept,
but concept formation is more than generalizing from examples.

Words – Hearing or reading new words leads to learning new concepts, but forming a new concept is
more than learning a dictionary definition. A person may have previously formed a new concept before
encountering the word or phrase for it.

Exemplars comparison and contrast – An efficient way to learn new categories and to induce new
categorization rules is by comparing a few example objects while being informed about their categorical
relation. Comparing two exemplars while being informed that the two are from the same category
allows identifying the attributes shared by the category members, as it exemplifies variability within this
category. On the other hand, contrasting two exemplars while being informed that the two are from
different categories may allow identifying attributes with diagnostic value. Within category comparison
and between categories contrast are not similarly useful for category learning (Hammer et al., 2008),
and the capacity to use these two forms of comparison-based learning changes at childhood (Hammer
et al., 2009).

Invention – When prehistoric people who lacked tools used their fingernails to scrape food from killed
animals or smashed melons, they noticed that a broken stone sometimes had a sharp edge like a
fingernail and was therefore suitable for scraping food. Inventing a stone tool to avoid broken fingernails
was a new concept.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_learning