Annotated Bibliography 1

Running head: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Research Based Eco-Tourism at the Wakatobi National Park: Annotated Bibliography

Emily McIntyre

3378148

TREN 3P90

John Middleton

June 25, 2007

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Annotated Bibliography

Prior to research at the Wakatobi National Park, extensive secondary research has

been conducted to gain worldly insights on the issues of sustainability, as well as learning

more about the current situation of the Park itself. This bibliography represents articles

that look at sustainability through political, environmental, spiritual, social and many

other standpoints. Cultural, social and economical issues are looked at in great depth to

benchmark models of best practice or to learn from certain countries mistakes. This

research can collectively help come up with new and innovative ways to help preserve

the national park while Operation Wallacea conducts marine and cultural research.

Altieri, M.A. (1998). Ecological impacts of industrial agriculture and the possibilities for

truly sustainable farming. Monthly Review, 50 (3), 60-72.

This article examines the environmental problems occurring from industrial

agriculture, such as: suppressed insects, weeds, and diseases, high chemical inputs,

agricultural waste, soil depletion and erosion. Although low-cost food can be produced

from industrial agriculture, there are a variety of economic, environmental and social

problems. Examples of these implications include the loss of crop, wild plant and animal

genetic resources, elimination of natural enemies of pests and destruction of natural

control mechanisms.

This article is relevant as Sulawesi has great potential to develop some forms of

industrial agriculture such as corn, soybean and sugarcane plantations. Therefore it is

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important to understand the implications it can lead to as well as the shift that could occur

from the traditional and cultural forms of farming. Maintaining their traditional ways of

farming would be a more sustainable way of securing self-sufficiency, preserving natural

resources as well as social and economic viability.

Coastal Area Management: Integrating Environmental Objectives into Harbour Planning.

(1999). Global Development Research Centre. Retrieved June 6th from:

http://www.gdrc.org/oceans/cam-continuum.html

This article examines harbours and recognizes the importance of having them for

their critical role in trade and transportation. The harbours act as a preventive base for

natural disasters, many employment opportunities as well as recreational activities and

other harbour activities. Since it is an industrial and manufacturing zone and a complex-

function space, this article recognizes the need for surveys and designs to be implemented

as well as project development that contributes to the continuous development of the

local and global economy. A holistic standpoint has been developed that recognizes the

need to protect and reduce the negative environmental impacts of the coast and the ocean.

Outlined in this article is a ‘CAM continuum’, which provides policies on coastal area

management. There are also interesting points that the Kaledupan’s of the Wakatobi

National Park need to be mindful of such as the fact that fish production from most of the

world’s fisheries has reached or exceeded levels to which the fish can regenerate

themselves. This article also states that about 80% of pollution comes from runoff

pollution which are small sources such as septic tanks, cars, ranches and forest areas.
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This article is very accurate about the exploitative nature of humans on the ocean’s

natural resources and how initiatives need to be implemented to ensure sustainable

production and consumption to help conserve our ocean. A holistic approach through

policy, management, technology innovations, with a planning process that responds to the

ecological and socio-economic conditions, is the active stance that they want to take as

well as a shift from traditional roles. The CAM process also entails participation from

the general public and communities with a distinctive role from the beginning as well as

integrated cooperation approaches.

Elliot, G., Mitchell, B., Wiltshire, B., Manan, A., & Wismer, S. (2001). Community

Participation in Marine Protected Area Management: Wakatobi National Park,

Sulawesi, Indonesia: Coastal Management, 29 (4), 295-316.

This paper outlines the apparent issues in relation to the fishing operations at the

Wakatobi National Park. Many problems are caused in part by the people being unaware

of their absolute dependence on the sea. This paper also outlined ways to raise

awareness.

This paper outlines how rules, regulations and maximum yield quotas alongside

conservation policies are also at conflict with the interests of the local people. It

discusses problems arising from an expanding human population, national and

international markets for valuable marine resources live-reef fish trade, a lack of

defensible marine boundaries and a history of corruption at all levels of government.

Therefore, eco-tourism can be a way of differentiating their economy, but tourists

affect the corals directly through boating, reef walking, swimming, snorkeling and scuba
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diving. There are also indirect consequences such as building infrastructure to serve

tourists, using reef resources for food and the use of the coastal waters for waste

assimilation. Therefore, from what has been gathered from this article, tourism can only

been seen as positive in the sense that it will bring in money to the local economy. In

terms of sustaining life in the reefs, it will only help protect the reefs from further damage

such as from fish bombing. In that case, tourism would act as a viable solution so the

locals no longer need to rely on these harmful fishing operations to make an income.

The paper outlines problems arising from illegal fishing as well as problems

arising from lack of education and awareness about the environmental issues. For

example the burning of garbage in some of the villages, waste going directly into the

water and women washing their clothes at the sides of their houses and the detergent is

contributing to the pollution.

Graci, S. and McKenna, J. (2005). British Columbia’s Environmental Assessment

Process in K. Hanna Environmental Assessment in Canada: Participation and

Practice Toronto: Oxford University Press.

This article describes the environmental assessment process in British Columbia.

The usefulness of the article in an Indonesian context is limited because the legislation is

very individualistic to British Columbia. Some environmental issues in British Columbia

are also very individualistic to their province, such as energy projects and mass tourist ski

resorts. Relative to Indonesia, legislation is much more advanced within British

Columbia, and enforcement is not affected by corruption.

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There are areas of legislation in British Columbia that have their strengths and can

be used as a benchmark such as including the public, community organizations and

special interest groups as well as First Nations consultation. Their legislation also puts a

lot of emphasis on early consultations and follows a five-step consultation assessment to

ensure management is properly engaged.

Jack M. (2006, March). Urbanization, Sustainable Growth and Poverty Reduction in

Asia. Institute of Development Studies. Symposium conducted at Promoting

Growth, Ending Poverty: Asia 2015 Conference.

This article outlines how urbanization in Asia has led to over 600 million people

living in poverty, lacking sanitation and with infrequent access only to low-quality water.

Governments and international development agencies are faced with how to achieve

poverty reduction and economic development. It suggests that governments in these

countries can learn from each other’s practices, and refers to partnership-based

approaches that emphasize positive future planning which occurs in Cambodia and the

Philippines. By cooperating with community led initiatives and local partners, a large

span of ideas can be implemented from the local to global level.

This type of urban development issue is not applicable to Wakatobi National Park,

as it is important to conserve the national park. However, one lesson that can be learned

from this article is how developers and stakeholders can form partnerships and work

together to develop shared facilities and responsible resource use.

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Kaur, C. R. (n.d.). National Ecotourism Plan: Assessing Implementation of the

Guidelines for Marine Parks: Maritime Institute of Malaysia. Retrieved June 13

from http://www.mima.gov.my/mima/htmls/papers/pdf/cheryl/Cheryl%20-

National%20Ecotourism%20Plan%20-%20assessing%20implementation%20of

%20the%20guidelines%20for%20marine%20parks.pdf

This paper examines how guidelines for ecotourism in marine parks in Malaysia

have been implemented under pressure from mass tourism and development.

Malaysia has a seven-part sustainable development plan, which pertains to areas

such as limits of acceptable change and community. Innovative sustainable methods,

such as energy saving devices, water management and waste management, are discussed.

Key issues include overcrowding, environmental degradation, coral reef damage and lack

of enforcement of existing regulations. How small-scale tourism development can be

collectively more damaging than big operations is also discussed. This article is very

insightful in relation to the Wakatobi National Park, as there are similarities to Malaysian

National Parks. Fish bombing, which is a huge issue in both countries as well as the lack

of enforcement and regulation.

This article acts as an effective case study for management of the Wakatobi

National Park and includes tables, charts and diagrams of tourism-related issues to help

outline the problematic areas of developed marine tourism destinations.

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Levitt, R. & McNally, R. (2003). A Strategic Environmental Assessment of Fiji’s

Tourism Development Plan: World Summit of Sustainable Development

This article is an assessment of the impact of socio-economic trends on the Fiji

environment. This included the damage to the coral reefs from boating, diving, sewage

and seepage from landfills. This assessment encompasses six program areas: forest

conservation; marine conservation; freshwater management; climate change; species

conservation and capacity building. Similar to the Indonesia, Fiji does not have enough

political will or administrative capacity to ensure that sustainable operations and policies

are implemented. Therefore, both countries have to improve regulations and monitors in

order to minimize the irreplaceable damage on their coral reefs.

The paper outlines how stakeholders are operating their ventures and how

prospective tourists can make more sustainable decisions. The direct and indirect impacts

of tourism are discussed as well as contingency plans to guard against risk. Which would

be a strong recommendation for tourism operators at the Wakatobi National Park to adopt

as there tourism is seasonal and many external factors affect a tourists decision to travel

there. Bali was used as a case study within this article and how many locals are not

pleased with the growing social and environmental problems they are faced with. This

further emphasizes the need for Operation Wallacea to continue positive relationships

with the locals by surveying them to ensure their shared objectives are considered in the

tourism management plan.

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Mok, C. & DeFranco, A.L. (1999). Chinese Cultural Values: Their Implications for

Travel and Tourism Marketing. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 8(2),

99-114. Retreived June 6th, 2007 from http://www.haworthpress.com/store/E-

Text/View_EText.asp?a=3&fn=J073v08n02_07&i=2&s=J073&v=8.

This article notes the implications to travel and tourism marketing in relation to

the dominant Chinese culture. The desire to live in harmony is predominant in the

Chinese culture. Therefore the Chinese will rarely complain unless they are completely

dissatisfied, making it difficult for marketers to take on a pro-active approach.

This article also outlines how the open door policy and influx of foreign tourists

also brought westernized ideals into the Chinese people’s lives. Therefore this article is

individualistic to Chinese culture and Chinese-dominated regions such as China,

Singapore and Taiwan. The issues addressed in this article are not immediately relevant

to the issues of a rural, undeveloped area such as the Wakatobi National Park.

Paolo, S. (2004). The Price of Success. The Economist Print Edition (how to reference

newspaper article? [I can’t locate this – what’s its url and I can suggest a

citation]

This article identifies the challenges that the Brazilians are faced with between

saving their forest, or meeting the demands of consumers and boosting their economy.

Many farms are on traditional rainforest lands and are often illegally occupied rather than

bought. Deforestation has increased even when growth is weak. Exports have reduced

Brazil’s dependence on foreign capital, but may not be sustainable. The environment

ministry has placed ‘ecological-economic zoning”, which is a start to preserving certain

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areas, but monitoring needs to take place to ensure this policy is effective. This article

also shows how they are taking steps towards zoning areas and coming up with ways to

benefit the economy while maintaining the environment.

This article can act as a point of reference for Wakatobi National Park and their

reliance on fish farming, as there are strategies for improving the economy while

attempting to maintain the environment. This can also be a point of reference if the

Wakatobi National Park wants to take steps towards zoning and enforcing policies.

Philips, R.A. (2000). The Environment as a stakeholder? A Fairness Based Approach:

Journal of Business Ethics 23, 185-197.

This article demonstrates the debate of how the environment should hold

stakeholder status through a fairness-based approach. This paper explains the difference

between one who is required to do something and one who feels the moral obligation and

voluntarily acts in a certain way. There is a reasonable debate about the philosophy and

ethics behind the natural environment meriting stakeholder status, but at times gets a bit

too wordy and steers away from the point.

Many Indonesians are unaware of their ecological footprint, and by placing more

emphasis on the environment as a stakeholder; it may help to overcome some of the

barriers that are existent. This article mentions issues such as the exploitative use of

resources with the overlapping interest of maintaining natural resources. Which is

pertinent to the Wakatobi National Park, as they want to differentiate their economy from

fish bombing by offering eco-tourist based activities. This article brings up worthy of
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note points from religious, political, economic, ethical and anthropocentric standpoints on

a fairness based approach to stakeholder status and ecologically sound operations.

Quattrone, G. (2002). Urban Development Strategies: The “Tourism City Network”

Symposium conducted at the EURA Conference Urban and Spatial European

Policies: Levels of Territorial Government.

This paper focuses on a conventional approach on strategic planning for tourism

development. It emphasizes sustainable practices and local strategies, stakeholders and

partnerships. It also ties in economic, social, cultural, political and environmental

implications. It outlines the tourism planning process. This paper also outlines how to

strategically assess and evaluate tourism in a sustainable manner as well as offering

innovative ideas and programs, such as training programs and tourism-related legislation.

The description of the tourist planning process can act as a guideline at the

Wakatobi National Park. The Wakatobi National Park could use this planning process as

a guide, but would have to adopt many specific tasks that are individualistic to the area in

order to achieve economic integration. This article is limited as it is a basic level of

understanding for tourism operations.

Roman, G, S, J., Dearden, P. & Rollands, R. (2007). Application of Zoning and “Limits

of Acceptable Change” to Snorkel Tourism. Environment Management 39 (6)

819-830.

This paper documents the limits of acceptable change in relation to snorkel

tourism using a case study from Koh Chang National Marine Park in Thailand. This
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National Park has been acclaimed as one of South East Asia’s hotspots and therefore

their coral reef zoning system can act as a benchmark for other areas in Asia that have

yet to be discovered by mass amounts of tourists. Through experimental research at the

Koh Chang National Marine Park, they were able to determine which types of coral

could withstand tourist activities and which were more affected by trampling,

sunscreens and so on. By applying the LAC (Limits of Acceptable Change) model,

they propose 4 zoning categories: Conservation Zones, Tourism Zones, Eco-tourism

Zones and General Use Zones.

As scuba diving and snorkelling will be the main draws to Hoga, this is an

extremely relevant article for the Wakatobi National Park. It can provide guidelines for

determining what areas are acceptable for tourists to partake in recreational activities.

This may also help to demolish the illegal fish bombing operations that occur at the

reefs.

Ross, A. & Pickering, K. (2002). The politics of reintegrating Australian aboriginal and

American Indian indigenous knowledge into resource management: The

dynamics of resource appropriation and cultural revival. Human Ecology 30

(2), 187- 215.

Aboriginal cultures in Australia and North America developed life styles that

ensured sustainability from generation to generation. This has now been threatened

because of changes to their language, culture and access to traditional resources. This is

in result of a number of reasons such as European invasion, global industrialization,

degradation of traditional lands and so on. This article discusses how indigenous
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knowledge can be studied and applied so that resources are managed in a sustainable

fashion.

Although the context of lifestyles between the indigenous Kaledupans and those

who are Aboriginal to United States and Australia is different, strategies can be adapted to

the Kaledupans lifestyle, through studying indigenous knowledge for practices that can

be applied for sustainable resource management. As sustainable tourism consumption is

a relatively new phenomena for them, this article is helpful in determining a balance

between consumptive uses and conservation of natural resources.

Sofield, T.H. (2002). Australian Aboriginal Ecotourism in the Wet Tropics Rainforest of

Queensland, Australia: Mountain Research and Development 22 (2), 118-122.

The article shows the paradox of how the development of ecotourism operations

has led non-indigenous Australians to exploit the Aboriginal culture as a marketing tool.

The Aboriginals are considered ‘cultural objects’ and tourism operators will appeal to

stereotypes and exploit their culture based on past traditions. In one sense, it is great that

they have developed eco-tourism operations that are as much culture-based as they are

nature based. This article raises the issue that the Aborigines should be the main

stakeholders because of their harmonious and sustainable relationship and oneness that

they have with nature. However, this isn’t the case as they are seen to be economically

disadvantaged, low in education, and a whole other range of socio-cultural factors. This

article outlines the social, environmental and economic implications that have resulted

from the implementation of eco-tourism in the area such as uneven financial distributions

and shifts in traditional structure. On the other hand, it also outlines the improvements
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and benefits, such as alleviating the poor socio-economic conditions in the community

and maintaining traditional land

The experience of Australian Aborigines can act as a benchmark to indigenous

villages at the Wakatobi National Park that are trying to develop tourism in a sustainable

manner. However, authentic cultural tourism is not a possibility with these Aboriginal

tribes in Australia, as many elements of their traditional beliefs and practices cannot be

shared with outsiders. Therefore this case study undermines the possibility of authentic

cultural tourism, but is limited as the Australian Aboriginals practices are very

individualistic to their tribes. All in all, this is a valuable resource to look into as it

models how resource-rich areas with cultural importance and economic significance can

be operated in a sustainable and harmonious way.

The Nature Conservancy (2007), Wakatobi National Park: Partnerships for Marine

Protected Area Management. Retrieved May 21, 2007 from

http://www.nature.org/wherewework/asiapacific/indonesia/files/wakatobi_proje

ct.pdf.

This article provides a short background of the Wakatobi National Park. It is a

good outline of the basic geography and issues that are apparent on the island. Provided

in this article, are insights on the relationship of stakeholders and their management plan

of marine protected areas. This article also addresses how the park plans to cover its costs

through sustainable financing. The magnitude of sustainable use of fisheries and

preserving the biologically diverse coral reefs are of utmost importance at the Wakatobi

National Park.
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It is very brief and serves only as an introduction and starting point, but is highly

relevant to any consideration of policies for the Wakatobi National Park as well as useful

for tourists or researchers visiting the area.

Wall, G. (1997). Forum: Is Ecotourism Sustainable? Environmental Management 21(4),

483-491.

This article clearly defines the meaning of eco-tourism, as well as offers the

several variations of the definition. In this case, eco-tourism is described as responsible

travel to natural areas, which conserves the environment and sustains the well-being of

the local people. This article highlights a strong point about how it is inevitable that the

introduction of tourists to previously seldom visited areas by outsiders will place new

demands upon environment, new activities and new facilities. This in turn will lead to

the formation of new relationships between people and environment, between people

with different lifestyles and between a wide variety of sources for change from global to

local scales.

According to Wall’s definition of eco-tourism, Operation Wallacea loosely fits the

definition, although in order to get to the site they cannot responsibly travel due to the

remoteness. As there is not an option available for alternative travel giving to carbon off-

setting may be an appropriate alternative. This article emphasizes the economic benefits

that are pertinent to Kaledupa such as generating jobs, stimulating incomes, diversifying

the economy from fishing and enhancing the standards of living.

This article is insightful as it can act as a guidebook to the Kaledupans and

Operation Wallacea as it treats eco-tourism as a process, which encompasses socio-

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cultural and environmental benefits. This article also covers how to incorporate different

stakeholders from local grassroots to international agencies.

Wilhelm, K. (2001). China companies unite in Green Aspirations: Government suspicion

stymies real progress. Far Eastern Economic Review, July 5, 2001.

China is now a huge part of the world’s economy. This article outlines the

pressure on their companies from their foreign business partners to improve their

environmental records. This is occurring partly because of the pressure on western

companies from stakeholders, such as Grass Roots groups, who hold them as socially

irresponsible if they are involved with Chinese partners with poor environmental

practices. It discusses the idea of a forum to raise awareness with factory managers,

many of which know little about treating emission or recycling waste.

Although the context of this article is different than that of the Wakatobi National

Park, some issues can be pertinent. At present, many of the locals are unaware of the

environmental damage that they are causing, and the idea of a forum to raise awareness

of how to improve practices, eliminate waste and improve efficiency may be helpful both

in benefiting their economy and preserving their environment.

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