_______ It is reason giving in communicative
situations by people whose purpose is the justification
of acts, beliefs, attitudes, and values.
DIFFERENCE OF:
Having an Argument
Making an Argument
Inquiry as Argumentation
Advocacy as Argumentation
Limits of Argumentation
1. Emotion
2. Self-interest
3. Ignorance
4. Group pressures
________The ability to analyze, criticize, and
advocate ideas; To reason inductively or deductively;
To reach factual or judgmental conclusions based on
sound inferences drawn from unambiguous
statements of knowledge or belief.
Limitations of the Certainty of Argumentation:
Set forth by our perception
Limitation to know
________ Thoughtful process of choosing among a
variety of options for acting or thinking.
(According to Michael Scriven and Richard Paul)
An effective critical thinker:
 raises vital questions
 gathers and assesses relevant information
 thinks open-mindedly within alternative
systems
 communicates effectively with others
________ Reason giving in communicative situations
by people whose purpose is the justification of acts,
beliefs, attitudes, and values.
_______ Reasons which are psychologically
compelling for a given audience.
6 METHODS OF DECISION MAKING
_______ Process of inquiry and advocacy, a way of
arriving at a reasoned judgment on a proposition.
_______ First to recognize the importance of debate
_______ “universal art of winning the mind by
arguments, which means not merely arguments in the
courts of justice, and all other sorts of public councils,
but in private conference as well.”
4 functions for Rhetoric:
1. It prevents the triumph of fraud and
injustice
2. It is a method of instruction for the
public
3. Makes us see both sides of a case
4. Means of defense
_______through this decision we can solve problems
and complex problems whenever an individual
controls the dimensions of a problem.
5 Conditions for Group Discussions:
The GROUP should:
1. Agree that a problem exist
2. Have compatible standards or values
3. Have compatible sources
4. Willing to accept the consensus of the group
5. Relatively few
Standard Agenda for Group Decision Making:
o define and analyze the problem
o research the problem
o establish criteria
o generate solutions
o select best solutions
o implement and monitor solution
_________Communication intended to influence the
acts, beliefs, attitudes, and values of others.
_______Use of persuasion by a group in a sustained,
organized campaign using multiple media for the
purpose of influencing mass media.
________Coercion - The threat or use of force
________It is often necessary to use in making a
decision.
________Used in determining the most suitable
methods in a particular case.
_________set of constructs that guide our decision
making by providing standards of behavior telling how
we ought to act.
______ The careful phrasing of a statement
expressing the basis of controversy.
Different Forms of Propositions
______ Used in business meeting.
______ Used in legislative assemblies.
_______Used in board inquiries.
_______Resolution - Used in academic debate.
Type of Propositions
______These are descriptive, predicative, or
evaluative statements that assert the existence or
worth of something.
Note: Arguments are used to support issues.
Advocates must win every issue in order to establish
the truth of the proposition. Advocates can lose any
number of arguments and still win the issue.
Two Kinds of Issues
________Are all the issues that exist within a given
proposition.
________Are issues that become the actual basis of
a clask.
________It literally means “at first sight” or “on the
face of it” and defined as a case that is initially
adequate to overcome the presumption of the present
system and to force its defenders to respond.

________It is a statement that asserts that a course

of action should be taken.

Phrasing Proposition
1. Change from Existing Beliefs or Policies -
2. Nature and Direction of the Change
3. One Central Idea
4. Neutral Terminology

_________describes the inherent advantage in

opposing change; makes no judgment concerning the
wisdom of present beliefs or policies.

Purpose of Presumption

A. Provides fundamental decision rule

B. Identifies the existence of a kind of mental and
physical intertia

C. Recognizes that failure to make positive

decision is a decision nonetheless

D. Recognizes an advantage inherent in any

decision making situation

_________ It is the inherent obligation of those

advocating change to provide sufficient evidence and
arguments to overcome the presumption of existing
beliefs or policies. It resides with the advocate of
change; it never shifts during the controversy.

_________ It is frequently used to refer to the

obligation that all parties in a controversy have to
respond to the arguments once they are advanced
and supported.

_________These are inherent questions vital to the

advocate’s cause.
_______ It is a complete unit of proof.
3 Components of Argument
_______ It is the raw material of an argument. Also
known as starting points of an argument and the
substance from which we reason.
Note: this is the foundation of an argument, therefore
to have a good argument, one must have satisfactory
data.
Types of Premises
________ Assumptions about the nature of things.
_________Does not extend beyond the original data,
but is contained within the initial generalization.
_________ Expresses the specific interpretation
Types of Conclusions
_________Assert that something is real or manifest or
in a state of being.
_________Identify an essential feature or basic
attribute or a characteristic property of something.
________ Relate phenomena so as to account for
there existence or to make their existence intelligible.

________Judgment concerning the worth of ________Ability to relate data and reach conclusions
something. through reasoning process. Expresses the belief that
there is order and predictability in the universe
Types of Evidence

1.________It consists of potentially verifiable

statements that describe real objects and events. .

Note: needs verification from people who witnessed

the incident.

________ Detailed descriptions of specific cases,

instances, and situations.

________ Appears in forms like raw numbers,

percentages, ratios, average, but are more convenient
in expressing large numbers of examples

_________Reports that something happened at a

certain time and place.

Note: are closely related to verbal examples but are

less detailed.

2._________Consists of authoritative statements that

explain factual evidence.They interpret the meaning of
factual evidence.

________ Process of interpreting the data

________Sometimes defined as reasoning from the

specific to general

________bringing together elements into a whole

_______ Specific cases, instances, or situations

_______ Less certain than the original data

________Often defined as reasoning from the general

to the specific.

________ Breaking down a whole into parts

________Begins with general statements to be

broken down and analyzed later on
General Ways of Discovering Premises Developing Research Plan

______It recognize the important of premise and also There are two types of research plan the _____ and
clearly define the value of arguments basis. _________.

______In this premise we need to examine-well the _______ It is used when the advocate first learn of the
values and language used in premise.A careful proposition to be debated.
examination of the language used in argument is vital
to discovering perceptual premise. We suggest asking the following questions:

______It is based from the assumption and 1. What do I already know about the proposition?
perception of audience. We are going to argue based 2. Why is it important to debate this proposition?
on the opinion of the audience as well as on our own 3. What have I read recently in newspaper and
personal premises. newsmagazine that may guide my research?
4. Do the terms of the proposition have clearly
Ways of Discovering Community Inferred defined, obvious meaning?
Premises 5. Do I know any groups or individuals who favor the
proposition? Who oppose the proposition?
_______ In this premise we need to examine carefully 6. Will specialized sources of information be needed
first our own beliefs and assumption, and explain also to understand the proposition?
the basis of our belief. 7. Will very recent information be important in dealing
with the preposition?
To separate self-evident premises from less
8. What issue will be important in the topic?
fundamental beliefs we should ask first
ourselves three questions.
The purpose of these question is to help us to decide
1. What do I believe in? on particular research strategies
2. Why do I believe it?
_______ It is used after we have developed a basic
3. Can the basis of my belief reasonably
familiarity with the key issue within the proposition.
denied?
Compiling the Bibliography
________ The second way in which we can discover
community premises is by performing audience Searching Index Manually
analysis. Although audience analysis fails to
guarantee the discovery of universally self-evident After familiarizing yourself with the library. We need to
premises. It does allow us to discover premises that learn also how to use a variety of reference guides,
are acceptable to a particular community or audience. and understand also how indexing works. These
guides will help us in developing a bibliography of
To conduct audience analysis one makes sources from which to find evidence.
use of the following resources:
Sources of Data
1. Audience Published Reports
2. Interviews 1. Books
3. Demographically Based Inferences 2. Periodicals
3. Newspapers
Researching for Evidences 4. Editorials
5. Almanacs and Fact Books
It is important in argumentation as it is solving a 6. Government Documents
problem before we can get the answer for the problem 7. Legislative Journals
in argumentation.When we start to researching 8. Essays
evidence the first question inside our mind is “Where 9. Bibliography
do I begin?”
Reading for Evidence
We seek to answer the questions
Reading for evidence and gathering the necessary
Where do I begin?
source of evidence is the first step in research.
Where do I find evidence?
Finding the right source does not automatically
How do I read the evidence?
guarantee that you will discover the necessary
How do I record the evidence?
evidence
Recording Evidence

Recording evidence is important since few of us have

photographic memories. It is necessary for us to
record the evidence that we discover, evidence must
be recorded for future references.

Filling Evidence

After the gathering a large number of evidence cards,

you will need to organize the evidences so that you
can retrieve specific pieces of evidence efficiently
whether you are writing a term paper or preparing for
a public debate, being able to quickly retrieve
necessary information is important to successful
advocacy.
General Tests of Data 4 Special Tests for Statistical Evidence:

_______ 1. Adequate Sampling

2. Appropriate Statistical Unit
Asks: “Are the data consistent with the other data 3. Appropriate Time Period
from same source?” 4. Comparable Units
The test suggests that we must look carefully at the
Adequate Sampling-“Are the statistics based on
premises, facts, and opinion expressed by the source
adequate sampling techniques?”
to determined whether or not they are consistent with
each other. Appropriate Statistical Unit- “Is the statistical unit an
appropriate one”?
_________
Appropriate Time Period- “Do the statistics cover an
Asks: “Are the data consistent with the other data
appropriate time period?”
from the unrelated sources?”
Comparable Units- ”Are comparisons between
______
comparable units?”
Asks: “Do the data support the conclusion they are
asserted to support?”

Specific Test of Perceptual and Value Premises

Clear Definition - “Are the terms used in the premise

clearly defined?”
Appropriate justification-“Is an appropriate rationale
provided to justify the judgment expressed?”
Result in Good-“Does accepting the premise result in
good?”
Sacrifice of More Important Premises
Wide acceptance-“Is the premise widely accepted?”
Expert Support- “Do subject area expert support the
premise?”

Specific Tests of Evidence

The Test of Recency- “Is the statement of the

evidence based on recent observations of the real
situation?”

The Test of Source Identification- “Is the source of the

evidence identifiable?”

The Test of Source Ability- “Is the source of the

evidence able to report or interpret the situation
accurately?”

The Test of Source Willingness-“Is the source of the

evidence willing to report or interpret the situation
fairly?”

The Test of Context-“Is the evidence used in a

manner consistent with the meaning and intent of the
source?”

Test of Statistical Evidence- When evidence takes the

form of statistics, a variety of special tests of the
measurement procedures must be applied.