Solid State Microwave Devices

Unit III - Microwave Engineering

(EC7001)
What is solid state Microwave?

• Traditional semiconductor devices are not

fast enough to oscillate, amplify, switch or
perform any other operations on
microwave signals
• To generate and amplify microwave
signals vacuum tube devices were
invented.
• Tremendous researches in
semiconductors has improved their
performance and speed overtime.
Semiconductor devices (examples)

• Some of the semiconductor devices useful

in microwave frequency will be discussed
in this presentation:
– PIN diode
– Varactor diode
– Schottky Diode
– Tunnel Diode
– Gunn Diodes
– IMPATT, TRAPATT and BARITT diode
PIN diode
PIN diode construction & working

• A PIN diode has an intrinsic layer of

semiconductor sandwiched between two
highly doped n type (n+) and p type (p+)
semiconductors.
• Intrinsic layer is thicker than n or p type
outer layers and is lightly doped.
• PIN diode is mostly used in reverse bias.
• Under zero or reverse bias, the diode
shows very high impedance at microwave
frequencies.
PIN diode operation

• Zero Bias: The diffusion of holes and

electrons across the junction causes
space charge region at p+ and n+ sides.
Intrinsic region has effectively no depletion
region
• Reverse Bias: Depletion region in P and N
region will increase, increasing the
impedance
PIN diode operation

• Forward Bias: The carriers will be injected

into I layer from P and N layers. The space
charge region at P and N layer will
become thinner.
• The carrier concentration of I layer
increases, decreasing its resistivity.
• Hence low resistance is offered to
microwave signal in forward bias.
Salient features of PIN diode

• The capacitance of PIN diode is independent of

bias level as the net charge is said to be very
less in the intrinsic layer
• PIN diode possesses very low reverse recovery
time
• The Diode obeys standard diode equation for all
the low-frequency signals.
• This diode appears like a resistor than any other
non- linear devices and is said to produce no
distortion or rectification.
Applications of PIN diode
• These diodes are used in the RF and also for microwave
switches and microwave variable attenuators since they
are said to have low capacitance.
• They are used in Photodetectors and photovoltaic cell
and the PIN photodiodes are used for fibre optic network
cards and also switches.
• These diodes are effectively used for RF protection
circuits and it can also be utilized as an RF switch.
• The PIN photodiode is also used to detect X-rays and
gamma rays photons.
PIN diode as limiter

• In reverse bias the PIN diode shows very high

impedance to microwave signals
• Due to the intrinsic layer PIN diode has very
low capacitance.
• This low capacitance increases the reactive
impedance which will block RF signals
PIN diode as modulator

• When PIN diode is forward biased, is acts

as variable resistor. Resistance depends
on magnitude of current flowing through
diode
• This property is utilized in AM modulator
circuit. In this circuit, modulating signal is
used to vary forward bias current through
the PIN diode. This results into generation
of amplitude modulated (AM) signal.
PIN diode as modulator
PIN diode as modulator

• Positive going modulating signal reduces

bias on the PIN diodes. This will cause the
resistance to increase. This results into
reduction in amplitude of carrier across
load.
• A negative going modulating signal will
add up with forward bias. This will cause
resistance of diodes to decrease. This
results into increase in amplitude of carrier
across load.
Varactor Diode

• Varactor diode is a p-n junction diode

whose capacitance is varied by varying
the reverse voltage
• The term varactor is originated from a
variable capacitor. Varactor diode operates
only in reverse bias. The varactor diode
acts like a variable capacitor under
reverse bias.
Working of Varactor diode

• Their mode of operation depends on the

capacitance that exists at the p-n junction
when the element is reverse biased.
• Under reverse-bias conditions, there is a
region of uncovered charge on either side of
the junction that together the regions make
up the depletion region and define the
depletion width Wd. The transition
capacitance (CT) established by the isolated
uncovered charges is determined by A
CT 
Wd
Parametric Amplifiers

• A parametric device is one that uses non-

linear reactance (capacitance or
inductance) or a time varying reactance.
• Parametric devices can be used as
amplifiers or oscillators.
• These devices can be used as low noise
amplifiers since its is essentially a reactive
device in which no thermal noise is
generated.
Parametric Amplifiers

• Parametric amplifiers use AC power

supply unlike conventional amplifiers
• Change in the charge stored in a
capacitive device with respect to change
in voltage produces non linear
capacitance.
• In the operation of parametric devices, the
mixing effects occur when voltages at two
or more different frequencies are
impressed on a non linear reactance.
Parametric Amplifiers

• The output frequency is equal to the sum of signal and pump frequency
• There is no power flow in parametric device at frequency other than fs, fp
or f0 (Manley Rowe Power Relation)
Schottky Diode

• A Schottky Diode is a metal-

semiconductor diode with a low forward
voltage drop and a very fast switching
speed.
• This diode has their forward voltage drop
substantially less than that of the
conventional silicon pn-junction diode.
Construction of Schottky Diode

• Schottky Diodes are constructed using a

metal electrode bonded to an N-type
semiconductor.
• Since they are constructed using a metal
compound on one side of their junction
and doped silicon on the other side, the
Schottky diodes therefore has no
depletion layer and are classified as
unipolar devices unlike typical pn-junction
diodes which are bipolar devices.
Construction of Schottky Diode
Working of Schottky Diode

• In both layers, the electron is the majority carrier.

In the metal, the level of minority carriers (holes)
is insignificant.
• When the materials are joined, the electrons in
the n-type silicon semiconductor material
immediately flow into the adjoining metal,
establishing a heavy flow of majority carriers.
• Since the injected carriers have a very high
kinetic energy level compared to the electrons of
the metal, they are commonly called “hot
carriers.”
Working of Schottky Diode

• In Schottky diode the electrons are

injected into a region of the same electron
plurality. Schottky diodes are therefore
unique in that conduction is entirely by
majority carriers.
• The heavy flow of electrons into the metal
creates a region near the junction surface
depleted of carriers in the silicon material
much like the depletion region in the p-n
junction diode.
Working of Schottky Diode

• The additional carriers in the metal

establish a “negative wall” in the metal at
the boundary between the two materials.
• The net result is a “surface barrier”
between the two materials, preventing any
further current.
• That is, any electrons (negatively charged)
in the silicon material face a carrier-free
region in semiconductor and a “negative
wall” at the surface of the metal
Schottky Diode microwave detector

• The principle of diode detection is

rectifying the AC signal through a
unidirectional transfer characteristic diode
and then transferring the rectified signal
through an integrator to obtain the DC
component.
• Rectification device used for high
frequency signals is a Schottky diode
rathar than a simple pn junction diode.
Schottky Diode microwave detector
Tunnel Diode

• A Tunnel diode is a heavily doped p-n diode.

• Leo Esaki invented Tunnel diode in August 1957.
Therefore, it is also called as Esaki diode.
• The materials used for this diode are
Germanium, Gallium arsenide and other silicon
materials. Tunnel diode shows a “negative
resistance” in their operating range.
Tunnel Diode construction

• The tunnel diode is a heavily doped PN-junction

diode. The concentration of impurity in the
normal PN-junction diode is about 1 part in 108,
but in the tunnel diode, the concentration of the
impurity is about 1 part in 103.
• Because of the heavy doping, the diode
conducts current both in the forward as well as in
the reverse direction. It is a fast switching
device; thereby it is used in high-frequency
oscillators, computers and amplifiers.
Working of Tunnel Diode (No Bias)

• When the tunnel diode is unbiased, or we can

say when no voltage is applied across the diode
in that case the conduction band of the n-type
semiconductor material overlaps with the
valence band of the p-type material.
• This happens because of the heavy doping. The
energy levels of the hole and the electron in the
p and n-side respectively remains same.
Working of Tunnel Diode (No Bias)
Tunnel Diode (Small Tunneling Current)

• When the small voltage is applied across the

tunnel diode whose magnitude is less than built-
in-depletion region voltage, then no electrons
cross the depletion region and zero current flows
through the diode.
• The few electrons from n-region of the
conduction band are tunnelled into the p-region
of the valence band. Because of the tunnelling of
electrons, the small forward current flows
through the depletion region.
Tunnel Diode (Small Tunneling Current)
Tunnel Diode (High Tunneling Current)

• When the heavy voltage applied across the

tunnel diode, the number of electrons and holes
are generated. The increase in voltage increases
the overlapping of conduction and valence band.
• The energy levels of the n-side valence band
and the p-side conduction band is equal. Thus,
the maximum current flows through the tunnel.
Tunnel Diode (High Tunneling Current)
Tunnel Diode (Valley Current)

• When the applied voltage is further increased

then the valence and conduction band of the
diode is slightly misaligned.
• But the conduction band of the n-type region and
the valence band of the p-type region still
overlap. The small current flows through the
diode, and thus the tunnel current starts
decreasing.
Tunnel Diode (Valley Current)
VI characteristics of Tunnel Diode
Gunn Diode

• Gunn diode is one of the Transferred

Electron Devices (TED).
• Transferred electron devices are bulk
semiconductor devices with no junctions
or gates.
• TEDs are fabricated from compound
semiconductors such as GaAs, InP and
CdTe
• TEDs operate at very high energy (hot)
electrons.
Gunn Effect

“When a very high electric field (above a

critical voltage) is provided to a small
sample of highly doped compound
semiconductor the curremnt flows in the
form of high frequency fluctuations.
The frequency of oscillations (fluctuations)
depend upon the composition and size of
the sample”
Schematic of Gunn Diode
RWH theory

• Ridley-Watkin-Hilsum theory gave an

explanation for the reason of the Gunn
effect in Gunn diodes.
• They said that “a single carrier
semiconductor can be made to exhibit
differential negative resistance if it is made
electrically unstable”. This specially occurs
in compound semiconductors like GaAs.
Differential Negative Resistance

• Differential negative resistance is

developed in a bulk compound
semiconductor when either a voltage (E-
field) or a current is applied to the
terminals of the sample.
• There are two modes of negative
resistance devices
– Voltage controlled mode
– Current controlled mode
Differential Negative Resistance
Modes of negative resistance

• After applying high voltage or high current,

a normally homogenous sample becomes
electrically heterogenous, in a attempt to
reach stability.
• In voltage controlled mode, high field
domains are formed separating two low
field domains
• In current controlled mode, high-current
filaments are formed running along the
length of the sample.
Two valley model theory

• The energy band diagram of GaAs is

different from Si or Ge.
• An n-type GaAs has a low mobility lower
valley separated by an energy of 0.36eV
from low mobility upper valley.
• Both the valleys are present in conduction
band.
• Electrons densities in the lower and upper
valley remain same under equilibrium
condition.
Two valley model theory
 Two valley model theory

• When applied electric field is lower than electric

field of the lower valley (E < El), no electrons will
transfer to the upper valley
• When applied electric field is higher than electric
field of lower valley and lower than the electric
field of the upper valley, electrons will begin to
transfer to upper valley (El < E <Eu).
• When the applied electric field is higher than
electric field of the upper valley, all the electrons
will transfer to upper valley. (E > Eu)
Two valley model theory
High Field domain

• When the applied voltage to a n-type

semiconductor is above a threshold value
3kV/cm, high field domain is formed near the
cathode that reduces the electric field in rest of
the material and causes the current to drop to
2/3 of the maximum value.
• The high field domain then drifts with the carrier
stream across the electrodes and disappears at
the anode contact.
• When the electric field increases, electron drift
velocity decreases and GaAs shows negative
resistance
High Field Domain
Gunn Diode - Modes of operation

• Gunn Oscillation modes: product of

doping and length (n0L) is greater than
1012 /cm2, the space charge perturbations
in the specimen increase exponentially in
space and time. High field domains are
formed and moves from cathode to anode.
• The frequency of oscillation is given by
vdom
f  Domain velocity/
Leff effective length
Gunn oscillation modes

• The Gunn oscillation mode occurs only

when applied electric field is more than
threshold field (E > Eth)
• The high field domain drifts along the
specimen until it reaches the anode or
until the low field drops below sustaining
field Es required to maintain sustaining
velocity vs.
• There are three possible domain modes
for the Gunn Oscillation modes.
Transit time domain mode

• Transit time domain mode (fL = 107cm/s): When

the electron drift velocity vd is equal to the
sustaining velocity vs, the high field domain is
stable. The oscillation period is equal to the
transit time (τ0 = τt). The efficiency is below 10%
because the current is collected only when the
domain arrives at the anode.
Delayed domain mode

• Delayed domain mode (106cm/s<fL<107cm/s):

When the transit time is chosen so that the
domain is collected while E < Eth, a new
domain cannot form until the field rises above
threshold again (τ0 > τt). The efficiency is about
20%.
Quenched domain mode

• Delayed domain mode (fL>2 x107cm/s): If the

bias field drops below sustaining field Es during
the negative half-cycle, the domain collapses
before it reaches the anode. When the bias
field swings back above threshold a new
domain is formed and the process repeats. (τ0
< τ t)
LSA mode

• Limited Space-charge Accumulation mode

(fL>2 x107cm/s): When the frequency is very
high, the domains do not have sufficient time
to form while the field is above threshold. Any
accumulation of electrons near the cathode
has time to collapse while the signal is below
threshold (τ0 < τt). The efficiency can reach
20%
Avalance Transit Time Devices

• Avalanche transit time diode oscillators

rely on the effect of voltage breakdown
across a reverse biased p-n junction to
produce a supply of holes and electrons.
• The avalanche diode oscillator uses
carrier impact ionization and drift in the
high field region of a semiconductor
junction to produce a negative resistance
at microwave frequencies.
Read Diode
Read Diode

• The Read diode is an n+-p-i-p+ structure.

• It is used in reverse bias.
• The device contains p region at which avalanche
multiplication occurs.
• The carriers generated in p region drifts through
the i region towards p+ region.
• The space between n+-p junction and i-p+
junction is called space charge region.
• These diode are mounted in a microwave cavity.
Inductive impedance is matched with the
capacitive impedance of the device.
IMPATT (Impact Ionization Avalanche
Transit Time) Diode
Abrupt p-n junction

Linearly graded p-n junction

p-i-n diode

IMPATT diode and Read diode comes from the same family
TRAPATT (Trapped Plasma Avalanche
Triggered Transit) Diode
TRAPATT (Trapped Plasma Avalanche
Triggered Transit) Diode
• The high field avalanche zone propagates
through the diode and fills the depletion
layer with dense plasma of electrons and
holes that become trapped in low field
region behind the zone.
• The difference from IMPATT diode is that
because of the doping the impact
ionization continues for a longer period,
creating plasma of carriers.
BARITT (Barrier Injected Transit Time)
Diode

Energy band
under unbiased
condition

Energy band
under biased
condition
BARITT (Barrier Injected Transit Time)
Diode
• A crystal of n-type silicon wafer is
sandwiched between two P type Schottky
barrier contacts.
• It can also be considered as metal-n-metal
structure.
• It has a longer drift region.
• The Schottky barrier injects hole into the
n-type region
BARITT (Barrier Injected Transit Time)
Diode
• The oscillations are caused due to
– the rapid increase of carrier injection
process caused by decreasing potential
barrier of the forward biased metal-
semiconductor contact.
– 3π/2 transit angle of the injected carrier
that traverses the semiconductor
depletion layer.