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Pritha Gupta
F09102
This report seeks to identify and analyze the reasons for environmental degradat
ion in the city of Kolkata that has taken place in the recent past. The report a
lso contains statistical data collected from various related surveys to highligh
t the true unbiased picture of the city.
Contents
I come from Kolkata, one of the oldest and largest metropolitan cities of India.
Formed out of the conjunction of three villages by the East India Company, the
city was the trade, commerce and political hub of the country for two hundred or
so years. Currently, the capital of the state of West Bengal, Kolkata is a with
ered, over-populated and a city over burdened with various issues ranging from e
nvironmental degradation to socio-political instabilities.
The various socio-environmental plaguing the city currently are population burst
, drinking water shortage, air pollution, water pollution and the like.
Kolkata and Howrah, the twin cities situated on the eastern and the western side
of the river Hooghly, were established a few hundred years ago. During the Brit
ish Rule, Kolkata was initially the capital of the country and later of Bengal.
Due to the availability of infrastructural facility which included river fronts,
a port and an abundance of water and raw materials for industrial activity such
as coal, minerals, jute etc., industrial development took place predominantly i
n these two cities and in the fringe areas mostly by the side of the river. Wher
eas Howrah saw a tremendous growth in the industries such as iron foundries, hot
rolling mills, metal finishing units etc, a number of thermal power stations an
d various process industries of different sizes started functioning in Kolkata.
As most of these industries were built long before the environmental concern cam
e to the forefront, they generate various forms of emissions in large quantities
because of their outdated technology and absence of pollution abatement measure
s. After the introduction of pollution control legislation, most of these indust
ries have been put on environmental compliance. Recently attention has been give
n to the small sector industries and it is expected that they would also be able
to comply with the emission norms. Efforts to bring about improvements in this
sector through a process of partnership, technology transfer and financial assis
tance is taking place.
Air Pollution:
Industrial emissions in the city and its suburbs are caused by coal burning in t
hermal power plants and other industries. Besides, the emissions from rapidly in
creasing numbers of vehicles are also largely responsible for the high level of
air pollution in the city atmosphere. Over the last decade the number of registe
red automobiles in Kolkata has increased by 52 percent. The effective road area
available in Kolkata is less than 5 percent of the total area. In Howrah the pat
tern is similar or worse. Very high automobile density, disproportionately low p
ercentage of road network, congestion and traffic jams, aging vehicles and unsci
entific traffic management are the major reasons for high emission of air pollut
ants from automobiles. Some estimates suggest that approximately 54% of vehicles
are “old” and nearly 65% of vehicle population diesel powered. The problem is so in
jurious that pollutants like PM 10 exceed standards by 1.5 times.
There are three basic groups of pollutants. First, there are the pollutants emit
ted by auto exhausts. This includes oxides of sulphur, nitrogen, and also carcin
ogens like benzene, toluene and so on. Second, there’s industry-related pollution.
This mainly includes Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM), mostly measuring betwe
en 2.5 and 10 microns, which can be inhaled. The third category is indoor pollut
ion and includes dustmites, fungi, pests, cigarette smoke, smoke from chulhas, e
tc.
According to a report published in The Telegraph in February, 2009, Kolkata has
now overtaken Delhi to become the most polluted city in India in terms of air po
llution. A study released by the Delhi-based environment group Centre for Scien
ce and Environment (CSE) revealed cold statistics about Kolkata’s air pollution wi
th an annual average of respirable suspended particulate matter level exceeding
the national standards, in 2007, by 1.4 times. As per the monthly data available
for last year the trend seems to be continuing. With the annual average level o
f nitrogen in the city in 2007 being 56ug/cum, environmentalists claim the situa
tion is worsening day by day. Even the carcinogenic benzene levels in Kolkata w
ere found in the winter of 2006-2007 to be as high as 36 ug/cum, which is shocki
ngly higher than Delhi which has larger number of vehicles. The national draft a
mbient air standard proposed a limit of 5 ug/cum as annual average, which would
mean the city had dangerously high levels of carcinogen, emitted largely by two-
stroke vehicles.
Air pollution becomes acute in Calcutta during winter. Pollutants cannot dispers
e easily, mainly due to inversion, low wind speed and high congestion. Although
Calcutta is known to be one of the world s most polluted cities; available data
on pollutant pollution are scanty. So far, data on suspended particulate matter
(SPM), SO2, NOx in Calcutta for a couple of years are available. Relatively smal
l amounts of data are available on other parameters like CO, benzene soluble org
anic matter (BSOM), heavy metals, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH). Almost
no data are available on benzene-toluene-xylene (BTX), organolead, heavy metals
in inhalable particulate matter (IPM) and acidity of moisture.
Samples were collected from five important street crossings in the core city. Th
e average SPM (Suspended Particulate Matter) concentrations during the winter in
1992, 1993 and 1994 were 982 µg/m3, 1007 µg/m3 and 1181 µg/m3 respectively. High SPM
in the city air also showed high BSOM (Benzene Soluble Organic Matter). High BSO
M was associated with high value of PAH (Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons). Twe
lve PAH compounds were identified and quantified in the city air and some of the
m are suspected carcinogen. Among the ten heavy metals determined, lead concentr
ation in SPM during winter for Calcutta was high in comparison to other cities o
f the world. The total organolead concentrations in ambient air were measured an
d indicated high value of organolead in the city air. The average organolead con
centration for 1992, 1993 and 1994 were 303 ng/m3, 299 µg/m3 and 296 µg/m3 respectiv
ely. Concentrations of benzene, toluene and xylene were found to be much higher
than in other studies elsewhere in the world. The average benzene concentration
during winter in 1992, 1994 and 1996 were 1000 µg/m3, 708 µg/m3 and 491 µg/m3 respecti
vely. Various factors like use of kerosene, coal as cooking fuel, coal in use by
power plants surrounding the city, large number of cars, poor quality of fuel,
bad condition of the city streets, small road area compared to the total city ar
ea, high population density, miserable slum conditions of habitation and overall
poor socio-economic status of city dwellers are together responsible for the se
rious air pollution in the city.
More than 18 persons per one lakh people in Kolkata fall victim to lung cancer e
very year, compared to the next highest 13 per one lakh in Delhi. More than seve
n in 10 people in Kolkata, including children as well as elderly people, suffer
from various kinds of respiratory disorders. The roadside hawkers, shop-owners,
traffic policemen, auto-rickshaw drivers, rickshaw-pullers and others who spend
long hours on the road were the most vulnerable.
Hydrocarbons emitted by automobiles are toxic and react with haemoglobin in the
blood. The effect of nitrogen is adverse and permanent. It increases children s
susceptibility to diseases like influenza. Sulphur dioxide in the air spreads ai
r acidity and corrodes buildings. It causes irritation to various parts of the r
espiratory systems.
The heart may be damaged by air pollution, secondary to lung diseases. Nitrogen
dioxide results in pulmonary oedema and aggravation of coronary disease. Toxic e
ffects of lead pollution include impaired IQ development defects in children. Th
ese are few of the many effects of air pollution on human beings. Of the 3 milli
on premature deaths in the world that occur each year due to outdoor and indoor
air pollution, the highest numbers are assessed to occur in India. And in India,
Kolkata is the most polluted city in terms of air pollution.
The most susceptible to air pollution are children of school-going age. Say, chi
ldren between 3 to 8 years are most at risk. A recent WHO study had found that u
p to 3 million children across the world die each year due to environmental reas
ons. In the short term, mostly respiratory problems are seen.
Oxides of nitrogen and carbon, as well as ozone, cause lung irritation. But in t
he long term, say after exposure for 20 to 25 years to aromatic hydrocarbons lik
e benzene and toluene or katatel and leaded petrol, cancer becomes a risk. The l
ead content in petrol often leads to blood cancer. This why Kolkata is often cal
led the “Cancer Capital of India”
If the presence of carcinogens is high over a certain area, the incidence of can
cer will also rise. This is also linked with the population density in the area.
The percentage of carcinogenic pollutants as per the population or traffic dens
ity determines the incidence of cancer. And in Kolkata, the population density i
s high. So, even if the SPM is not as high as in other areas, the high populatio
n factor comes into play. And during rush hour, everyone has less air to breathe
, and this increases the likelihood of cancer. The chances of having asthma incr
ease 25 per cent in high traffic areas. Repeated bronchospasms, or wheezing, is
a common symptom. Asthma, which is basically a genetic condition, is also trigge
red by pollutants.
In this regard,
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 extends to the whole of
India. As per the law,
"Air pollutant" means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance 2[(including noise)
] present in the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be injuri
ous to human beings or other living creatures or plants or property or environme
nt;
"Air pollution," means the presence in the atmosphere of any air
In Kolkata, recently a debate arose regarding two-stroke auto rickshaws rampant
in the city.
The West Bengal government has not been able to take stringent action to complet
ely to ban the two-stroke auto-rickshaws plying on Kolkata roads. The auto-ricks
haws use highly toxic fuel mixtures and emit fatal fumes routinely across the ci
ty. And this despite an environment-related court ban on the offending three-whe
elers.
It is hoped that there would be political will to implement such bans.
Some Related Study Reports:
The study of Air Pollution is done by Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi
under National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring (NAAQM) Programme. Under this pro
gramme, the air quality in Kolkata is monitored by the National Environmental En
gineering Research Institute in three monitoring stations whereas in Howrah the
West Bengal Pollution Control Board generates the air quality data at three stat
ions. Besides this programme, the State Board has been operating a large air qua
lity monitoring network specially in Kolkata (25 stations) over the last three y
ears in order to have a much more representative air quality data for Kolkata ne
cessary for taking effective policy decisions for improving the air quality of t
he city.
The findings of the survey are shared in this report to understand better the ex
tent of environmental degradation in and around Kolkata.
Ambient air quality in Kolkata during the year 2001
(Air quality monitored at 25 stations in Kolkata)
SPM RPM Pb SO2 NO2
Annual average value for the year 2001 189 m g/m3 106 m g/m3 0.4 m g/
m3 10 m g/m3 64 m g/m3
As the Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) level in Kolkata ambient air is very low, the tren
d analysis of the data of the parameter is not shown.
The seasonal (monthly) variations of the concentration of these parameters duri
ng 2001 against the daily average standards for the same parameters are shown be
low in order to illustrate the degree of non-attainment of the norms.