Energy Transformation

Skills to develop
•Discuss the importance of electrons in
the transfer of energy in living systems
•Explain how ATP is used by the cell as
an energy source
Energy Transformation

This geothermal energy

plant transforms
thermal energy from
deep in the ground into
electrical energy that
will be transported to
homes and factories.
Energy Transformation

Like a generating plant, plants and animals

also must take in energy from the
environment and convert it into a form that
their cells can use. Energy enters an
organism’s body in one form and is
converted into another form that can fuel
the organism’s life functions.
Energy Transformation
In the process of photosynthesis, plants and other
photosynthetic producers take in energy in the form
of light (solar energy) and convert it into chemical
energy, glucose, which stores this energy in its
chemical bonds.
Then, a series of metabolic pathways, collectively
called cellular respiration, extracts the energy from
the bonds in glucose and converts it into a form that
all living things can use—both producers, such as
plants, and consumers, such as animals.
Electrons and
Energy Flow
Electrons and Energy Flow
Energy production within a cell involves many coordinated
chemical pathways.
Most of these pathways are combinations of oxidation and
reduction reactions. Oxidation and reduction occur in
tandem.
An oxidation reaction removes an electron from an atom in a
compound, and the addition of this electron to another
compound is a reduction reaction.
Because oxidation and reduction usually occur together,
these pairs of reactions are called oxidation reduction
reactions, or redox reactions.
Oxidation-Reduction and
the Flow of Energy
In short:

In oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions, electrons pass

from one molecule to another.

Oxidation is the loss of electrons.

Reduction is the gain of electrons.

Both reactions occur at the same time because one

molecule accepts electrons given up by another molecule.
Electrons and Energy Flow
The removal of an electron from a molecule, oxidizing
it, results in a decrease in potential energy in the
oxidized compound. The electron (sometimes as part
of a hydrogen atom), does not remain unbonded,
however, in the cytoplasm of a cell. Rather, the
electron is shifted to a second compound, reducing
the second compound. The shift of an electron from
one compound to another removes some potential
energy from the first compound (the oxidized
compound) and increases the potential energy of the
second compound (the reduced compound).
During the transfer of electrons,

•It means that if the electrons are removed from

an a molecule, the molecule is oxidized and
there is a decrease in its potential energy.

•If the electrons are transferred to another

compound, it is reduced and its potential
energy is increased.
Importance of electron transfer
The transfer of electrons between molecules is important
because most of the energy stored in atoms and used to fuel
cell functions is in the form of high-energy electrons.
The transfer of energy in the form of electrons allows the cell to
transfer and use energy in an incremental fashion—in small
packages rather than in a single, destructive burst. This chapter
focuses on the extraction of energy from food; you will see that
as you track the path of the transfers, you are tracking the path
of electrons moving through metabolic pathways.
Electron Carriers
Electron Carriers
• In living systems, a small class of compounds
functions as electron shuttles: They bind and carry
high-energy electrons between compounds in
pathways.
• The principal electron carriers we will consider are
derived from the B vitamin group and are
derivatives of nucleotides.
• Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is
derived from vitamin B3, niacin.
Electron Carrier - NAD
• NAD can be easily reduced (that is, they
accept electrons) or oxidized (they lose
electrons).
• NAD+ is the oxidized form of the molecule;
• NADH is the reduced form of the molecule
after it has accepted two electrons and a
proton (which together are the equivalent of
a hydrogen atom with an extra electron).
• NAD+ can accept electrons from an organic
molecule according to the general equation:

• R H reducing agent + NAD + oxidizing agent

→ NADH reduced + R + oxidized

When electrons are added to a compound,

they are reduced. A compound that reduces
another is called a reducing agent.
Equation for the
In the above equation, RH is a reducing agent, and NAD+ and NADH
NAD+ is reduced to NADH. When electrons are reaction during
removed from compound, it oxidized. A compound cellular respiration
that oxidizes another is called an oxidizing agent. In
the above equation, NAD+ is an oxidizing agent, and
RH is oxidized to R.
• ATP is used along with hydrogen atoms to
reduce glucose; when NADP+ (nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate) donates
hydrogen atoms (H+ + e-) to a substrate during
photosynthesis, the substrate has accepted
electrons and is therefore reduced.
• The reaction that reduces NADP+ is:
NADP+ + 2e- + H+ = NADPH
Electron Carrier - FAD
• Similarly, Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD+)
is derived from vitamin B2, also called
riboflavin. Its reduced form is FADH2.
• A second variation of NAD, NADP, contains
an extra phosphate group.
• Both NAD+ and FAD+ are extensively used in
energy extraction from sugars, and NADP
plays an important role in anabolic reactions
and photosynthesis.
Electron Carrier - NAD
The oxidized form of the
electron carrier (NAD+) is
shown on the left and the
reduced form (NADH) is
shown on the right. The
nitrogenous base in NADH
has one more hydrogen ion
and two more electrons than
in NAD+.
ATP in Living Systems
A living cell cannot store significant amounts
of free energy. Excess free energy would
result in an increase of heat in the cell, which
would result in excessive thermal motion that
could damage and then destroy the cell.

Rather, a cell must be able to handle that

energy in a way that enables the cell to store
energy safely and release it for use only as
needed.
ATP in Living Systems

•Living cells accomplish this by using the

compound adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). ATP is often called the “energy
currency” of the cell, and, like currency,
this versatile compound can be used to
fill any energy need of the cell. How? It
functions similarly to a rechargeable
battery.
ATP in Living System
•When ATP is broken down, usually by the
removal of its terminal phosphate group,
energy is released.
•The energy is used to do work by the
cell, usually by the released phosphate
binding to another molecule, activating
it.
ATP in Living System
• For example, in the mechanical work of muscle
contraction, ATP supplies the energy to move the
contractile muscle proteins. In the active transport
work of the sodium-potassium pump in cell
membranes. ATP alters the structure of the integral
protein that functions as the pump, changing its
affinity for sodium and potassium. In this way, the
cell performs work, pumping ions against their
electrochemical gradients.
ATP Structure and Function
At the heart of ATP is a molecule of
adenosine monophosphate (AMP), which is
composed of an adenine molecule bonded to
a ribose molecule and to a single phosphate
group.
Ribose is a five-carbon sugar found in RNA,
and AMP is one of the nucleotides in RNA.
The addition of a second phosphate group to
this core molecule results in the formation of
adenosine diphosphate (ADP); the addition of
a third phosphate group forms
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
 ATP Structure and Function
The addition of a phosphate group to a
molecule requires energy. Phosphate
groups are negatively charged and thus
repel one another when they are
arranged in series, as they are in ADP
and ATP. This repulsion makes the ADP
and ATP molecules inherently unstable.
The release of one or two phosphate
groups from ATP, a process
called dephosphorylation, releases
energy.
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
has three phosphate groups
that can be removed by
hydrolysis to form ADP
(adenosine diphosphate) or
AMP (adenosine
monophosphate).The negative
charges on the phosphate
group naturally repel each
other, requiring energy to bond
them together and releasing
energy when these bonds are
broken.
Energy from ATP
Hydrolysis is the process of breaking complex
macromolecules apart.
During hydrolysis, water is split, or lysed, and the
resulting hydrogen atom (H+) and a hydroxyl group (OH-)
are added to the larger molecule.
The hydrolysis of ATP produces ADP, together with an
inorganic phosphate ion (Pi), and the release of free
energy.
To carry out life processes, ATP is continuously broken
down into ADP, and like a rechargeable battery, ADP is
continuously regenerated into ATP by the reattachment
of a third phosphate group. Water, which was broken
down into its hydrogen atom and hydroxyl group during
ATP hydrolysis, is regenerated when a third phosphate is
added to the ADP molecule, reforming ATP.
Energy from ATP
Obviously, energy must be infused into the
system to regenerate ATP.

Where does this energy come from?

In nearly every living thing on earth, the energy

comes from the metabolism of glucose.

In this way, ATP is a direct link between the

limited set of exergonic pathways of glucose
catabolism and the multitude of endergonic
pathways that power living cells.
 Phosphorylation
Recall that, in some chemical reactions, enzymes may bind to several
substrates that react with each other on the enzyme, forming an
intermediate complex.
An intermediate complex is a temporary structure, and it allows one of the
substrates (such as ATP) and reactants to more readily react with each
other; in reactions involving ATP, ATP is one of the substrates and ADP is a
product.
During an endergonic chemical reaction, ATP forms an intermediate
complex with the substrate and enzyme in the reaction. This intermediate
complex allows the ATP to transfer its third phosphate group, with its energy,
to the substrate, a process called phosphorylation.
Phosphorylation refers to the addition of the phosphate (~P). This is
illustrated by the following generic reaction:
A + enzyme + ATP→[A−enzyme−∼P]→B + enzyme + ADP + phosphate ion
Substrate Phosphorylation
ATP is generated through two mechanisms during
the breakdown of glucose. A few ATP molecules are
generated (that is, regenerated from ADP) as a
direct result of the chemical reactions that occur in
the catabolic pathways.
A phosphate group is removed from an intermediate
reactant in the pathway, and the free energy of the
reaction is used to add the third phosphate to an
available ADP molecule, producing ATP (Figure
7.1.3). This very direct method of phosphorylation is
called substrate-level phosphorylation.
Substrate Phosphorylation

Figure 7.1.3: In phosphorylation

reactions, the gamma phosphate
of ATP is attached to a protein.
 Oxidative Phosphorylation
Most of the ATP generated during
glucose catabolism, however, is
derived from a much more complex
process, chemiosmosis, which takes
place in mitochondria (Figure 7.1.4)
within a eukaryotic cell or the plasma
membrane of a prokaryotic cell.

In eukaryotes, oxidative
phosphorylation takes place in
mitochondria. In prokaryotes, this
process takes place in the plasma
membrane.
Oxidative Phosphorylation

• Chemiosmosis, a process of ATP production in cellular

metabolism, is used to generate 90 percent of the ATP
made during glucose catabolism and is also the method
used in the light reactions of photosynthesis to harness
the energy of sunlight.

The production of ATP using the process of chemiosmosis

is called oxidative phosphorylation because of the
involvement of oxygen in the process.
 Coupled Reactions
1. A coupled reaction occurs when energy released
by an exergonic reaction is used to drive an
endergonic reaction.

2. ATP breakdown is often coupled to cellular

reactions that require energy.

3. ATP supply is maintained by breakdown of

glucose during cellular respiration.

4. Only 39% of the chemical energy of glucose is

transformed into ATP; 61% is lost as heat.
Coupled Reactions
• Exergonic Reaction - a process with a net release of
free energy. Sometimes called spontaneous, but that
doesn't mean that it will occur rapidly
• Burning paper is exergonic, but paper just doesn't
ignite when it is exposed to air - it requires an initial
input of energy to start the reaction
• Endergonic Reaction - a process which absorbs free
energy from the surroundings. Most synthesis
reactions are endergonic
• Energy Coupling - the use of an exergonic process to
drive and endergonic process. The free energy
released from the exergonic process is absorbed by the
endergonic process
 ATP: Energy for Cells
1. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the energy currency of cells; when
cells need energy, they “spend” ATP.

2. ATP is an energy carrier for many different types of reactions.

3. When ATP is converted into ADP + P, the energy released is

sufficient for biological reactions with little wasted.

4. ATP breakdown is coupled to endergonic reactions in a way that

minimizes energy loss.
5. ATP is a nucleotide composed of the base adenine and the 5-carbon
sugar ribose and three phosphate groups.

6. When one phosphate group is removed, about 7.3 kcal of energy is

released per mole.
Types of Cellular Work
ATP can have any of three functions.

1. Chemical Work: ATP supplies energy to

synthesize molecules that make up the cell.

2. Transport Work: ATP supplies energy to pump

substances across the plasma membrane against
their concentration gradient, etc.

3. Mechanical Work: ATP supplies energy needed to

perform mechanical processes (e.g., muscle
contraction, propel cilia, etc.).
ATP - Power To Drive Cellular Work
• ATP - Adenosine triphosphate - a close relative to
Adenine, a nucleotide found in DNA.
• Contains three phosphate groups connected to
each other in sequence

• The bonds an be broken by hydrolysis

• When the terminal phosphate bond is broken, a molecule
of inorganic phosphate (Pi) is formed
• This forms adenosine diphosphate, ADP + (Pi)
• This generates free energy, which can be used by the
cell to do work
ATP - Power To Drive Cellular Work
• Usually, ATP functions by transferring its phosphate
group to another molecule, creating a phosphorylated
intermediate.

• This phosphorylated intermediate is usually less stable

(more reactive) than the original molecule, which drives the
reaction

• Obviously, for the cell to function, ATP must rapidly be

regenerated.

• One muscle cell can consume and regenerate over

10,000,000 ATP's a second
• If ATP couldn't be regenerated, humans would have to
consume nearly their body weight in ATP each day
• Cells couple the exergonic reaction of ATP hydrolysis with
endergonic reactions to harness the energy within the bonds of
ATP.
• Adenosine triphosphate is composed of the nitrogenous base
adenine, the five-carbon sugar ribose, and
three phosphate groups.

• ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP in

the reaction ATP+H2O→ADP+Pi+free energy; the calculated ∆G
for the hydrolysis of 1 mole of ATP is -57 kJ/mol.

• ADP is combined with a phosphate to form ATP in the reaction

ADP+Pi+free energy→ATP+H2O.

• The energy released from the hydrolysis of ATP into ADP is used
to perform cellular work, usually by coupling
the exergonic reaction of ATP hydrolysis
with endergonic reactions.

• Sodium-potassium pumps use the energy derived from exergonic

ATP hydrolysis to pump sodium and potassium ions across
the cell membrane while phosphorylaton drives the endergonic
reaction.
How ATP Transfers Energy

Energy is usually liberated from the ATP molecule to do

work in the cell by a reaction that removes one of the
phosphate-oxygen groups, leaving adenosine diphosphate
(ADP). When the ATP converts to ADP, the ATP is said to
be spent. Then the ADP is usually immediately recycled in
the mitochondria where it is recharged and comes out again
as ATP. In the words of Trefil (1992, p. 93) “hooking and
unhooking that last phosphate [on ATP] is what keeps the
whole world operating.”
How ATP Transfers Energy
The enormous amount of activity that occurs inside
each of the approximately one hundred trillion
human cells is shown by the fact that at any instant
each cell contains about one billion ATP molecules.
This amount is sufficient for that cell’s needs for
only a few minutes and must be rapidly recycled.
Given a hundred trillion cells in the average male,
about 1023 or one sextillion ATP molecules normally
exist in the body. For each ATP “the terminal
phosphate is added and removed 3 times each
minute” (Kornberg, 1989, p. 65).
How ATP Transfers Energy
The total human body content of ATP is only
about 50 grams, which must be constantly
recycled every day. The ultimate source of
energy for constructing ATP is food; ATP is
simply the carrier and regulation-storage unit
of energy. The average daily intake of 2,500
food calories translates into a turnover of a
whopping 180 kg (400 lbs) of ATP (Kornberg,
1989, p. 65).
Summary
ATP functions as the energy currency for cells. It allows the
cell to store energy briefly and transport it within the cell to
support endergonic chemical reactions. The structure of
ATP is that of an RNA nucleotide with three phosphates
attached. As ATP is used for energy, a phosphate group or
two are detached, and either ADP or AMP is produced.
Energy derived from glucose catabolism is used to convert
ADP into ATP. When ATP is used in a reaction, the third
phosphate is temporarily attached to a substrate in a
process called phosphorylation. The two processes of ATP
regeneration that are used in conjunction with glucose
catabolism are substrate-level phosphorylation and
oxidative phosphorylation through the process of
chemiosmosis.
Electron carrier
• There's a lot of energy stored in the bonds between
the carbon and hydrogen atoms in glucose.
• During cellular respiration, redox reactions
basically transfer this bond energy in the form of
electrons from glucose to molecules called
electron carriers.
• Electron carrier is basically a molecule that
transports electrons during cellular respiration.
• By using electron carriers, energy harvested from
glucose can be temporarily stored until the cell can
convert the energy into ATP.
• Let's see how NAD is able to store energy for a cell during
cellular respiration. Recall that we are going store energy in
NAD by adding electrons to it. That means that the NAD
molecule can exist in either an oxidized or a reduced form.
• NAD+ is the oxidized form of NAD. When NAD+ reacts with
two hydrogen atoms, two electrons can be added to the
NAD+ molecule, resulting in a NADH molecule and a proton,
or H+.
• This equation may seem a little confusing, but let's break it
down further to see if it makes more sense. A hydrogen
atom consists of a proton and an electron, so we can
rewrite the two hydrogen atoms as 2H+ and 2e-. In the
reduction reaction, NAD+ accepts the two electrons and
one of the protons to form a neutral NADH molecule. That
leaves a free proton as the second product of the reaction.
• When NAD removes hydrogen atoms (H+ + e-) during
cellular respiration, the substrate has lost
electrons and is therefore oxidized.

• At the end of cellular respiration, glucose has been

oxidized to carbon dioxide and water and ATP
molecules have been produced.

• In metabolic pathways, most oxidations involve the

coenzyme NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide); the molecule accepts two electrons
but only one hydrogen ion: NAD+ + 2e- + H+ =
NADH