Fifty Shades of Air: Air Quality in Metro Manila

Charmille Keith M. Abesamus​1​, Alpha G. Mabunga​2​, Janine Lois P. Molina​3​, Shaina M. Sangalang​4
1​
Civil Engineering, 2​ Civil
​
Engineering, 3​ Civil
​
Engineering, 4​ ​Civil Engineering
Gokongwei College of Engineering, De La Salle University,
2401 Taft Avenue, Manila 1004, Philippines

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Air pollution nowadays are becoming one of the most alarming issues
AY 2018–2019 | Term 3
in the Philippines. Metro Manila is one of the most polluted areas in
ENGENVI
Case Study
terms of air in the country and air quality is becoming more alarming
Date Submitted: August 22, 2019 as it imposes health risks to the people living in the area as well as its
environment. What causes air to be polluted are different industrial
Keywords activities by humans making it contaminated with substances such as
air pollution, air quality, health,
particulate matter. In the study case, meta-analysis on what are the
environment, particulate matter
possible factors and impacts of air pollution were done and suggested
solutions were reviewed and stated.

I.​ ​INTRODUCTION

Air pollution has been a big issue in the Philippines nowadays as its diverse impacts are becoming more evident.
Air pollution consists of either solid, liquid or gaseous particles that tend to interfere with environmental conditions
and worse, human health [1]. As stated by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences [2], air pollution
has always been rampant across the world; In fact, researchers from the mentioned organization have discovered that
health effects such as asthma, cardiovascular diseases, adverse pregnancy outcomes, and death are affected by this
environmental pollution for the past 30 years. Furthermore, air pollution was declared as carcinogenic to humans in
the year 2013 by the World Health Organization. Air pollution is a concern that poses a threat to human health and
likewise greatly impacts the ecosystem and the environment.

May 2018 report from the World Health Organization (WHO) stated that more than 80 percent of the people
residing in urban areas are exposed to poor air quality. Data also showed that low-income level cities are greatly
affected [3]. Air pollution can be defined as the presence of harmful chemicals in the air, these chemicals, also
known as pollutants, come in various forms. The largest group is called particulate matter (PM), which includes
particles that comprise sulfates, nitrates, ammonia, sodium chloride, black carbon, mineral dust, and even water [4].

The effects of air pollution are already conspicuous and indisputable and are particularly noticeable in Metro
Manila as the volume of the smoke coming from vehicles is of thick volume and it is known that the Philippines
continue to consume energy from coal power plants which greatly affect the air pollution levels [4]. The Philippine
government is now, with support from a number of international agencies, attempting to set priorities and control the
most serious of its environmental problems [5]. In the Philippines, particulate matters (PM) are produced from the
combustion of motor vehicles, furnaces, chimneys, including construction activities. These particulate matters are
inhaled categorized into total suspended particulate (TSP) an example of which is the booger that accumulates in the
nostrils, PM2.5 which are particles measuring less than 2.5 µm (micrometers) while PM10 is particulate matter 10
micrometers or less in diameter [6]. In the Southeast Asian region where the Philippines is located, the average
PM2.5 concentration is 21 μg/m​3​ annually, over twice the recommended value. The Philippines’ annual PM2.5
concentration rests at 18.4 μg/m​3​, according to 2016 WHO report. This value is approximately 80% higher than the
safe levels indicated by WHO. Aside from national data, the WHO also collected data from the major cities of
participating countries [4].

Air pollution is a serious matter that the country must address before it is too late, air quality control should be
established nationwide and even worldwide. It is observed that the Philippines continues to grapple in implementing
strong air quality control. Vehicles are major sources of air pollutants and the number of vehicles operating in the
country specifically Metro Manila are increasing. Consequently, the more vehicles being used, more air
contaminants being released in the atmosphere. Meanwhile, other anthropogenic activities such as the use of
fireworks and firecrackers also create great impact on the environment. The government and country leaders are
responsible for creating and enforcing policies and laws concerning the air contaminants and the country’s citizen
must follow so that they may breathe fresh and clean air, as well as enjoy all the natural resources based on the
principles of sustainable development [4].

Levels of air pollution may be determined by measuring the concentrations and presence of each of the said
pollutants. According to Ambag [4], these concentrations of pollutants are expressed as ​m​m/m​3​ annually, which
comprises the average concentrations for an hour daily measurements in a span of one year, or per 24-hour mean,
which means the average of all hourly readings of the concentration in a span of 24 hours. In 2005, WHO set air
quality guidelines to provide standards and limits for the air pollutants which may cause health implications [4].

II. AIR POLLUTION, HEALTH, AND ENVIRONMENT

The air quality in Metro Manila does not only have a negative effect on the health of the community but
also the environment. According to the National Air Quality Status Report (2008-2015) made by the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources-Environmental Management Bureau (DENR-EMB) [7],
the worsening of the air quality has a big impact on health, climate and influence on atmospheric conditions,
agriculture, water quality, and poor visibility from the air pollution that the world is experiencing. One of the
main sources of the said environmental issue is from industrialization, especially in the National Capital
Region (NCR). With the aggravation of the air quality, the department implemented the Republic Act No.
8749, also known as the Philippine Clean Air Act, and it includes conducting an inventory of emissions once
every three years. With this, classifications of the sources of air pollution including stationary, mobile and area
sources can be known. In 2015, it can be seen on the latest National Emissions Inventory by Source (2015) [7],
the highest air pollutants, about 65%, came from vehicles, 21% came from power plants and factories, and the
rest came from construction activities. Delving into the general impacts of air pollution, it can be gathered from
the aforementioned article that the US Environmental Protection Agency has found out that children breathe
greater volumes of air resulting in a greater negative effect on them. In addition, in 2009, the World Bank
obtained results [7] regarding the economic loss of having public health put into a stake. This is because the
mortality rate is very much affected by air pollution focusing on respiratory infections that develop chronic
diseases. The cost of these diseases to be treated is increasing rapidly every year and results in income loss.

The world is changing, innovation and development are observed as some of the reasons behind air
pollution which has an adverse toxicological impact on human health and the environment. The increasing rate
of air pollution is caused by human activities too. There are a lot of different emission sources, but motor
vehicles and industrial processes are identified as the major contributors of air pollution. Long-term and even
short-term exposure to air pollutants have a different toxicological impact on human health, targets mainly the
respiratory and cardiovascular system, neuropsychiatric complications, eye irritation, skin diseases, and
long-term chronic diseases such as cancer can also be developed. Previous reports have revealed that human
exposure to poor air quality is associated with the increasing rate of morbidity and mortality, most cases are
caused by cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. Moreover, exposure to air pollutants is considered as a
major environmental risk factor in the incidence and progression of some diseases such as asthma, lung cancer,
ventricular hypertrophy, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, psychological complications, autism,
retinopathy, fetal growth, and low birth weight [8](Azam et al., 2016).

The particle size of air pollutants is a factor that must be put into consideration because it is directly
associated with the onset and progression of the lungs and heart diseases. Particles having smaller sizes can
reach the lower part of the respiratory tract and thus have greater potential for causing the lungs and heart
diseases. In addition, fine particle pollutants also cause premature death in people with heart or lung disease
which includes cardiac dysrhythmias, nonfatal heart attacks, aggravated asthma, and may decrease lung
functions. Particulate pollutants may cause mild to severe illnesses depending on the longevity of exposure.
Respiratory disorders caused by air pollution include coughing, bronchitis, emphysema, and lung cancer
[9](Mahbawi et al., 2014). People who are already suffering or have suffered from cardiac failure, chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease, and asthma are more prone and vulnerable to these adverse effects
[10](Abelsohn, 2011).

Furthermore, poor air quality can cause serious environmental damage to groundwater, soil, and air. This is
a serious threat to the diversity of life that must be taken care of. Previous findings on the relationship between
air pollution and reducing species diversity clearly show the detrimental effects of environmental pollutants on
the extinction of animals and plants species. Another toxicological impact of air contaminants is the change in
reproductive patterns of animals. The continuing emissions of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere resulting in
acid rain, temperature inversion, and global climate changes are other major environmental impacts of air
pollution [8](Azam et al., 2016). Delving into the effect on the climate, based on the National Air Quality
Status Report (2008-2015) [7], directly and indirectly absorption of sunlight leads to heating the
surface-atmosphere affecting the air and ocean temperatures. For the impact on agriculture, according to the
said report, because plants are immobile, pollutants can easily affect these and may result in a lack of food
security. As pollutants can come from one place to another, these can eventually be deposited into bodies of
water and become as water contaminants. With this, marine life is also affected by this. Lastly, the report also
indicates how pollutant levels go ten times higher during New Year’s because of fireworks and firecrackers and
thus affecting visibility for transportation safety.

2.1​ ​Air Pollution and its Causes and Impacts

Celebrating New Year’s Eve with firecrackers and fireworks have always been a culture and tradition to
Filipinos for decades now [11]. Shown in Figure 1 is the view of Marikina Valley Sky showing comparisons
between January 1, 2019, 12:26 am and January 23. 2019, 1:18 am [11]; It can be observed that smoke and
ashes from fireworks and firecrackers have taken over the night sky on January 1 midnight. Fireworks and
firecrackers emit smoke and other air substances which interfere with human health for it poses a serious health
risk because they contain pollutants including nitric oxide (NO), sulfur dioxide (SO​2​) and aerosols [12](Moreno
et al., 2007). The aerosol is considered a particulate matter which is 2.5 micrometers in size wherein it is small
enough and can be compared to less than a tenth of the width of a single strand of hair. Thus, inhaling this said
particulate matter could possibly be absorbed by other body systems such as the lungs and the bloodstream
[13](Kim et al., 2015). In fact, even a short-time exposure to these, could result in asthma attacks and increase
the risk of other respiratory infections cardiac arrhythmias and heart attacks to people who have heart conditions
[14](Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants, 2006). Thus, it can be concluded that the air quality of
the week between December and January is even more hazardous than usual.

Figure 1. New Year Haze and A Relatively Clear Night [11]

Around seven million people die annually from exposure to fine particles in polluted air that penetrate deep into
the lungs and cardiovascular system, thus causing stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstructive
pulmonary diseases and respiratory infections, including pneumonia. In addition, air pollution is said to be a
critical risk factor for noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), causing an estimated one-quarter (24 percent) of all
adult deaths from heart disease, 25 percent from stroke, 43 percent from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
and 29 percent from lung cancer [3]. According to the WHO, the country had the 3rd highest number of deaths
due to air pollution. A WHO study released in May 2018 said there were about 45.3 deaths per 100,000
individuals due to outdoor air pollution. China ranked first at 81.5 deaths recorded while Mongolia was second
at 48.8 deaths [15].

From the report from AirVisual World Air Quality of 2018, it was stated that the Philippines ranked 11 cities
that has the cleanest air quality in Southeast Asian but these findings are said to be not worthy to be celebrated
as the reason behind this ranking is because of the lack of air monitoring systems in the Philippines
[16](Madarang, 2019). It was stated by the Greenpeace Philippines campaigner, Khevin Yu, that the Philippines
has the least average quantity of monitoring stations per city in a region wherein the report from AirVisual
World Air Quality of 2018 highlighted the necessity for more comprehensive and accurate real-time monitoring
networks for full understanding of the state of air quality in the Philippines [16] (Madarang, 2019). The study
made by the AirVisual World Air Quality only depended on only one or two air quality monitoring devices for
the said 11 cities, which are Calamba, Valenzuela, Carmona, Paranaque, Davao City, Makati, Manila,
Mandaluyong, Balanga, Quezon City, and Las Pinas, and these are not even located near the main contributors
of PM2.5 pollution including coal-fired power plants and it is very obvious that the said cities are evidently
facing air pollution problems [16] (Madarang, 2019). According to Ed Yap, the former president of the Rotary
Club of Makati who founded the air quality monitoring systems in Metro Manila, these monitoring systems’ air
quality reports are equally recorded as it depends on the location where the sensors are and its quantity per area,
as well as the time the data was obtained [17].

Improvement for the air pollution standards and accessible air quality monitoring systems for the public are
also continuously being proposed to the Philippine government to be able to reduce the air pollution as it was
seen that the existing air quality monitoring devices in the Philippines are low cost and are provided by local
organizations and concerned citizens only [16] (Madarang, 2019). In the world rankings, it was reported that the
Philippines ranked one of the lowest and Manila, in terms of city capitals of each country, accumulated the 42nd
rank with a 14.3 PM2.5 concentration [16] (Madarang, 2019).

In the Philippines, there are already laws and regulations implemented with the goal of reducing the air
pollution in the country as well as its impact on the health of the people and the environment. Such laws and
legislation include the DENR Administrative Order No. 14 Series of 1993 and the Republic Act No. 8749. The
DENR Administrative Order No. 14 Series of 1993, also known as DAO 14 Series 1993, is the Air Quality
Standards and Rules and Regulations Relating to Air Pollution Control of 1993 which aims to protect and
improve the air quality to achieve prevention and control of the air pollution by setting regulations and limits to
the industrial emissions and other establishments that might be recognized as a source of pollution [18]. While
the Republic Act No. 8749, also known as R.A. 8749 or the Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999, aims to achieve
 comprehensive air quality management policy and program for the goal of maintaining healthy air for all
Filipinos and those who contribute to air pollution shall receive respective penalties [19].

III. EVALUATION

With the worsening of the said environmental issue in the Philippines, the government has provided thorough
research in properly managing the quality of air that the whole community breathes. Monitoring from time to time
the condition of the air is essential to be able to address the problem and design ways that can help in finding the
appropriate solution. According to the Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management [20], the
department that mainly focuses on this issue is to follow the frameworks and guidelines as stated below:

“Activities in environmental and natural resource management in the Philippines are guided by the following
overarching policy frameworks: (i) 1977 Philippine Environmental Policy (Presidential Decree [PD] 1151); (ii) 1977
Environment Code (PD 1152); (iii) 1989 Philippine National Strategy for Sustainable Development ; and (iv) 1996
National Action Plan for Sustainable Development (Philippine Agenda 21, Appendix 5). The major legal instrument
guiding urban AQM is RA 8749 or the Philippine Clean Air Act, signed into law in 1999. The National Air Quality
Improvement Framework and Action Plan prepared by DENR as part of the Implementing Rules and Regulations of
the CAA is one of the sector or agency strategies and plans for urban AQM.”

As standards are being established by the DENR-EMB, it is their sole duty to monitor without prior notice those
who act that may greatly influence the air quality and take appropriate enforcement actions to the violators of the
said standards. In addition, it is recognized that the EMB shares only a very small amount of the budget for air
quality management [20]. With this, if the budget allocation for programs that support this management for the
environment cannot be improved, other solutions should be examined. One way to contribute towards bettering and
maintaining the air quality is to extensively limit the use of fireworks and firecrackers of the community especially
during the times of New Year’s. In this way, other aspects stated before cannot be further given detrimental effects.

As per the issue with regards to fireworks and firecrackers impact on air quality, the government, particularly
President Rodrigo made a policy on it. Reports from Rappler [15](2019) stated that last January 10, 2018, President
Rodrigo Duterte ordered to ban firecrackers. Furthermore, this order would be an extension of Executive Order No
28 in which the limitation of firecrackers to community fireworks displays alone [21]. However, the primary
objective of this order is to limit the injuries and deaths caused by the yearly use of various firecrackers for New
Year’s Eve across the country. Nonetheless, this policy has controlled the use of firecrackers resulting in less
hazardous quality of air.

As the impacts of air pollution are continuously rising, it can be said that the laws and legislations currently
existing are not of much help as there are still lots of violators. According to Calica [22] the Philippine Clean Air
Act of 1999 is getting ignorance and this is because of the strict implementation standards failed and the low
penalties given to its violators. With this being said, former senator Francis Escudero, during his stay, tried to
pushed stricter implementation standards and higher penalties as the current fines and penalties are said to be not
enough for the damage compensation brought to the people and the environment [22].

It was discussed that the Philippines, specifically Metro Manila, lack real-time air quality monitoring devices.
Fortunately, there are still some existing monitoring devices that are currently being used by some of the local
organizations which monitoring not all but some parts of Metro Manila. One of these is the project of the Rotary
Club of Makati’s Air Quality Monitoring System (RCM-AQMS) [23] which aims to raise awareness of the
hazardous condition of the air over Metro Manila to the public. Not only this but also, RCM-AQMS wants to get the
attention of the government agencies to take part of the strict implementation of the provisions of the Philippine
Clean Air Act and mobilize other private corporations, NGOs, and environment advocates to be part of the fight
against air pollution and lessen the effects of climate change [23].

Figure 2. Air Quality Index Values [24]

The RCM-AQMS was also the first-ever to report real-time PM10 and PM2.5 air pollution in the country. The
RC Makati monitors pollution from some locations in Metro Manila which include: UST Espana, Ayala Avenue
Makati, EDSA Munoz Quezon City, and the Lung Center of the Philippines in Quezon City that is an additional
monitoring station (RCM-AQMS). Through the AQMS of RC Makati, levels and values of particulate matters are
recorded and interpreted through color which ranges from very good to hazardous that could help the public
determine the intensity of the air pollution being occurred. Shown in Figure 2 are the values as well as its
corresponding meanings. Each icon corresponds for a rating and an advise on what are the possible things you can
and can’t on a particular day. The blue and green icon shows very good and good ratings respectively and it can be
said that you can enjoy the air outside without any worries. People with diseases in the respiratory and hearts are
given warnings when the yellow icon is showed which means moderate ranking. Next is the orange icon which
implies considering to reduce outdoor activities most especially if a person has weak stamina as moderate rating
may cause some health risks. On the other hand, considering don’t just work for playing outside when a very poor
rating of the air quality is shown which is the red icon. Lastly, the hazardous rating with a purple icon implies
serious health risks to people as the air quality might have gotten to reach a serious level of contamination.

IV. RECOMMENDATIONS

With all of the discussed causes and impacts of air pollution not only to the health of the people but also to the
environment, other sources of air pollution should also be considered and should be limited. As vehicles emit
pollutants, it should be advisable and promoted the use of public transportation. Comparing the carbon footprint of a
private vehicle with one passenger to the public bus with 30-50 passengers, it can be said that it is far more
beneficial for the environment. According to studies found by the AyalaLand [24], “public transportation systems
are more fuel-efficient per passenger mile than private vehicles.” As in the United States, this saves billions of
gallons of gas annually. With this, the transportation system should be enhanced for the public to find ease in
transporting from one place to another. In this way, the pollutants coming from this source can be mitigated. In
addition, as new technologies are being designed and created, the community should be able to maximize the
resources readily available in improving air quality. Introducing new end-of-pipe measures as post-combustion
controls to be able to reduce pollutants being produced in the air can be used to get air pollution under control [25].
Through removing the formed contaminants from a stream of air by using the “end-of-pipe measures”, it is expected
to reduce the number of unwanted pollutants during the last stage of a process being utilized to further clean the air
that is being contaminated.

Based on the annual report released by the Land Transportation Office (LTO) [26], the number of registered
vehicles here in the Philippines for the year 2018 has a totality of 11,595,434. The report also shows that the
National Capital Region (NCR) is first in the list of all the regions having great number of registered vehicles with
2,792,936 total vehicles that are registered. It is no longer surprising since Metro Manila is the most populated area
in the Philippines [27]. This number of registered vehicles are already alarming, what more if the number of
unregistered vehicles are also taken into account.

As the number of vehicles continues to increase, emissions of greenhouse gases will increase as well resulting in
more contaminated air. As future engineers, the researchers suggest the utilization of green vehicles. What is a green
vehicle? These are vehicles which use alternative fuel sources to make it work. It reduces the environmental
damages brought by typical vehicles. These alternatives may be biodiesel fuel, rechargeable battery electricity, or
solar energy to make it run. There are green vehicles abroad that are water-powered as well [28]. It is observed that
old models are the more polluting ones and the best way to phase them out is the proposition of green transportation
[29]. Other countries like the USA are already maximizing the use of green vehicles for it is really helpful for the
environment and Filipino citizens must start doing the same thing. The government should start funding and
investing projects like the green vehicle for the betterment and lessening the environmental impact caused by air
pollutants. The researchers arrived at this suggestion because of the negative health impacts of fossil-fueled cars.
Diesel and petrol powered cars emit carcinogenic air contaminants such as nitrogen oxide (NOx). Diesel cars release
fine particulates that causes serious health impacts in respiratory and cardiovascular system [30]. It is not necessary
to transition into green transportation as soon as possible, the government could begin by promoting it first. Bringing
awareness to the public is an important step so that they would come to realize why it should be done and let them
see this project as a necessity. The government could start with a few green vehicles first and bring curiosity to the
public, highlight its benefits and purposes. Show the Filipino citizens its advantages and how these green
transportation differ from conventional vehicles.

Meanwhile, an individual can help mitigate air pollution by purchasing either a hybrid or electric vehicle if ever
he/she needs one. Jeepney owners can also help by transforming their jeepneys to electric and solar-powered
vehicles. If it is not necessary, then try reducing the use of conventional vehicles [31]. These are simple ways an
individual can do to help save fellow human-beings and the planet as well.

The researchers also suggest the demand for proper public infrastructures. Traffic congestion is an everyday
scenario in Metro Manila which contributes more air pollutants because vehicles are powered for hours in traffic.
The government tries to address this concern by constructing more roads, it is okay but the researchers think it
would be better if the government focuses more on improving alternative modes of transit like investing in cable
cars, opening and extending train stations and utilization of electric buses services. The researchers highlight bus
services so that many individuals could be accommodated, people sharing vehicles with others minimize their
individual use of transportation. Filipino citizens are already familiar with electric buses since there are few
electric-powered buses roaming around the Metro, it is already started and the next step is to add more and stop until
all the conventional buses are already transitioned into electric powered or even solar-powered. This transition
should be taken one step at a time.

In addition, the researchers highly suggest the construction of green buildings nationwide. What is green
building? It is the practice of constructing and utilizing healthier and more resource-efficient buildings (EPA
Frequently Asked Questions). The World Green Building Council [31] believes that sustainable buildings and cities
will create a great contribution to reducing the toxicological impacts of air pollution on human health and its
detrimental effects on the environment. United Nations Sustainable Development Goals promotes global sustainable
development and it can be achieved through green buildings and cities. The researchers being future engineers, it is
important to take into consideration the Sustainable Development Goals and it will mainly reflect on their future
projects considering human health and environmental factors. To make it possible, indoor air pollution can be
mitigated by the materials being used, it is important to make use of non-toxic, air purifying and sustainable
materials. It is also significant to be aware of the building fabrics and quality assurance. To have a proper circulation
of fresh air, green buildings also promote appropriate ventilation systems and strategies to achieve energy efficiency
and address health concerns. It does not only address and mitigate poor air quality but also supports the achievement
of seven out of seventeen Sustainable Development Goals. These include SDG 3 concerning good health and
well-being, SDG 7 which is affordable and clean energy, SDG 9 for industry, innovation, and infrastructure, SDG
11 for sustainable cities, SDG 12 for responsible consumption and production, SDG 13 achieves climate action and
SDG 17 which is partnership for the goals (World Green Building Council).
 The researchers presented the mentioned recommendations in the hope that the air quality of Metro Manila
would improve with the help of the government and Filipino citizens as well. After all, the effects like health and
environmental impacts could only be cured by addressing the root cause which is the air pollution.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The researchers would like to express our special thanks of gratitude to their professor, Dr. Lawrence P. Belo,
who gave them the opportunity to do research on Air Quality Index of Metro Manila. The group appreciates Dr.
Belo’s effort in guiding each group in choosing relevant topic which needs to be addressed that is why they arrived
into this case study. It gave the researchers a chance to assess the status of air quality in Metro Manila and share
their insights and recommendations as future engineers. The course Environmental Engineering taught them new
knowledge that they will be using everyday and especially once they enter the professional world. Of course, the
learning in this course was further discussed and elaborated by the professor.

REFERENCES
[1] ​ ​Available online at​ ​https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/air-pollution/index.cfm
[2] ​ ​Available online at
[3] ​ ​Available online at
https://www.asianjournal.com/philippines/across-the-islands/ph-falls-third-in-air-pollution-deaths%e2%80%af/
[4] ​ ​Available online at​ ​https://www.flipscience.ph/health/how-bad-air-pollution-philippines/
[5] ​ ​Available online at​ ​https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0960168692900012
[6] ​ ​Available online at​ ​https://pia.gov.ph/news/articles/1008049
[7] ​ ​Available online at
http://air.emb.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/National-Air-Quality-Status-Report-2008-20151.pdf
[8] ​ ​Available online at
[9] ​ ​Available online at​ ​www.dost.gov.ph/en/coal.html
[10] ​ ​Available online at
[11] ​ ​Available online at
http://www.observatory.ph/2019/01/23/new-years-eve-2019-particle-pollution-measurements-in-metro-manila/
[12] ​ ​Available online at
[13] ​ ​Available online at
[14] ​ ​Available online at
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/411756/COMEAP
_The_evidence_for_the_effects_of_nitrogen_dioxide.pdf?fbclid=IwAR3VFae-9LShr3-xGr78g0DEIPWcdVdd-U9p
9SrgjyMvnPA9Wt75FKYsUs4
[15] ​ ​Available online at​ ​https://www.rappler.com/nation/208192-air-pollution-deaths-3rd-highest-philippines
[16] ​ ​Available online at
[17] ​ ​Available online at
https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.philstar.com/business/2019/03/25/1904157/air-quality&sa=D&ust=156
6395753576000&usg=AFQjCNFIW-xm4vqXpARmgA7sdLpcbSAPkQ
[18] ​ ​Available online at
https://denr.gov.ph/section-policies/viewrec.php?id=1518&page=85&sort=&filter=&searchword=
[19] ​ ​Available online at​ ​https://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra1999/ra_8749_1999.html
[20] ​ ​Available online at
[21] ​ ​Available online at
https://www.rappler.com/nation/220709-duterte-issue-executive-order-banning-firecrackers
[22] ​ ​Available online at​ ​https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2009/06/21/479300/strictly-implement-clean-air-act
[23] ​ ​Available online at​ ​http://airtoday.ph/www2/portfolio/
[24] ​ ​Available online at​ ​https://arcasouth.ph/benefits-using-public-transportation/
[25] ​ ​Available online at​ ​http://climatetracker.org/25-solutions-to-air-pollution/
[26] ​ ​Available online at
[27] ​ ​Available online at
https://www.autodeal.com.ph/articles/car-news-philippines/which-philippine-region-has-most-vehicle-registrations-i
n-2018
[28] ​ ​Available online at​ ​https://www.slideshare.net/braydensmith401/green-transportation-40285283
[29] ​ ​Available online at
https://ecowarriorprincess.net/2019/03/philippines-ranks-third-air-pollution-deaths-what-needs-to-be-done/
[30] ​ ​Available online at
https://www.energuide.be/en/questions-answers/are-electric-vehicles-really-environmentally-friendly/197/
[31] ​ ​Available online at​ ​https://archive.epa.gov/greenbuilding/web/html/