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Marine Geodesy
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Concepts and development of

marine geodesy
a
Karl Rinner
a
Technische Universität , Graz, Austria
Published online: 10 Jan 2009.

To cite this article: Karl Rinner (1987) Concepts and development of marine geodesy,
Marine Geodesy, 11:1, 3-9, DOI: 10.1080/15210608709379544

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Concepts and Development of

Marine Geodesy

KARL RINNER
Technische Universität Graz
Austria

Abstract The rapidly growing population of the earth has led to an increasing
significance of maritime regions for the production of mineralogical materials
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and as a reservoir for food. In addition, due to their protective function against
exterior attacks, maritime regions are more and more included in our living
space. In earlier times some tasks of marine geodesy have been accomplished
by the hydrographical or nautical survey. The name marine geodesy was de-
fined only 20 years ago.
Marine geodesy (MG) acts as a bridge between hydrography and geodesy,
which is profitable for both disciplines. This paper considers, first, the concepts
of hydrography, marine geodesy, nautical and hydrographical survey, and the
development of these disciplines. Finally, the state of MG is investigated in
the hydrographic and geodetic literature. In conclusion it is recommended to
place the, yet missing, textbooks and manuals of MG at the disposal of and
as a basis for the education and for the practical work of geodesists and hy-
drographers, as soon as possible. Proposals for the structure of these books
are also suggested.

Definition of Marine Geodesy

Marine geodesy (MG) is the part of geodesy that deals with geodetic methods,
objectives, and applications at sea. MG, therefore, has scientific and practical
aims similar to geodesy on the continents. These are the determination of the size
and the shape of the earth; the determination of the gravity field and its temporal
variations; the establishment of a geodetic control system, which is required for
accurate and reliable mapping; and the development of precise measurement tech-
nology and computation needed to satisfy these aims. MG has some unique prob-
lems because the work must be performed in the dynamic and complex environ-
ment of the oceans (MOURAD, 1968).
Marine geodesy has its roots in hydrographic surveying, which is also named
sea or nautical surveying. Let me now try to define these disciplines. Hydrography
is the science of measuring and depicting those parameters that are necessary to
describe the precise nature and configuration of the sea bed, its geographical
relationship to the adjacent land masses, and the characteristics and dynamics of
the sea. Hydrographic surveying has to determine the parameters involved in
exploiting marine mineral and food reserves, and in the traditional work of nav-
igation. (D. HASLAM, 1985) Surveying waterways, natural lakes, and artificial
basins, as well as inshore hydrographic surveying is a subdivision of hydrographic
surveying, which has a strong correlation to continental geodesy (CG).
The hydrographic survey is sometimes called a nautical survey, since it pro-
vides fundamentals for navigation (nautics). The discipline is also divided into

3
 4 Karl Rinner

coastal-survey and open sea-survey, depending on the offshore distance under

consideration. The survey of inland waterways and inland lakes, which is part of
coastal surveying, is sometimes also attributed to continental geodesy.
According to these explanations, hydrography is a global concept that con-
cerns the determination of all the parameters necessary for navigation. The sub-
discipline "Hydrographic or Nautical Survey" overlaps largely with marine geo-
desy. In other words, marine geodesy has close contacts with different sub-dis-
ciplines of hydrography. The main emphasis is, however, placed on the geo-
metrical procedures of the hydrographic survey.

The Tasks of Marine Geodesy and of the Hydrographic Survey

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The increasing importance of the seas as a reservoir for mineralogical materials

and food supply, and the development of the navigation and military reasons have
made marine geodesy increasingly significent. From the present point of view,
it has to fullfil the following tasks: (RINNER, 1983)
• Determination of three-dimensional positions for objects on the sea-floor,
in the sea, and on the sea-surface.
• Determination of the parameters of the gravity field and the geoid in maritime
regions.
• Determination of tidal effects on the sea-surface.
• Establishment of a system of control points on the sea-floor and of a system
of satellites with known orbits, for the determination of position and gravity
values.
• Preparation of sea-charts that also show the topography of the sea-bottom
and the undisturbed sea-surface.
• Establishment of a cadaster for sea-parcels for the determination of legal
property of prospecting titles for mining regions.
• Registration of dynamic processes at the sea-bottom, including the predic-
tion of natural disasters like seaquakes, etc.
The hydrographic survey should, according to HASLAM (1985), not only deter-
mine parameters for CG like positions and heights, but also parameters that con-
cern the geology and geophysics of the oceans, tidal currents, the shape and
propagation of waves, the physical properties of sea water and the sea-bottom.

Procedures of Marine Geodesy

Marine geodesy makes use of the results and methods of continental geodesy
(CG), but is distinguished from the latter by some essential characteristics. On
the continents, the same data can be collected repeatedly at any time. On the
ocean surface, this is hardly possible. Measurements have to be carried out mainly
on ships or platforms on the continuously moving surface of the sea. Repeated
measurements provide new different data, determining adjacent, but different,
dynamic configurations for the unknown parameters. MG also has to cover more
reference surfaces than CG, namely the sea-surfaces (in a special undisturbed
state), the sea floor (surface of the earth's crust below the oceans), and the geoid
(as a special representation of the gravity field of the earth).
 Concepts and Developments of Marine Geodesy 5

Therefore, there are essential differences in the type of instruments and the
kind of methods employed to collect MG data. CG data are collected in the at-
mosphere, whereas in MG the main part of the data has to be collected in or
through the sea. This means that in MG, apart from the atmospheric refraction,
the sea water refraction has to be taken into account. In addition, in MG most
of the instrument platforms and targets are moving. Therefore, MG can be con-
sidered to be a dynamic geodetic sub-discipline involving two or more media.
Therefore two-medium geodesy is an actuality in MG. It is evident that in this
discipline more sophisticated mathematical and physical models and more ex-
pensive instruments are required than in CG (RINNER, 1983)
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The Development of MG
A knowledge of navigation is essential for the shipping traffic on oceans, lakes,
and rivers. By navigation is meant those procedures which make it possible to
determine the position of a ship and to follow a course in order to arrive at a
predetermined destination. In former times navigation aids were, in off-shore
regions, the astronomical determination of positions and azimuth, a compass, a
clock and sea-charts. For coastal navigations, bearings to and from known ter-
restrial points on the coast were used. Today we have available, in addition,
methods of radio-bearing to determine positions by satellites, inertial navigation,
sounding and position determination by ultrasonics, and others.
At all times and for all procedures, sea charts are required in which the es-
sential data for navigation, like sea-bed contours, buoys, lighthouses (beacons),
other targets or line;; determined by optical or other means, and coordinate-grids,
are recorded. The maritime and coastal survey had the task to provide these
fundamentals and to produce sea charts. These have, therefore, been regarded
as an auxiliary means of the navigation or as an instrument for navigation. For a
long time, geodetic concerns played a minor role since the technical requirements
concerning accuracy and efficiency were not met.
Only in our days are analogous methods, like positioning with NNSS and GPS,
satellite altimetry, azimuth-determination, gyro-compass, inertial geodesy and po-
sitioning methods by measuring ranges, range rates and range quotients applied
on continents, and oceans. Satellite altimetry allows for the determination of the
topography of the undisturbed sea surface and leads, together with gravity values
measured with ships or aircrafts, to the determination of the geoid and the gravity
field in maritime regions. Refined, more efficient, and more accurate ultrasonic
procedures give depth data for definite time epochs as a basis for sea charts. The
knowledge of the tide-variations at the same epoch enables the determination of
the actual depths. A regenerative mechanism is apparent between CG and MG.
The data of MG lead to an improved knowledge of the gravity field of the earth,
which, in turn, improves CG data and, in particular, the orbital data of satellites.
More accurate orbital data give more accurate positions in maritime regions and
so on.
The procedures of sea- and coastal surveying were developed in the hydro-
graphic bureaus of the maritime countries. These countries are represented by
the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) in Monaco. The IHO and the
national hydrographic bureaus (e.g. Deutsches Hydrographisches Institut, Ham-
 6 Karl Rinner

burg) correspond to the following international organizations: the International

Association of Geodesy (IAG), the International Federation of Geometers (FIG),
the International Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ISPRS), and
the International Cartographic Association (ICA).
The scientific results and the practical problems of sea- and coastal surveying
have been addressed, up to now, usually in some chapters of the handbooks of
navigation and the instruction manuals for navigators. The surveying of rivers
and hydrographic surveys have sometimes been regarded as a sub-discipline of
CG or have been integrated either within the land survey offices, or within special
bureaus or offices.
The notion Marine Geodesy (MG) was proposed by A. G. Mourad of the U.S.
in 1966. One year later the IAG established a commission for MG and thereby
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introduced MG to the scientific community as a sub-discipline of theoretical

geodesy.
The IAG MG commission made at first an effort to consider most possible
problems related to navigation and surveying of seas. As in CG, these problems
have been divided into a geometrical and a physical part. The former part aims
at the establishment of control points and of satellite systems for positioning on
the sea surface, in the sea, and on the sea floor. The latter should deal with the
topography of the sea surface and with questions related to the marine geoid.
However, since 1981, the large number of tasks involved and a necessary sepa-
ration from IHO restricted the activity of the commission to the questions of
positioning and to the establishment of the respective foundations. Also, within
the third international surveying organization FIG, a commission is in operation,
which according to the objectives of FIG deals with surveying rivers and lakes
for engineering purposes, and which is called the hydrographic commission.
Thus, three international organizations are responsible for the tasks of sur-
veying seas, rivers, and lakes in accordance with the respective tasks of CG.
These tasks involve more than two thirds of the earth surface, twice the region
of CG. The IHO, as the mother organization for 56 national organizations, is
responsible for nautical questions and hydrographic or sea-surveying activities.
In addition, it deals with the establishment of basic data for oceanography, me-
teorology and geodesy.
The IAG MG commission deals with the geometrical tasks connected with
positioning on and in the sea, and provides, thereby, basic data for navigation,
in particular for the production of sea charts. In this field the problems of deter-
mining the sea-surface topography, the sea geoid, and the gravity field in the sea
are also dealt with by other sections of the IAG. There are also overlaps between
nautical and continental geodesy concerning the methods of sea-chart production.
This is especially true in coastal regions where common control points are used,
but it also occurs in the open sea, where common satellite systems are used.
Different methods have been used for the presentation of charts. A map should
give a rather complete thematic picture of the regions described. A sea chart was
a navigational instrument, but now it also shows topographic details. Since both
are overlapping in coastal regions, common techniques of representation must be
found. As an example, showing the undervaluation by sea officers of land surveys,
consider the following question which the author was asked by the chief of the
German nautical survey in 1940: "I can understand that sea survey will never
 Concepts and Developments of Marine Geodesy 7

end because the sea floor is permanently changing due to sea currents. But I
cannot understand why the survey on land has not been finished."
The survey of rivers and lakes, which belongs to the hydrographic survey, is
characterized by the existence of control points on land that can be used as targets.
Like the coastal survey, it is a fringe between CG and MG—the methods of both
can be applied.
Continental-geodesy and marine geodesy overlap and complement each other
in essential parts, and together form the general discipline of geodesy. The com-
mon bridge is satellites, which contribute to the solution of geometrical and phys-
ical problems of both disciplines. The Navy Navigation Satellite System (NNSS),
originally designed for submarine navigation, has also revolutionized positioning
on land. The global positioning system (GPS), which is under development, will
likewise be usable for positioning on land and sea.
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The scientific data of MG and CG lead to the determination of the earth's

geometrical shape, gravity field, absolute orientation in space, as well as the
temporal variation of these parameters. They provide more accurate and complete
information about the behavior of our Earth and our environment, and their varia-
tions. Hydrographers and geodesists use different ways from different directions
to acquire MG data. They stimulate each other, leading to new understandings
in both disciplines. The impressions gained by the author (Rinner, 1940) in 1940
can be described by the following:

"In spite of its obvious importance, nautical surveys have been largely
ignored by professional geodesists so far, and is neither mentioned in
the lectures of universities nor in textbooks. The issue was left to the
care of hydrographic offices, which, however, naturally developed this
discipline only as far as it seemed necessary to cope with the tasks
arising in their practical work. It has never experienced any scientific
cultivation and further development. It was not even touched by the
progress of land surveying in the field of instrumental observation and
calculation techniques. As a result, nautical surveys constitute an al-
most barren field, whose cultivation becomes an important task of mod-
ern geodesy."

Since these statements were made, more than 40 years have passed. During
this period the situation of MG has changed considerably. The significance of MG
for the industrial exploitation of the seas is increasing, and a kind of engineering
geodesy has been developed. As an impressive example, the activities of oil pro-
duction, using platforms and oil-rigs, is mentioned. New structures facilitate the
geodetic measurement of positions. The demarcation of national territories, which
has been defined in different geodetic systems, requires a basic knowledge of
geodesy. Nevertheless only a small number of the experts active in MG are
geodesists. Engineers of various kinds, hydrographers, oceanographers, geolo-
gists, and geophysicists are in the majority (HASLAM, 1985). The reason can be
found in the insufficient lectures on marine geodesy at universities, as well as in
the lack of textbooks. It can be assumed that these shortcomings will be addressed
in the future, and that MG will take its rightful place. It can be hoped that common
planning and coordination between MG and CG will lead to an improvement of
the results in both disciplines.
 Karl Rinner

Marine Geodesy in Literature

Since marine geodesy has just an age of 20 years, no comprehensive literature
exists. However, special topics of MG that are also of interest to hydrographers
have been addressed in the hydrographic literature for a long time. The infor-
mation required for the study of MG must, therefore, be collected from different
sources. Since 1976 the periodical "Marine Geodesy" exclusively reports on
events in MG. Important theoretical and practical information concerning ques-
tions in hydrography and geodesy are contained in the "International Hydro-
graphic Review" and the "International Hydrographic Bulletin," which are pub-
lished by the IHO in Monaco. Further contributions can be found in the national
hydrographic and geodetic journals of many countries.
Since 1943 the author has drawn attention to the necessity of a geodetic activity
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in nautical survey in the "Mitteilungen des Chefs des hydrographischen Dienstes

der Kriegsmarine" (RINNER, I944a,b,c, 1948). A. G. Mourad has worked on
this topic in the U.S. Battelle Institute. He proposed the name marine geodesy
in 1966 and he has subsequently published directive solutions. The proceedings
of the symposia of his IAG commission on MG are an important source of in-
formation for all scientists and experts engaged in MG (MOURAD, 1966).
It is remarkable that, up to now, no textbook or handbook on MG has been
published. However, the book "Sea Surveying," written by A. Ingham in 1975,
can be recommended. This book is divided into three parts. The first part discusses
in 32 pages the natural and industrial environment, and environmental data. In
the second part, the methods of positioning are described. In 72 pages the author
covers geodetic fundamentals, coastal control, and offshore fixes, with 12 pages
dedicated to geodesy. The third part describes, in 98 pages, sea-surveying op-
erations, which include plannings and conducting hydrographic surveys marine
sciences and applied oceanography. In five appendices the theories of electro-
magnetic waves, acoustics and sonar, tides and tidal analysis, and automated
surveys are explained. The text also contains 233 pages of figures and tables.
The author edited another book entitled "Sea Surveying" by order of the
German navy in 1943, and which was published by the German navy as volume
2 of the series "Handbuch der Vermessung—der Kriegsmarine" for official use.
This book contains chapters of geodesy, astronomy, oceanography (determination
of ocean depths and tides), and earth magnetism. In this book 168 pages (nearly
one half) are dedicated to geodesy, 24 pages deal with astronomy, 227 pages with
oceanography, and 24 pages with magnetism.

Final Remarks
MG is a fascinating area of geodesy. It is of great scientific and practical impor-
tance. There is no doubt that this importance will increase in the future because
the sea covers more than two thirds of the earth's surface and must be integrated
in the living space of mankind to a much greater extend than it is now. MG provides
a bridge between the old disciplines of hydrography and continental geodesy. MG
combines both disciplines into a global geodesy and provides new opportunities,
which are of use to both of them. Therefore, the hope is expressed that this short
presentation will initiate the publication of textbooks on marine geodesy, and that
the edition of a volume on "Meeresgeodasie" or "Seevermessung," which has
 Concepts and Developments of Marine Geodesy 9

been already been proposed by the author on the occasion of the revision of the
German standard book "Handbuch der Vermessungskunde" by Jordan-Eggert-
Kneissl (1946), will become reality.

References
Berlin, O. K. M. 1943, Handbuch der Vermessungen der Kriegsmarine, 3 vol. Berlin.
Haslam, D. 1985. Why a Hydrographic Office? Int Hydrographic Review, Monaco, LXII
(1), 9-16.
Ingham, A. 1975. Sea Surveying, 2 volumes. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Mourad, A. G. 1966. The Concept of Marine Geodesy. 1st Marine Geodesy Symposium,
Columbus, Ohio.
Mourad, A. G. and D. M. Fubara. ,1977. Marine Geodesy 1967-1971; IAG section 1, report,
Moscow.
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