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A scale model of the Tower of London. This model can be found inside the tower.

Scale model of water powered turbine

L to R with 12 inch ruler at bottom: 1:64 Matchbox Chevrolet Tahoe, 1:43 Ford F-100, 1:25 Revell
Monogram 1999 Ford Mustang Cobra, 1:18 Bburago 1987 Ferrari F40
 Model ships and castle

A scale model is most generally a physical representation of an object that maintains

accurate relationships between all important aspects of the model, although absolute
values of the original properties need not be preserved. This enables it to demonstrate
some behavior or property of the original object without examining the original object
itself. The most familiar scale models represent the physical appearance of an object in
miniature, but there are many other kinds.
Scale models are used in many fields including engineering, architecture, film making,
military command, salesmanship, and hobby model building. While each field may use a
scale model for a different purpose, all scale models are based on the same principles
and must meet the same general requirements to be functional. The detail requirements
vary depending on the needs of the modeler.
To be a true scale model, all relevant aspects must be accurately modeled, such as
material properties, so the model's interaction with the outside world is reliably related to
the original object's interaction with the real world.[citation needed]

Contents

 1Requirements
o 1.1Similitude requirements
 1.1.1Scaling
o 1.2Practical requirements
 2Classes
 3Examples
o 3.1Structural
o 3.2Aircraft
 3.2.1Static
 3.2.2Flying
o 3.3Plans-relief
o 3.4Buildings
o 3.5Architectural
o 3.6House portrait
o 3.7Buses and trucks
o 3.8Cars
o 3.9Construction vehicles
o 3.10Railways
o 3.11Robots
o 3.12Rockets and spacecraft
o 3.13Living creatures
 o 3.14Ships and naval wargaming
o 3.15Manned ships
o 3.16Tanks and wargaming
o 3.17Engines
o 3.18Miniatures in contemporary art
 4See also
 5Notes
 6References
 7Further reading
 8External links

Requirements[edit]
In general a scale model must be designed and built primarily considering similitude
theory. However, other requirements concerning practical issues must also be
considered.
Similitude requirements[edit]
Similitude is the theory and art of predicting prototype (original object) performance from
scale model observations.[1] The main requirement of similitude is all dimensionless
quantities must be equal for both the scaled model and the prototype under the
conditions the modeler desires to make observations. Dimensionless quantities are
generally referred to as Pi terms, or π terms. In many fields the π terms are well
established. For example, in fluid dynamics, a well known dimensionless number called
the Reynolds number comes up frequently in scale model tests with fluid in motion
relative to a stationary surface.[2] Thus, for a scale model test to be reliable, the Reynolds
number, as well as all other important dimensionless quantities, must be equal for both
scale model and prototype under the conditions that the modeler wants to observe.
An example of the Reynolds number and its use in similitude theory satisfaction can be
observed in the scale model testing of fluid flow in a horizontal pipe. The Reynolds
number for the scale model pipe must be equal to the Reynolds number of the prototype
pipe for the flow measurements of the scale model to correspond to the prototype in a
meaningful way. This can be written mathematically, with the subscript m referring to the
scale model and subscript p referring to the prototype, as follows:

where

 is the mean velocity of the object relative to the fluid (SI units: m/s)

 is a characteristic linear dimension, (travelled length of the fluid; hydraulic

diameter when dealing with river systems) (m)

 is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s or N·s/m² or kg/(m·s))

 is the density of the fluid (kg/m³).

Observing the equation above it is clear to see that while the Reynolds numbers must be
equal for the scale model and the prototype, this can be accomplished in many different
ways, for example, in this problem by altering the scale of the dynamic viscosity of the
model to work with the scale of the length. This means, the scales of different quantities,
for example a material's elasticity in the scale model versus the prototype, are governed
by equating the dimensionless quantities and the other quantity's scaling within the
dimensionless quantity to ensure the dimensionless quantity of interest is of equal
magnitude for the scale model and prototype.
Scaling[edit]
With the above understanding of similitude requirements, it becomes clear the scale

often reported in scale models refers only to the geometric scale, (L referring to
length), and not the scale of the parameters potentially important to consider in the scale
model design and fabrication. In general the scale of any quantity i, perhaps material
density or viscosity, is defined as:

where

 is the quantity value of the prototype

 is the quantity value of the scale model

This relationship must be applied to all quantities of interest in the prototype, observing
similitude requirements—so the scale model can be built using dimensions and materials
that make scale model testing results meaningful with respect to the prototype.[3] One
method to determine the dimensionless quantities of concern for a given problem is to
use dimensional analysis.
Practical requirements[edit]
Practical concerns include the cost to construct the model, available test facilities to
condition and observe the model, the availability of certain materials, and even who will
build it. Practical requirements are often very diverse depending on the purpose of the
scale model and they all must be considered to have a successful scale model
experience.
As an example, perhaps an aerospace company needs to test a new wing shape.
According to the similitude requirements the test must be carried out in a wind tunnel that
can drop the temperature of the air to −128 °C (−198 °F), such as the 0.3-meter (12 in)
Transonic Cryogenic Tunnel at NASA Langley Research Center.[4] However, if a facility
such as this one can't be used, perhaps due to cost constraints, the similitude
requirements must be relaxed or the test redesigned to accommodate the limitation.

Classes[edit]
For a scale model to represent a prototype in a perfectly true manner, all the
dimensionless quantities, or π terms, must be equal for the scale model during the
observational period and the prototype under the conditions the modeler desires to study.
However, in many situations, designing a scale model that equates all the π terms to the
prototype is simply not possible due to lack of materials, cost restrictions, or limitations of
testing facilities. In this case, concessions must be made for practical reasons to the
similitude requirements.
Depending on the phenomena being observed, perhaps some dimensionless quantities
aren't of interest and thus can be ignored by the modeler and the results of the scale
model can still safely be assumed to correspond to the prototype. An example of this
from fluid dynamics is flow of a liquid in a horizontal pipe. Possible π terms to consider in
this situation are Reynolds number, Weber number, Froude number, and Mach number.
For this flow configuration, however, no surface tension is involved, so the Weber
number is inappropriate. Also, compression of the fluid is not applicable, so the Mach
number can be disregarded. Finally, gravity is not responsible for the flow, so the Froude
number can also be disregarded. This leaves the modeler with only the Reynolds number
to worry about in terms of equating its values for the scale model and the prototype.[5]
In general, scale models can be classified into three classes depending on the degree of
similitude satisfaction they exhibit. To begin, a true model is one with complete
similitude—that is, all π terms are equal for the scale model and the prototype. True
models are difficult to realize in reality due to the many possible quantities the modeler
must consider. As a result, modelers identify the important dimensionless quantities and
construct a scale model that satisfies these. Important dimensionless quantities are
called first-order dimensional requirements. A model that satisfies first-order similarity is
called an adequate model. Finally, for scale models that fail to satisfy one or more of the
first-order requirements, the name distorted model is given.[6]

Examples[edit]
Scale models are used by many fields for many different purposes. Some of the specific
uses of scale models by specific fields are explained below in the examples.
Structural[edit]
Although structural engineering has been a field of study for thousands of years and
many of the great problems have been solved using analytical and numerical techniques,
many problems are still too complicated to understand in an analytical manner or the
current numerical techniques lack real world confirmation. When this is the case, for
example a complicated reinforced concrete beam-column-slab interaction problem, scale
models can be constructed observing the requirements of similitude to study the problem.
Many structural labs exist to test these structural scale models such as the Newmark
Civil Engineering Laboratory at the University of Illinois, UC.[7]

This is a load confinement box from the University of Illinois, UC Structural engineering lab. It can
impart six degrees of freedom on structural scale models.[8]

For structural engineering scale models, it is important for several specific quantities to
be scaled according to the theory of similitude. These quantities can be broadly grouped
into three categories: loading, geometry, and material properties. A good reference for
considering scales for a structural scale model under static loading conditions in the
elastic regime is presented in Table 2.2 of the book Structural Modeling and
Experimental Techniques.[9]
Structural engineering scale models can use different approaches to satisfy the similitude
requirements of scale model fabrication and testing. A practical introduction to scale
model design and testing is discussed in the paper "Pseudodynamic Testing of Scaled
Models".[10]
Aircraft[edit]
Main article: Model aircraft
Scale model of a Douglas DC-3 in Finnair Airlines colors. Many airlines use model aircraft as
advertisement items

Model aircraft are divided into two main groups: static and flying models.
Static[edit]
Static model aircraft are commonly built using plastic, but wood, metal, card and paper
can also be used. Models are sold painted and assembled, painted but not assembled
(snap-fit), or unpainted and not assembled. The most popular types of aircraft to model
are commercial airliners and military aircraft. Aircraft can be modeled in many "scales".
The scale notation is the size of the model compared to the real, full-size aircraft called
the "prototype". 1:8 scale will be used as an example; it is read as: "1 inch (or whatever
measurement) on the model is equal (: means equal) to 8 inches on the real (prototype)
airplane". Sometimes the scale notation is not used; it is simply stated: "my model is one
eighth (1/8) scale", meaning "my model is one eighth the size of the real airplane" or "my
model is one eight as large as the real airplane". Popular scales are, in order of
size, 1:144, 1:72 (the most numerous), 1:48, 1:32, 1:24, 1:16, 1:8 and 1:4. Some
European models are available at more metric scales such as 1:50. The highest quality
models are made from injection-molded plastic or cast resin. Models made from Vacuum
formed plastic are generally for the more skilled builder. More inexpensive models are
made from heavy paper or card stock. Ready-made die-cast metal models are also very
popular. As well as the traditional scales, die-cast models are available
in 1:200, 1:250, 1:350, 1:400, 1:500 and 1:600 scale.
These scales are usually reserved for civil airliners. Static aircraft scale modeling falls
broadly into three categories: kit assembly, scratch-building, and collection of ready-
made models. Scratch-builders tend to be the top echelon in terms of skill and
craftsmanship. They tend to be the most discerning when it comes to accuracy and detail
and they spend far more time on far fewer models than a kit assembler.[citation needed]
Kit assemblers fall roughly into two categories: OOB (Out of box) and modified. Out of
Box refers to the act of assembling a kit only from what is contained in the box supplied,
whereas a Modifier employs after-market products such as alternative decals, photo-
etched metal detail parts, and cast resin detail or conversion parts to enhance or change
the model in some way. Collectors are concerned purely with the issue of theme, and are
not really interested in personal construction as such.
Aircraft modelers often fall into more than one category, as fancy takes them. The
overwhelming majority of aircraft modelers concern themselves with depiction of real-life
aircraft, but there is a smaller cadre of modelers who derive additional fun by 'bending'
history a little by making models of aircraft that either never actually flew or existed, or by
painting them in a color scheme that did not actually exist. This is commonly referred to
as 'What-if' or 'Alternative' modeling, and the most common theme is 'Luftwaffe 1946' or
'Luftwaffe '46'. This theme stems from the idea of modeling German secret projects that
never saw the light of day due to the close of World War II. This concept has been
extended to include British, Russian, and US experimental projects that never made it
into production.
Flying[edit]
Flying model aircraft are of two types: those constructed for aerodynamic research and
those for recreation or aeromodeling.
Aerodynamic models may be constructed for use in a wind tunnel or in free flight. Small-
scale piloted aircraft are even constructed to test some aspect of a proposed full-size
design, but these are not considered as models even though they may be accurate to
scale.
Recreational models are often made to resemble some real type. However the
aerodynamic requirements of a small model are different from those of a full-size craft, so
flying models are seldom fully accurate to scale. Most flying model aircraft can be placed
in one of three groups: free flight, control line and radio controlled. Flying models can be
built from scratch or from kits. Some kits take many hours to put together and some kits
are almost ready to fly or ready to fly.
Plans-relief[edit]
Main article: Plan-relief
With elements similar to miniature wargaming, building models and architectural models,
a plan-relief is a means of geographical representation in relief as a scale model for
military use, to visualise building projects on fortifications or campaigns involving
fortifications.
Buildings[edit]
Main article: Building model

Model building for an HO scale railroad

Most hobbyists who build models of buildings do so as part of a diorama to enhance their
other models, such as a model railroad or model war machines. As a stand-alone hobby,
building models are probably most popular among enthusiasts of construction toys such
as Erector, Lego and K'Nex. Famous landmarks such as the Empire State Building, Big
Ben and the White House are common subjects. Standard scales have not emerged in
this hobby. Model railroaders use railroad scales for their buildings: HO scale (1:87), OO
scale (1:76), N scale (1:160), and O scale (1:43). Lego builders use miniland scale (1:20)
and minifig scale (1:48) and micro scale (1:192)[note 1] Generally, the larger the building, the
smaller the scale. Model buildings are commonly made from plastic, foam, balsa wood or
paper. Card models are published in the form of a book, and some models are
manufactured like 3-D puzzles. Professionally, building models are used by architects
and salesmen.
Architectural[edit]
Main article: Architectural model
Architecture firms usually employ model makers or contract model making firms to make
models of projects to sell their designs to builders and investors. These models are
traditionally hand-made, but advances in technology have turned the industry into a very
high tech process than can involve Class IV laser cutters, five-axis CNC machines as
well as rapid prototyping or 3D printing. Typical scales are 1:12, 1:24, 1:48, 1:50, 1:100,
1:200, 1:500, etc.
House portrait[edit]
Main article: Model house
Typically found in 1:50 scale and also called model house, model home or display house,
this type of model is usually found in stately homes or specially designed houses.
Sometimes this kind of model is commissioned to mark a special date like an anniversary
or the completion of the architecture, or these models might be used by salesmen selling
homes in a new neighborhood.
Buses and trucks[edit]

1:64 scale diecast trucks

Main article: Model commercial vehicle

Typically found in 1:50 scale, most manufacturers of commercial vehicles and heavy
equipment commission scale models made of die-cast metal as promotional items to give
to prospective customers. These are also popular children's toys and collectibles. The
major manufacturers of these items are Conrad and NZG in Germany. Corgi also makes
some 1:50 models, as well as Dutch maker Tekno.
Trucks are also found as diecast models in 1:43 scale and injection moulded kits (and
children's toys) in 1:24 scale. Recently some manufacturers have appeared in 1:64
scale like Code 3.
Cars[edit]
Main article: Model car
Although the British scale for 0 gauge was first used for model cars made of rectilinear
and circular parts, it was the origin of the European scale for cast or injection moulded
model cars. MOROP's specification of 1:45 scale for European 0 does not alter the series
of cars in 1:43 scale, as it has the widest distribution in the world.
In America, a series of cars was developed from at first cast metal and later styrene
models ("promos") offered at new-car dealerships to drum up interest. The
firm Monogram, and later Tamiya, first produced them in a scale derived from the
Architect's scale: 1:24 scale, while the firms AMT, Jo-Han, and Revell chose the scale of
1:25. Monogram later switched to this scale after the firm was purchased by Revell.
Some cars are also made in 1:32 scale, and rolling toys are often made on the scale 1:64
scale. Chinese die-cast manufacturers have introduced 1/72 scale into their range. The
smaller scales are usually die-cast cars and not the in the class as model cars. Except in
rare occasions, Johnny Lightning and Ertl-made die-cast cars were sold as kits for buyers
to assemble.
Model cars are also used in car design.
Construction vehicles[edit]
A model construction vehicle (or engineering vehicle) is a scale model or die-cast toy that
represents a construction vehicle such as a bulldozer, excavator, crane, concrete
pump, backhoe, etc.
Construction vehicle models are almost always made in 1:50 scale, particularly because
the cranes at this scale are often three to four feet tall when extended and larger scales
would be unsuited for display on a desk or table. These models are popular as children's
toys in Germany. In the US they are commonly sold as promotional models for new
construction equipment, commissioned by the manufacturer of the prototype real-world
equipment. The major manufacturers in Germany are Conrad and NZG, with some
competition from Chinese firms that have been entering the market.
Railways[edit]

An HO scale model railroad

HO scale locomotive showing size comparison with pencil.

An N scale locomotive
A propane fired 1:8 scale live steam train running on the Finnish Railway Museum's miniature
track.

Main article: Rail transport modelling

Model trains come in a variety of scales, from 1:8 on the large end and 1:450 (T scale) on
the small. Each scale has its own strengths and weaknesses, and fills a different niche in
the hobby. The largest models are as much as 3 meters (9.8 ft) long, the smallest a few
centimeters. The most popular size is HO scale (1:87) and second is N scale (1:160).
Model railways originally used the term gauge, which refers to the distance between
the rails, just as full-size railways do. Although model railways were also built to different
gauges, "standard gauge" in 1:1 scale railroads is 4' 8.5". Therefore, a model railway
reduces that standard to scale. An HO scale model railway would have track that is 1/87
of 4' 8.5", or about 0.65" from rail to rail. Now it is more typical to refer to the scale of the
model, and the term scale has replaced "gauge" in most usages. This is despite
considerable confusion between countries as to the definition of 0 scale and N scale.
Considerable confusion often arises when referring to "scale" and "gauge", especially as
the words are sometimes used interchangeably. The word "scale" refers to the
proportional size of the model; the word "gauge" applies to the measurement between
the inside faces of the rails. To highlight this difference, consider the various gauges
used in HO scale; A gauge of 16.5 mm is used to represent the "standard gauge"
of 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) (HO scale), a gauge of 12 mm is used to
represent 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 3⁄8 in) gauge (HOm) and the 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) gauge
(HOn3-1/2) and a gauge of 9 mm is used to represent a prototype gauge
of 2 ft (610 mm). It is completely incorrect to refer to the mainstream scales as "HO
gauge", "N gauge" or "Z gauge"
The most popular scale to go with a given gauge was often derived at by the following
roundabout process. German artisans would take strips of metal of standard metric size
to make things to blueprints whose dimensions were in inches: hence "4 mm to the foot"
yields the 1:76.2 size of the "OO scale". This British scale is anomalously used on the
standard HO/OO scale (16.5 mm gauge from 3.5 mm/foot scale) tracks, however,
because early electric motors weren't available commercially in smaller sizes.
There are three different standards for the "O" scale, each of which uses tracks of 32 mm
for the standard gauge. The American version continues a dollhouse scale of 1:48. It is
sometimes called "quarter-gauge", as in "one-quarter-inch to the foot". The British version
continued the pattern of sub-contracting to Germans; so, at 7 mm to the foot, it works out
to a scale of 1:43.5. Later, MOROP, the European authority of model railroad firms,
declared that the "O" gauge (still 32 mm) must use the scale of 1:45. That is, in Europe
the below-chassis dimensions must be slightly towards 4 feet 6 inches, to allow
wheel/tyre/splasher clearance for smaller than realistic curved sections.
"Live steam" railways, that people actually ride on, are built in many scales, such as 1-
1/2", 1", and 3/4 inches to the foot. Common gauges are 7-1/2" (Western US) and 7-1/4"
(Eastern US & rest of the world), 5", 4-3/4". Smaller live steam gauges do exist, but as
the scale gets smaller, pulling power decreases. One of the smallest gauges on which a
live steam engine can pull a passenger is the now almost defunct 2-1/2-inch gauge.
Robots[edit]
Main article: Model robot
Japanese firms have marketed toys and models of what are often called mecha, nimble
humanoid fighting robots. The robots, which appear in animated shows (anime), are often
depicted at a size between 15-20m in height, and so scales of 1:100 and 1:144 are
common for these subjects, though other scales such as 1:72 are commonly used for
robots and related subjects of different size.
The most prolific manufacturer of mecha models is Bandai, whose Gundam kit lines were
a strong influence in the genre in the 1980s. Even today, Gundam kits are the most
numerous in the mecha modeling genre, usually with dozens of new releases every year.
The features of modern Gundam kits, such as color molding and snap-fit construction,
have become the standard expectations for other mecha model kits.
Due to the fantasy nature of most anime robots, and the necessary simplicity of cel-
animated designs, mecha models lend themselves well to stylized work, improvisations,
and simple scratchbuilds. One of Gundam's contributions to the genre was the use of a
gritty wartime backstory as a part of the fantasy, and so it is almost equally fashionable to
build the robots in a weathered, beaten style, as would often be expected for AFV kits as
to build them in a more stylish, pristine manner.
Rockets and spacecraft[edit]
Main article: Model rocket
Model rocket kits began as a development of model aircraft kits, yet the scale of 1:72
[V.close to 4 mm.::1foot] never caught on. Scales 1:48 and 1:96 are used. There are
some rockets of scales 1:128, 1:144, and 1:200, but Russian firms put their large rockets
in 1:288. Heller SA offers some models in the scale of 1:125.
Science fiction space ships are heavily popular in the modeling community. Models
based on ships from such franchises as Star Trek, Star Wars, and Battlestar
Galactica are regularly sold and created in scales ranging from 1:24 for fighters and
smaller ships to 1:1000, 1:1400, and 1:2500 for most main franchise ships, and up to
1:10000 for the larger Star Wars ships (for especially objects like the Death
Stars and Super Star Destroyers, even smaller scales are used). Finemolds in Japan
have recently released a series of high quality injection molded Star Wars kits in 1:72,
and this range is supplemented by resin kits from Fantastic Plastic.
Living creatures[edit]
See also: Model figure
Scale models of people and animals are found in a wide variety of venues, and may be
either single-piece objects or kits that must be assembled, usually depending on the
purpose of the model. For instance, models of people as well as both domestic and wild
animals are often produced for display in model cities or railroads to provide a measure
of detail or realism, and scaled relative to the trains, buildings, and other accessories of a
certain line of models. If a line of trains or buildings does not feature models of living
creatures, those who build the models often buy these items separately from another line
so they can feature people or animals. In other cases, scale model lines feature living
creatures exclusively, often focusing on educational interests.
Models of living creatures requiring assembly are not as common as single-piece units,
but certainly not unheard of. One of the most prolific kinds of kits requiring assembly that
feature living creatures are models of human and animal skeletons. Like their single-
piece counterparts, such kits are often touted as being educational activities. Skeleton
kits often have unique features such as glow-in-the-dark pieces or attachable internal
organs. Again, dinosaurs are a popular subject for such models. There are also garage
kits, which are often figures of anime characters in multiple parts that require assembly.
Ships and naval wargaming[edit]
Pendon Museum's model of Madderport

1:1250 scale die-cast models of ships

Main article: Ship model

In the first half of the 20th century, navies used hand-made models of warships for
identification and instruction in a variety of scales. That of 1:500 was called "teacher
scale." Besides models made in 1:1200 and 1:2400 scales, there were also ones made
to 1:2000 and 1:5000. Some, made in Britain, were labelled "1 inch to 110 feet", which
would be 1:1320 scale, but aren't necessarily accurate.
Michele Morciano says small scale ship models were produced in about 1905 linked to
the wargaming rules and other publications of Fred T. Jane. The company that
standardised on 1:1200 was Bassett-Lowke in 1908. The British Admiralty subsequently
contracted with Bassett-Lowke and other companies and individual craftsmen to produce
large numbers of recognition models, to this scale, in 1914-18.[11]
Just before the Second World War, the American naval historian (and science
fiction author) Fletcher Pratt published a book on naval wargaming as could be done by
civilians using ship models cut off at the waterline to be moved on the floors of basketball
courts and similar locales. The scale he used was non-standard (reported as 1:666), and
may have been influenced by toy ships then available, but as the hobby progressed, and
other rule sets came into use, it was progressively supplemented by the series 1:600,
1:1200, and 1:2400. In Britain, 1:3000 became popular and these models also have
come into use in the USA. These had the advantage of approximating the nautical
mile as 120 inches, 60 inches, and 30 inches, respectively. As the knot is based on this
mile and a 60-minute hour, this was quite handy.
After the war, firms emerged to produce models from the same white metal used to make
toy soldiers. Lines Bros. Ltd, a British firm, offered a tremendously wide range of
waterline merchant and naval ships as well as dockyard equipment in the scale 1:1200
which were die-cast in Zamak. In the US, at least one manufacturer, of the wartime
1:1200 recognition models, Comet, made them available for the civilian market postwar,
which also drove the change to this scale. In addition, continental European
manufacturers and European ship book publishers had adopted the 1:1250 drawing
scale because of its similar convenience in size for both models and comparison
drawings in books.
A prestige scale for boats, comparable to that of 1:32 for fighter planes, is 1:72,
producing huge models, but there are very few kits marketed in this scale. There are now
several clubs around the world for those who choose to scratch-build radio-controlled
model ships and submarines in 1:72, which is often done because of the compatibility
with naval aircraft kits. For the smaller ships, plank-on-frame or other wood construction
kits are offered in the traditional shipyard scales of 1:96, 1:108, or 1:192 (half of 1:96). In
injection-molded plastic kits, Airfix makes full-hull models in the scale the Royal Navy has
used to compare the relative sizes of ships: 1:600. Revell makes some kits to half the
scale of the US Army standard: 1:570. Some American and foreign firms have made
models in a proportion from the Engineer's scale: "one-sixtieth-of-an-inch-to-the-foot", or
1:720.

1/700 scale Japanese destroyer Harusame (1935) plastic model kit released by Tamiya

Manned ships[edit]
Main article: Port Revel
Many research workers, hydraulics specialists and engineers have used scale models for
over a century, in particular in towing tanks. Manned models are small scale models that
can carry and be handled by at least one person on an open expanse of water. They
must behave just like real ships, giving the shiphandler the same sensations. Physical
conditions such as wind, currents, waves, water depths, channels, and berths must be
reproduced realistically.
Manned models are used for research (e.g. ship behaviour), engineering (e.g. port
layout) and for training in shiphandling (e.g. maritime pilots, masters and officers). They
are usually at 1:25 scale.
Tanks and wargaming[edit]

American Civil War miniature battle at the HMGS "Cold Wars" convention in Lancaster, PA

Main articles: Model military vehicle and Miniature wargaming

Just before the 20th century, the British historian (and science fiction author and
forgotten mainstream novelist) H. G. Wells published a book, Little Wars, on how to play
at battles in miniature. His books use 54 mm lead figures, particularly those
manufactured by Britains. His fighting system employed spring-loaded model guns that
shot matchsticks.
This use of physical mechanisms was echoed in the later games of Fred Jane, whose
rules required throwing darts at ship silhouettes; his collection of data on the world's
fleets was later published and became renowned. Dice have largely replaced this toy
mayhem for consumers.
For over a century, toy soldiers were made of white metal, a lead-based alloy, often in
architect's scale-based ratios in the English-speaking countries, and called tin soldiers.
After the Second World War, such toys were on the market for children but now made of
a safe plastic softer than styrene. American children called these "army men". Many sets
were made in the new scale of 1:40. A few styrene model kits of land equipment were
offered in this and in 1:48 and 1:32 scales. However, these were swept away by the
number of kits in the scale of 1:35.
Those who continued to develop miniature wargaming preferred smaller scale models,
the soldiers still made of soft plastic. Airfix particularly wanted people to buy 1:76 scale
soldiers and tanks to go with "00" gauge train equipment. Roco offered 1:87 scale
styrene military vehicles to go with "HO" gauge model houses. However, although there
is no 1:72 scale model railroad, more toy soldiers are now offered in this scale because it
is the same as the popular aircraft scale. The number of fighting vehicles in this scale is
also increasing, although the number of auxiliary vehicles available is far fewer than
in 1:87 scale.
A more recent development, especially in wargaming of land battles, is 15 mm white
metal miniatures, often referred to as 1:100. The use of 15 mm scale metals has grown
quickly since the early 1990s as they allow a more affordable option over 28 mm if large
battles are to be refought, or a large number of vehicles represented. The rapid rise in
the detail and quality of castings at 15 mm scale has also helped to fuel their uptake by
the wargaming community.
Armies use smaller scales still. The US Army specifies models of the scale 1:285 for
its sand table wargaming. There are metal ground vehicles and helicopters in this scale,
which is a near "one-quarter-inch-to-six-feet" scale. The continental powers
of NATO have developed the similar scale of 1:300, even though metric standardizers
really don't like any divisors other than factors of 10, 5, and 2, so maps are not commonly
offered in Europe in scales with a "3" in the denominator.
Consumer wargaming has since expanded into fantasy realms, employing scales large
enough to be painted in imaginative detail - so called "heroic" 28 mm figures, (roughly
1:64, or S scale). Firms that produce these make small production lots of white metal.
Alternatively to the commercial models, some modelers also tend to use scraps to
achieve home-made warfare models. While it doesn't always involve wargaming, some
modelers insert realistic procedures, enabling a certain realism such as firing guns or
shell deflection on small scale models.
Engines[edit]
Kits for building an engine model are available, especially for kids. The most popular are
the internal combustion, steam, jet, and Stirling model engine. Usually they move using
an electric motor or a hand crank, and many of them have a transparent case to show
the internal process in action.
Miniatures in contemporary art[edit]
Daniel Dorall, Asylum, 2005, cardboard, sand, hydrocryl, plastic, 20 × 10 × 4 cm

Miniatures and model kits are used in contemporary art whereby artists use both scratch
built miniaturizations or commercially manufactured model kits to construct a dialogue
between object and viewer. The role of the artist in this type of miniature is not
necessarily to re-create an historical event or achieve naturalist realism, but rather to use
scale as a mode of articulation in generating conceptual or theoretical exploration.
Political, conceptual, and architectural examples are provided by noted artists such
as Bodys Isek Kingelez, Jake and Dinos Chapman (otherwise known as the Chapman
Brothers), Ricky Swallow, Shaun Wilson, Sven Christoffersen, or
the Psikhelekedana artists from Mozambique, James Casebere, Oliver Boberg,
and Daniel Dorall.

See also[edit]
 Autofest City
 Computer-aided design
 Cutaway drawing
 Die-cast toy
 Historical Miniatures Gaming Society
 International Plastic Modellers' Society
 Maquette
 Miniature effect
 Miniature faking
 Miniature figure (disambiguation)
 Miniature park
 Miniature pioneering
 Plastic model
 Rail transport modelling scale standards
 Solar system model
 Standard gauge in model railways
 Similitude (model)
 Terrain model
 List of scale model sizes
 List of scale-model industry people
 List of scale model kit manufacturers

Notes[edit]
1. ^ Crowe, C., et al. 2010, p. 259
 2. ^ Crowe, C., et al. 2010, p. 262
3. ^ Harris, H., et al. 1999, p. 57
4. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-12-02. Retrieved 2013-11-19.
5. ^ Crowe, C., et al. 2010, p. 263
6. ^ Harris, H., et al. 1999, p. 56
7. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-10-20. Retrieved 2013-11-19.
8. ^ http://ceephotos.karcor.com/?s=load+and+confinement+box
9. ^ Harris, H., et al. 1999, p. 62
10. ^ Kumar, et al. 1997, p. 1
11. ^ Morciano, Michele (2003). Classic Waterline Ship Models in the 1:1200/1250 scale.
Rome: self published. p. 5.

1. ^ In the Lego community, micro scale can refer to anything smaller than minifig scale
(1:48), but 1:192 is occasionally set as a standard micro scale. This ratio is arrived at by
scaling a person (6 feet) to the height of a Lego brick (3/8 inches). See Bedford, Alan
(2005). The Unofficial LEGO Builder's Guide. No Starch Press.

References[edit]
 Crowe, Clayton t.; Elger, Donald F.; Williams, Barbara C.; Roberson, John A.
(2010). Engineering Fluid Mechanics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-470-
40943-5.
 Harris, Harry G.; Sagnis, Gajanan M. (1999). Structural Modeling and Experimental
Techniques. CRC Press LLC. ISBN 9780849324697.
 Kumar; et al. (1997). "Pseudodynamic Testing of Scaled Models". J. Struct.
Eng. 123 (4): 524–526.

Further reading[edit]
 Crowe, Clayton t.; Elger, Donald F.; Williams, Barbara C.; Roberson, John A.
(2010). Engineering Fluid Mechanics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-470-
40943-5.
 Harris, Harry G.; Sagnis, Gajanan M. (1999). Structural Modeling and Experimental
Techniques. CRC Press LLC. ISBN 9780849324697.
 Lune, Peter van. "FROG Penguin plastic scale model kits 1936 - 1950". Zwolle, The
Netherlands, 2017, published by author ISBN 978-90-9030180-8