Science lab manual

PART: A
Experiment No.1

VERNIER CALIPERS
AIM: To Determine

1. Volume of hollow cylinder

2. Volume of solid cylinders

APPARATUS: Vernier Callipers, Bob (Solid Cylinder), Solid Cylinder, Hollow Cylinder.

PRINCIPLE: Vernier callipers are instruments based on the principle of Vernier. It consists
of a main scale (in cm) and Vernier scale (in mm).

Vernier scale division = (n-1) main scale division and least count of this instrument is
smallest distance that can be measured.

L.C = Value of 1 MSD

No of division on Vernier

Total reading is given by

TR = MSR + (VSR x LC )

PROCEDURE:

Observe the value of one main scale division and the number of division on Vernier.
Calculate the least count of given Vernier callipers using the formula
L.C = Value of 1 MSD

(i) Hold the given hollow cylinder along the length between two lower jaws, note the
main scale reading (MSR) and Coinciding Vernier division (CVD) then total reading
for length is
TR = MSR + (VSR x LC)
Now hold the hollow cylinder between two lower jaws along diameter, measure the
outer diameter (D). Then hold given hollow cylinder between the two upper jaws, and
measure its internal diameter (d).
The volume of hollow cylinder is given by
V = π (D2 - d2) L cm3
4
(ii) Similarly hold the solid cylinder along the length (l) and diameter (D) between two
lower jaws and measure them.
The volume of solid cylinder is given by

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V = π D2 L cm3
4

Sources of errors and precautions: Excess pressure must not be applied to the jaws while
holding the object them.

Diagram: Vernier

OBSERVATION:

1. Value of one main scale division (MSD)=0.1cm

2. No of division on vernier scale=10div
3. Least count=value of 1MSD = 0.1 = 0.01cm
N 10

TABULAR COLUMN 1:

SL TR MSR VSR MEAN

NO OBJECT DIMENSION NO (cm) (div) TR=MSR+(VSR X LC) TR(cm)
1
INNER
DIAMETER(d 2
1 ) 3
1
HOLLOW OUTER
CYLINDER DIAMETER( 2
2 D) 3
1
2
3 LENGTH (L) 3

Volume of hollow cylinder:

V= π ( D2 - d2) L cm3
4
Where L=length
D=outer diameter

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d=inner diameter
Π=3.14

TABULAR COLUMN 2:

MSR
SL NO OBJECT DIMENSION TR NO (CM) VSR(DIV) TR=MSR+(VSR X LC) MEAN TR
1
2
1 SOLID LENGTH 3
CYLINDER 1
OUTER 2
2 DIAMETER 3

Volume of solid cylinder is

V = π d2 L cm3
4
Where
d= diameter
L= length
Π=3.14

RESULTS:

Volume of the hollow cylinder V = __________ cm3

Volume of the solid cylinder V = ___________cm3

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Experiment No.2

SCREW GAUGE
AIM: To find the
1. Thickness of glass plate
2. Diameter of Thin wire and hence volume of given length of wire .
3. Volume of Sphere using screw gauge.

APPARATUS: Screw gauge, glass plate, thin wire, sphere .

PRINCIPLE: screw gauge works on the principle of screw and nut. For a given screw and
nut, pitch is distance covered by the tip of the screw, for one rotation of the head.

Least count = pitch

No of division of head scale

It consists of U shaped metal frame with pitch scale and head scale.

Total reading is given by

TR = PSR + [(HSR +ZC) x LC]

PROCEDURE: To find the least count, we adjust the sleeve of head scale on a particular
pitch scale division and given known number of rotations of head.

Observe the distance covered on pitch scale, then

Pitch = Distance covered on pitch scale

No of rotation given

The least count is given by

LC = pitch

No of division on head scale

To find the zero error in the instrument, close the gap between the two plane surface of
micrometer screw gauge . if the zero of head scale coincides with reference line on pitch
scale then it has no zero error .if zero of the head scale is above the reference line ,the error is
negative and correction is positive .if the zero of the head scale is below the reference line the
error is positive and correction is negative.

1) Hold the given thin plate between the two plane surface .to find its thickness ,observe
the pitch scale division uncovered by the sleeve to find out PSR and observe
coinciding head scale division with the pitch line for HSR and note down zero error
and zero correction .

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Then total reading is calculated using the formula

TR = PSR +[(HSR+ZC) x LC]

Repeat the above steps at different positions. The averages of all these reading gives mean
thickness.

2) Now take the given thin wire and note down the PSR and HSR reading and also ZE and
ZC same as the above procedure .calculate the given length and volume of given of given
length of wire.
3) Hold the given sphere, find its diameter as explained above, and hence calculate its
volume.

Sources of error and precautions:

1. Zero error in the instrument must be essentially noted.
2. Excess pressure on the head of screw while holding the object between two surfaces
must be avoided.
3. The screw is turned in the same direction to avoid back _last error.

Diagram: screw gauge

OBSERVATION:

1. Pitch = the distance covered or uncovered on pitch scale

No of rotation given to screw head

= 5 = 1mm
5
2. No. of division on head scale(n) = 100div
3. Least count = pitch = 1 = 0.01mm
N 100
Zero error=
Zero correction=

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TABULAR COLUMN 1:
MEAN
SL TR PSR HSR TR=PSR+(HSR X ZC)LC TR
NO OBJECT DIMENSION NO in mm div in mm in mm

1
GLASS
1 THICKNESS
PLATE 2

TABULAR COLUMN 2:

TR PSR HSR TR=PSR+(HSRXZC)LC MEAN TR

SL NO OBJECT DIMENSION NO in mm in DIV in mm in mm

1
THIN
1 DIAMETER
WIRE 2

Length of the wire is L=_______cm=_______mm

Volume of the thin wire is
V = π d2 L cm3
4
Where
d= diameter
L= length
Π=3.14
TABULAR COLUMN 3:

SL TR PSR HSR in TR=PSR+(HSR X ZC)LC MEAN TR

NO OBJECT DIMENSION NO in mm div in mm in mm

1
1 SPHERE DIAMETER
2

Volume of sphere is
V = πd3 mm3
6

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Where
D=diameter
RESULTS:
(i) Thickness of glass plate = mm
(ii) The volume of thin wire = mm3
(iii) The volume of sphere is = mm3

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Experiment No. 3

VERIFICATION OF THE LAW OF PARALLELOGRAM

OF FORCES
AIM: To verify the parallelogram law of forces.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Vertical drawing board , pulleys, drawing sheets, thread, scale,
weight hangers.

PRINCIPLE : According to parallelogram law of forces ,if two forces acting at a point are
represent as the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram ,then diagonal passing through that
point represents the resultant,

In this experiment an equal and opposite force to the resultant of two forces is applied so
that the system is in equilibrium.

PROCEDURE: Two pulleys are attached to the horizontal support as shows in the figure
.there long threads are taken and two are passed over the pulleys and are attached with
weight hangers (p & Q) .one end of all the three strings are tied to form a common knot .the
third thread is attached with weight hangers(R) .the weight in the hanger suitably adjusted so
that system is in equilibrium.

A sheet of paper fixed on drawing board is placed behind the system .the images of
the strings are marked on the paper .the drawing board is taken out and the lines are produced
to meet at 0 .taking suitable scale for P,Q &R weight OA,OB AND OC are marked .taking
OA and OB as two sides complete the parallelogram OAc1b,joint diagonal oc. then measure
the length OC and angle COC1,so that it is 180

Repeat the experiments for different volume of P , Q and R and verify the law.

Sources of the error and precautions:

1. Large weight must be preferably used to reduce frication forces.

2. Drawing board must be verified and weight hangers should not touch the drawing
board
3. Pulleys must be smooth and frictionless.

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Diagram: Law of parallelogram of forces

ppp

P Q R

TABULAR COLUMN:

TR NO FORCES in gm SIDES in cm
P Q R OA OB OC OC1 ∟coc1=180
1

RESULT:

It is observed that in each case

oc = oc1

And ∟coc1 = 1800

This verifies parallelogram law of forces.

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Experiment No.4

VERIFICATION OF CONVERSE OF TRIANGLE LAW OF

FORCES.
AIM: To verify the experimentally the law of converse of triangle law of forces.

APPARATUS: Vertical drawing board, pulleys, drawing sheets, thread, scale , weight
hangers.

PRINCIPLE: The converse of triangle law of forces states that “ if three forces acting at a
point are in equilibrium then they can be represent both in magnitude and direction by three
sides of the triangle taken in order ”.

If P, Q, R are three forces in equilibrium and are represented by sides of triangle ABC in
order .such that P parallel to BC and R parallel to CA.

P = Q = R

AB BC CA

PROCEDURE: Adjust the weight P, Q and R suitably and note down the same .trace
these three forces on a paper in any of the convenient method. Draw the lines AB, BC and
CA parallel to the force P, Q and R respectively, to contract a triangle ABC. Measures the
length of sides of the triangle AB, BC, CA .hence calculate the ratio’s.

P , Q and R

AB BC CA

It can verify that

P = Q = R

AB BC CA

Repeat the experiment for different values of P,Q & R and verify the law.

Source of error and precaution:

Same as in the experiment of verification of parallelogram law of forces.

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Diagram: converse law of triangle law of forces

P Q

o C

B
A
R

Tabular Column:

TR NO FORCES in gm
P Q R P/AB Q/BC R/CA
1

Result:

It observed that

P = Q = R

AB BC CA

This verifies converse triangle law of forces.

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Experiment No .5

VERIFICATION OF LAMI’S THEOREM

AIM: To verify Lami’s theorem.

APPARATUS: Vertical drawing board, pulleys ,drawing sheets, thread , scale ,weight
hangers .

PRINCIPLE: Lami’s theorem states that “ If three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium
then each force is proportional to the sin of the angle between the other two forces” . If P , Q
and R are the three forces in equilibrium and α , β and ϓ.

Then calculate the ratios P , Q , R

Sin α sin β sin ϓ

In each case it is observed that

P = Q = R

Sin α sin β sin ϓ

Repeat the experiment for different values of P, Q & R and verify the law.

Source of error and precaution:

Same as in the experiment of verification of parallelogram law of forces.

Diagram: lami’s theorem

P Q

β α

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TABULAR COLUMN:

TR NO FORCES in gm angles in degree

P Q R α β ϓ P/sin α Q/sin β R/sin ϓ

2
3

Result:

It observed that

P = Q = R

Sin α sin β sin ϓ

This verifies Lami’s theorem.

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Experiment No .6

CONDITION OF THE EQUILIBRIUM

AIM: To verify conditions of equilibrium of coplanar parallel forces.

APPARATUS: Spring balance, weights, meter scale, support stand.

PRINCIPLE: Whenever a body is in equilibrium

1. Sum of the upper forces = sum of the down word forces.

2. Sum of clockwise moment = sum of the anticlockwise moment.

PROCEDURE: Take a meter scale and find its weight (w) from a spring balance. The
weight w acts at the midpoint or at the 50th division of the scale.

Suspend the meter scale by means of loops of thread from two spring balances supported by
suitable stand A few more weights are also suspended by loops of threads.

The positions are adjusted that meter scale remain horizontal and spring balances vertical.
The reading of spring balances ( F1 and F2) are noted and also the downward forces F3,F4
and w are noted .the experiment is repeated by changing the weight.

Diagram: Equilibrium

S1 S2

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TABULAR COLUMN1:

SUM OF
SUM OF UPWARD DOWNWARD
TR NO F1 F2 F3 F4 FORCES(F1+F2) FORCES(F3+F4+W)

TABULAR COLUMN 2:

SUM OF
SUM OF ANTICLOCK
TR NO F1 X AF F2 X AG F3 X AD F4 X AE W X AC CLOCK WISE WISE
MOMENT(1+2) MOMENT(3+4+5
)

1
2
3

Result:

It will be found that

1. Sum of upward forces=sum of downward forces.

2. Sum of the clockwise moment=sum of the antilock wise moment.

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PART B
Experiment No. 1

SONOMETER –I
AIM: To find the frequency of a given tuning fork by comparison method using Sonometer.

APPARATUS: Sonometer, tuning forks, meter scale, paper rider, rubber pads, slotted
weights.

PRINCIPLE: The frequency of transverse vibration of stretched string varies inversely as

the length of ventral segment changes, when stretching tension and mass per unit length of
wire remain constant.

Hence n α 1/L

n x L = constant

Where n is the frequency and l is the vibrating length.

PROCEDURE: (i) Comparison method

1. Attach a suitable weight to the free end of the wire of Sonometer and this load
(tension) is kept constant throughout the experiment.
2. Now the two bridges are kept closer and a paper rider is kept on the string between the
bridges. Hit unknown frequency (n) tuning fork with a rubber pad and keep its steam pressed
over the surface of Sonometer board .adjust the separation between the bridges till the paper
rider falls.

3. Measure the separation between the bridges as l ,then calculate n x l .repeat the above
steps for different known frequency tuning forks .hence find mean n x l .these observation
and calculation are tabulated.

4. Now take an unknown frequency tuning fork and find the corresponding resonating
length (lx) as explained above . Using the formula calculate the unknown frequency.

Sources of error and precautions:

1. Sonometer wire must have uniform diameter.

2. Rider mass must be negligible.
3. The tuning fork must be property placed on the Sonometer board.

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Diagram:Sonometer

Tabular column:

resonating length
sl no frequency(n) mean L n x L mean n x L
L1(cm) L2(cm)
1

3 LX=

Formula:

The unknown frequency (nx) = mean ( n x L) HZ

Lx

Where, lx is resonating length of unknown frequency.

Result:
Frequency of a given tuning fork = ________ Hz.

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Experiment No . 2
SONOMETER –II
AIM: To determine frequency of given tuning fork using Sonometer by Absolute method.

APPARATUS: Sonometer, tuning fork, meter scale, paper rider, rubber pads, different
weights.

PRINCIPLE: We know that wherever a stretched string is plucked, it vibrates with

fundamental frequency given by

n = 1/2L x √(T/m)

Where L is length of the loop. T is Tension and m is mass per unit length .The above
equation suggest that knowing T, m and L, the frequency n can be determined.

PROCEDURE: Take a given sample of wire, which is stretched along Sonometer, and find
its mass. Hence calculates mass per unit length of the wire (m) now stretch the given wire
with knowing weight (Tension T= mg) and take the given, tuning fork whose frequency is to
be determined, place its shank on the board of Sonometer after exciting. Adjust the length
between two bridges such that the paper rider placed flies off. In other words the string
between two bridges vibrates in unit with tuning fork. Note the resonating length of the wire.

The Experiment is repeated using different tension and corresponding different

resonating length are noted and then frequency of given tuning fork is calculated.

Sources of error and precautions:

1. Sonometer wire must have uniform diameter.

2. Rider mass must be negligible.
3. The tuning fork must be property placed on the Sonometer board.

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Diagram: Sonometer

Observation:

1. Mass per unit length of the wire is (m)=0.003kg/m3

2. Acceleration due to gravity(g)=9.8m/s2

Tabular column:

mass in Tension Resonating Mean

sl no kg T=mg length(m) √T/L √T/L

1
2

Formula:

nx = 1 mean √T HZ

2√m L

Result:
Frequency of a given tuning fork = _______ Hz.

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Experiment no. 3

POISEUILLE’S METHOD
AIM: To determine the co-efficient of viscosity of water by Poiseuille’s method.

APPARATUS: Reservoir of water (Large cross section area) maintained at constant level ,
capillary tube ,travelling microscope.

PRICIPLE: According to Poiseuille’s, the volume of liquid flowing per second through a
narrow tube (or) radius r and length L are given by,

V = π ʃ r4

8 ɧ L

Where ɧ is the co-efficient of viscosity of liquid flowing through the narrow tube
knowing other quantities.

PROCEDURE: Measure the length of the capillary tube using scale, then find the diameter
of capillary bore using travelling microscope.

Fill the aspirator bottle with water to certain height; regulate the water flow using a
small thread at the outer tip of capillary tube. Note down the height of water level in the
aspirator bottle as h1 using the paper scale fixed on the outer surface of the bottle
.immediately start collecting water in a beaker by keeping it just below the thread end
.collect water for about 10min in different time slots. At the end of the intervals, again note
the water level on the paper scale as h2.then mean height is given by

h = h1 + h2

Measure the volume of water collected in the beaker using a measuring jar as v .hence
determine co-efficient of viscosity of water at room temperature.

Diagram: Poiseuille’s

Reservoir ----------- capillary tube

------------

- -----
- -------- B

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Observation:

1. Π=3.14
2. ʃ is the density of water = 1000kg/m3
3. g is the Acceleration due to gravity =9.8m/s2
4. L is the length of the capillary tube=______m
5. r is the radius of the capillary tube =0.025 x10-2m

Formula:

ɧ = π ʃ g r4 x ht Ns/m2
8L V
TABULOR COLUMN:
Initial
final time(t)
SL NO height h=(h1+h2)/2 volume(V) ht/V mean
height(h2) in sec
(h1) ht/V
1

RESULT:

The co-efficient of viscosity of water is = ________Ns/m2

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Experiment No .4

VELOCITY OF SOUND BY RESONANCE AIR COLIMN

METHOD
AIM: To determine velocity of sound in air at room temperature by resonance air column
method.

APPARATUS: A tall glass jar, glass tube, tuning fork, meter scale.

PRINCIPLE: A closed pipe vibrates always with a note at the closed end and antinodes at
the open end. When its natural frequency co-insides with forced frequency resonance occur
and loud sound is produced.

As in the figure 1st resonance

I1 = ɧ / 4 and for 2nd resonance

I2 = 3 ɧ / 4

:- I2 - I1 = ɧ / 4

Hence v = n ɧ = 2 (l2 - l1) and velocity at zero (00) Celsius is given by,

V0 = v

1 + t/273

= v

1 - t/546

PROCEDURE: Fill the hollow tube and the reservoir with water such that a small length of
air column is left above water surface in the hollow tube. take a tuning fork , tune it by hitting
with rubber pad and hold it at the open end of hollow tube as shown in the figure .then
slowly lower the reservoir to increase the length of air column in the hollow tube till the
resonance condition is reached i.e. maximum intensity sound of the vibrating air column is
heard .note down the length of air column as first resonating length L1.

Further increase the length of air column in the hollow tube such that once again
maximum intensity sound is heard .note down this length of vibrating air column as L2.then
calculate the velocity of sound in air at room temperature as

V = 2 n ( L2 - L1 )

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Repeat the above steps for different tuning fork and hence find the mean velocity v
Record all these observations and calculations in the tabular form.

Diagram: Velocity of sound in air

Tabular column:

first second
Frequency Vt =2n(L2- mean
sl no resonating resonating L2 - L1
in Hz L1) Vt
length (L1) length (L2)
1

Result:

(i) Velocity of sound in air at room temperature=______m/s.

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Experiment No.5

BOYLE’S LAW
AIM: To study the variation in volume, V with pressure, p for sample of air constant
temperature by plotting graphs between p and 1/V

APPARATUS: Boyle’s law apparatus, Fortin’s Barometer, vernier callipers, thermometer

and spirit level.

PRINCIPLE: At constant temperature, the pressure of a given mass of gas changes with
change in volume.

FORMULA: PV = CONSTANT or Pl = constant

Where p = pressure of the gas

V = volume of the gas

L=effective length of the gaseous column

PROCEDURE:

1. Atmospheric pressure H by Fortin’s Barometer is noted. The scale reading R1

corresponding to the top A of the closed tube in noted.
2. The scale reading R2,R3 and R4 corresponding to the B,C and D respectively
are noted.
3. (R1 –R2) is found which gives the Radius r of the curved portion AB (R1-R3)
is found which gives length l’ of the air column. Then corrected length of the
air column l = l’ – r/3.
4. Similarly (R4 –R3) is found which gives the pressure head different h between
the closed tube and open tube. The pressure of the gas P is found using.
P = H + h cm of Hg
5. The experiment is repeated for different values of l and reading are tabulated.
6. A graph is plotted between P and l taking P along x-axis and l along y-axis.
7. Another graph is plotted between P and 1/l taking P along x-axis and 1/l along
y-axis.

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Diagram: Boyle’s law

L
Observation:

1. Lab temperature=_______0c
2. Atmospheric pressure as observed from the Forth’s barometer=_____cm of hg
3. Reading corresponding to the top A of the closed tube, R1=______cm
4. Reading corresponding to the point B of the closed tube R2=______cm
5. The radius of the curved portion AB, r=R1-R2=_________cm

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Tabular column:

pressure head Pressure of

Reading Length of Corrected difference h = the gas pxl
SL on the the air length of R4-R3 in cm of P=H +h in 1/l in +=k
-1
NO scale column air column Hg cm of Hg cm constant

RESULT:

1. The graph of P versus l is hyperbola

2. The graph of P versus 1/l is a straight line. This verifies Boyle’ law.
3. Within experimental limits, the product Pl is a constant (from the calculation).
Hence PV = constant.

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Experiment No .6

SURFACE TENSION BY CAPILLARY RISE

METHODE
AIM: To determine the surface tension of water by capillary rise method.

APPARATUS: Capillary tube, Index wire or pin, beaker-containing water, travelling

microscope stand, reading lens etc.

PRINCIPLE: Surface tension of a liquid is defined as the tangential force per unit length
acting on either sides of an imaginary line drawn on the surface at rest.

When a capillary tube of narrow bores is dipped in water, the water riser inside the
tube. This properly is called capillarity. by measuring the height (h) of water in the capillary
tube above the surface of water, the surface tension of water is calculated using the formula.

T = hrg /2 N/m

Measuring h and r we can calculate surface tension T.

PROCEDURE: Initially determine the least count of travelling microscope. A dry capillary
tube is taken and a pin is fixed to it with a little wax. The capillary tube is mounted vertically
in the stand. Fill a beaker with water and place it on wooden stand of suitable height. Adjust
the position of the capillary tube so that the rises freely in it. Make the capillary tube vertical
and adjust the position of the pin so that water its lower end just touches the water surface.
Focus the microscope on water is the capillary tube. move the microscope vertically till the
horizontal cross wire is tangential to the meniscus. Note the reading R1 on the vertical scale
of the microscope. Remove the stand, take the beaker away carefully without disturbing the
pin, and move it until the horizontal cross wire touches the images of the tip of the wire. Note
the microscope reading R2 on the vertical scale. The capillary rise h=R1-R2 is calculated.

Fix the capillary tube to a stand so that the capillary tube is horizontal.Focus the
microscope on the bore of the capillary tube so that the point of intersection of the cross wire
is at the centre of the bore of the capillary. Using the slow – motion screw of the horizontal
scale bring the vertical cross wire tangential to the left end of the bore. The microscope
reading R3 on the horizontal scale is recorded. Rotate the slow motion screw in the same
direction and make the vertical cross-wire tangential to the right end of the bore. The
microscope reading R4 is noted on the horizontal scale. The diameter of bore is calculated
using d = r3 –r4.from the value of radius r is calculated surface tension is calculated the
appropriate formula.

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Diagram: Surface Tension

Observations:

1. Value of 1 MSD ________cm

2. Total number of VSD ______
3. Least count = value of 1 MSD = ______ cm
Total no. Of VSD
4. Acceleration due to gravity g = 980cm/s2.

Tabular column:

sl no Reading for R1(in cm) Reading in R2(in cm)

MSR CVD TR=MSR+(CVD MSR CVD TR=MSR+(CVD height mean
X LC)R1(IN X LC)R2(IN h=R1 - 'h' (in
CM) CM)( R2(in cm) cm)
1
2
3

RESULT:

The surface tension of water T=______N/m

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