 What is a charge ?

Thus the bodies which acquired the property of attracting the light
bodies, are said to be charged or electrified. If the electricity so
produce is kept stationary(i.e., not allowed to flow), it is called the
static electricity.The charge of an electron is (1 . 6  10 19 coulomb )
Regarding charge , remember that

 Charge is a scalar quantity, hence the positive charge is denoted by

(+)ve sign and negative charge is denoted by (-)ve sign.
 Charge is a additive quantity.If there are a number of charge
placed at different points of a body, the total charge of the body
will be equal to the algebraic sum (i.e., with sign) of all charges.


For example => The sum of two charges +q and -q is to be zero

 What is “Quantisation” of charge ?

In nature, charge always occurs in integer multiple of a definite
minimum value.This is called the quantisation charge or atomicity of
charge.The minimum charge is the electronic charge is called the
elementary or fundamental charge.
Where n = 1,2,3,4…………
q   ne And, e = 1 .6  10 19 coulomb

 Law conservation of charge ?

In an isolated system, the charge neither be created nor it can be
destroyed. This is the law of conservation of charge.
 An isolated means system which is completely unaffected from
external environment
 Unit of charge

Electric charge is a scalar quantity. In C.G.S system electrostatic unit

is state-coulomb and electromagnetic unit is ab- coulomb. In S.I unit
of charge is coulomb.
1
1 coulomb  ab  coulomb  3  10 9 state  coulomb (e.s.u )
10

Charge =current × time

1 coulomb= 1 ampere × 1 second

Thus, if 1 ampere current flow in a conductor ,the flowing in that

conductor will be 1 coulomb.Its dimensional formula is [AT].

Thus coulomb ( C ) is a bigger quantity unit of charge and the smaller

unit of charge is micro-coulomb( ( C ) or nano-coulomb (nC ) .

 Derivation of coulomb law

According to the coulomb law the force attracting or repulsive acting
b/w the two point charge is directly proportional to the product of
magnitudes of two charges and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance b/w them.

Hence, Directly proportional to the product of magnitude of two

charges

i.e., F  q1 . q2 Eqn→❶
And , inversely to the square of the distance b/w them
1
F Eqn →❷
r
2

Combine both En ❶and ❷

q q
F  k. 1 2

r
2

Where “k” is the constant, the value of depend on the unit of charge,
force and the medium b/w the charge.If two charge situated b/w air
then the value of “k” is ( 9  10 N m . c )
9 2 2

qq
F  9  109 . 1 2
Newton
r
2

In C.G.S system, where k=1

q1 q2
F 2
dyne
r

1
In M.K.S, where k .
4  0

1 q1 q 2
F  . Newton
4  0 r
2

Where,( 0 = epsilon not or zero) is called permittivity of free space

and system measurement its value is ( 8.854  10 C N . m )
12 2 1 2

 Electric dipole
If there are two equal but opposite charges at a small separation, the
system is called an electric dipole.
 Dipole moment

The magnitude of dipole moment “p”of a dipole is equal to the product

of value of either charge and the distance b/w the two charges.

i.e.,
p  q  2l
Electric dipole moment “P” is a vector quantity in a direction along the
dipole axis from negative charge towards the positive charge. Its S.I
unit is coulomb × meter [C.m] and its C.G,S unit is
nano-coulomb×meter.Its devotional formula is [ M 0 L1 T 1 A1]
For example= Atomic dipole and Molecular dipole (polar and non- polar
molecule)

Electric field due to an electric dipole(End-on

position or longitudinal Position)

Let a electric dipole of dipole moment having two charge +q and -q

situated at the distance are “2l”.consider point “P” situated at
distance from point “O” is “r”.Then electric field is produce due to +ve
charge is E1 and -ve charge is E2.

E.F.I at the point “P” due to {+q } charge

1 q
E . 2
4  ( AP)
1

0
 1 q
E 
1 . Eqn→❶
4  ( r l )
2
0

E.F.I at the point “P” due to { -q } charge

1 q
E  . 2
4  ( BP )
1

1 (q)
E 
2 . Eqn→❷
4  ( r l )
2
0

So, total electric field intensity of dipole moment is equal but opposite
direction. [E1 > E2]
From Eqn ❶and❷

E  E E 1 2

1 q 1 (q)
E .  .
4  (r  l) 4  (r  l)
2 2
0 0

q  1 1 
E  .  2
4  0
2
 (r l ) (r l ) 

 ( r  l )2  ( r  l )2 
q
E  . 2 
4   ( r 2  l 2 ) 0 

 r 2  l 2  2rl  (r 2  l 2  2rl ) 
q
E . 2 
4   0 ( r 2 l 2 ) 

q  r 2  l 2  2 rl  r 2  l 2  2 rl 
E . 2 
4  0  ( r 2 l 2) 
 q  4 rl 
E  . 2
4  0  (r l ) 

1 2 . q  2l
E  .
4  ( r  l ) 2
0

1 2 Pr
E  .  P  q  2l
4  ( r  l ) 2 2 2
0

If, the point P is very far from the dipole(i.e., r >>l) ,the value of “l” is
neglisble as compared to “r”

1 2P
E . 3 NC1
4 K r 0

It direction will be from -ve to +ve charge.

Eendon   0
0

 Electric field due to a dipole in broad side position or

transverse position

Let a electric dipole of dipole moment having two charge +q and -q

situated at the distance are “2l”.consider point “P” situated at
distance from point “O” is “r”.Then electric field is produce due to +ve
charge is E1 and -ve charge is E2.
E.F.I at the point “P” due to the “+q” charge

1 q
E1  .
4  ( BP )
2
0

1 q
E1  . 2
4  ( r l ) 0

1 q
E1  .
4  ( r  l )
2
0
Eqn →❶

E.F.I at the point “P” due to the “-q” charge

1 q
E 
2 .
4  ( PA)
2
0

1 q
E 
2 . 2
4  ( r l ) 0

1 q
E 
2 .
4  ( r l )
2
0
Eqn →❷

so, both E.F.I are equal but opposite direction. Hence required
resultant formula.
 EE E
1 2

E  E E 1 2

1 q 1 q
E .  Cos  .  Cos
4  r  l 
0 4  r  l 
2 2
0
2 2
 1 q
E  2.  Cos
. l
4  r  l  2 2
 Cos  
r  l 
0
2 2

1 q l
E  2.  .
4   r  l   r  l
0
2 2 2 2

1 2q l
E . 
4   r  l 
0
2 2
r l
2 2
 P  q2 l

1 P
E  .
4   r 2  l 2  3 2
0

If, the point P is very far from the dipole(i.e., r >>l) ,the value of “l” is
neglisble as compared to “r”

1 P
E . N C 1
4  K r3 0

Direction from +ve to -ve charge .

E Broad   180 0

 Electric line of force

It is a imaginary smooth curve line in which unit +ve charge moves
freely and to tangent draw on it gives the direction of force /electric
line of force are called Electric line of force.
 Properties Electric line of force

1) It is a open curve line.

2) Start from positive charge and end in a negative charge.
3) They never be intersect to each other.
4) They always enter or emerge normal to the surface of a charged
conductor.
5) They are close together in regions of strong electric field and far
apart in regions of weak electric force.
6) The tangent to it at any point gives the direction of electric field
at that point.
7) The total number of electric lines of force is called strength of
electric field intensity[E.F.I].
EN
E  KN where" K" is sum constant
Electric field
The area around the charge up to with its effect can be experience by
other charge’s is called electric field.
These are two type:-

 Uniform Electric field:- If magnitude and direction of force are

same at each point.Its represented by the straight and parallel
line.
For example:- Inside the parallel plate condenser/capacitor
 Non- Uniform Electric field:- If magnitude and direction of force
are different at different point.Its represented by the straight
and curvature line.
For example:- Due to electric dipole or due to equal and opposite
charge

Let a charge “qo” place in electric field ”E” and experience force”F”.
Force
E .F .I 
Ch arg e
F
N . C 1


E
q 0

 It is a vector quantity
 Its Dimensional formula is

Force MLT 2
  [MLT 3 A1]
Ch arg e AT

 Direction of electric field:-

1) The direction of electric field at a point will be along the direction

of force at on the +ve charge placed at that point.
2) Due to +ve charge the direction of electric field will be away from
the +ve charge.Shown in {Fig:-1}.
3) Due to -ve charge the direction of electric field will be towards the
-ve charge.Shown {fig:-2}.

4) Generally its direction will be force +ve charge towards -ve charge.

 Direction of Electric force :-

If a charge”q0”placed/kept in electric field produce by other charge
then charge”q0” experience a force. This force are known as electric
force.
F  q .E
0

1) All the +ve charge along the direction of electric field.

2) All the -ve charge opposite the direction of electric field.

 Derive the expretion for electric field to a point charge.

Let a +ve charge placed in electric field-around it. Let a another point
“P” placed in electric field situated at the distance “r” at which
another charge “q0” kept on point “P”.
Force on charge “q” at point P
1 q.q
F . 2 0

4  r 0 Eqn→❶

According to the defination

F
E  Eqn→❷
q 0

From Eqn ❶ and ❷

1 q. q 0
.
4  0 r
2
E
q0
1 q
E . N . C 1
4  0 r 2

In C.G.S system unit

q
E 2
N . C 1
r
For medium

1 q
E . N C 1
4  K r2 0

Graph of E.F.I
 Torque Act on the electric dipole of dipole moment

Let Electric dipole of dipole moment and having two charge“+q” and “-q”
consider a point ‘P’ situated at the distance “2l”.Then kept in electric
field so,its experience a electric force and they try to rotates in
electric field.

Let force on charge “+Q”




F  (qE) Eqn→❶ along the direction of E.F [ AB ]

Again, Let force on charge “-Q”



F   (qE) Eqn →❷ opposite the direction of E.F [ BA ]

Since, both force are equal but opposite direction hence torque act on
the dipole moment . So , they are try to rotate in electric field.
According to the definition

τ  Force  displacement
Eqn→❸
τ  qE  (AC)

Let a triangle ‘ABC’

AB
Sin  
AC
Eqn→❹  AB  2 l
2 l . Sin   AC
From Eqn ❸and ❹

  q  2lE . sin   P  q  2l

  PE . sin 
 

 P P E
 

E

 In case (1) if   90 ( P  E )

0

  PE . sin (90 ) 0

  PE
 

Maximum
Hence, when dipole moment of electric dipole is perpendicular to the
electric field then torque maximum.

 In case ( 2 ) if   0 ( P // E )
0

  PE . sin( 0 ) 0

 0 Minimum
Hence, when dipole moment of electric dipole is parallel to the electric
field then torque is minimum.
Defination of dipole moment[P]
  PE . sin 
if   90 0

E 1
Then ,   P
Hence,dipole moment of a dipole is equal to the torque which is when
at on the dipole placed perpendicular to the “Electric field” of unit
intensity.
 Drive the expression work done in rotating a dipole moment
in electric field.
Let a electric dipole and dipole moment is “P” placed in uniform
electric field making an angle.

  PE . sin  Eqn→❶
Required work done is against rotating a dipole in through an angle “dθ”

work  Force (distance)

dw  τ.dθ
dw  PE.Sinθ
The total work done is required against rotating a dipole by angle “θ”
from electric field. On integrating limit from “0” to “θ”


 dw   PESin  .d 
0

 PE  Sin  .d 
0

 PE  [  Cos  ]
0

 PE [  Cos  ]0
 PE [  Cos   (  Cos 0 0 )]
 PE [  Cos   Cos 0 0 )]
 PE [  Cos   1]  Cos 0 0  1
W  PE [1  Cos  ] Joul .
 Derive the expretion for it potential energy of a dipole
moment ?

Defination:- It is equal to the work done in a rotating dipole from

standard position are called potential energy.
It means  to the E .F .I   90 0

Let, a dipole of moment “P” placed in electric field. So,experience

torque.

  PE . sin  Eqn→❶
Required work done is against rotating a dipole in through an angle “dθ”

work  Force  (dis tan ce)

dw   .d
dw  PE sin  .d

The total work done is required against rotating a dipole by angle

“θfrom electric field.On integrating limit from “900” to”θ”.

 dw   PESin  .d 
90

 PE  Sin  .d 
90

 PE  [  Cos  ]
90

 PE [  Cos  ] 90
“
 PE [  Cos   (  Cos 90 0 )]
 PE [  Cos  ]  Cos 90 0  0
W   PECos  Joul .
This work is stored in the terms of potential energy [P.E]

U   PECos  Joul .
 In case (1) if   00 [ P // to the E ]


U   PECos 

U   PECos ( 0 ) 0

U   P .E MINIMUM
 It is called Stable - Equilibrium position. If electric dipole parallel
to the electric field and is potential energy becomes negative.

 In case ( 2) if   900 [ P  to the E ]



U   PECos 

U   PECos (90 )0

U 0 ZERO
 It is called standard Equilibrium position. If electric dipole
perpendicular to the electric field and is potential energy becomes
zero.

 In case ( 3) if   180 0 [ P Anti  parallel to the E ]



U   PE .Cos 

U   PE .Cos (180 ) 0

U   P .E MAXIMUM

 It is called UN-Stable Equilibrium position.If electric dipole Anti

-parallel to the electric field and is potential energy becomes
positive.
 Note:-The resultant formula of dipole moment.

P  P12  P 22  2 P1 P 2 Cos 
 Electric Flux :-
The total no. of electric line passing through the normally to the
surface is called “Electric flux”.
Let, a surface of area “A” are placed in perpendicular to the Electric
field intensity “E”.

 E  E .A

If electric field making an angle “θ” with normal of the surface.

 E  E . ACos 

 E   E .dsCos    ds  A

 It is a scalar quantity.
 It’s unit is [N.M2/C].
 It’s Dimensional formula is [M L-3 T-1 A-1].

 In case (1) if   00 [ E is  to line surface or // normal of surface ]

 E  E  ds.Cos (0 )
0

 E  EA MAXIMUM

Hence, Electric flux is maximum when Electric field parallel to the

normal of the surface.
 In case (2) if   900 [ E is // to line surfaceor  normalof surface]

 E  E  ds.Cos(90 )
0

E  0 MINIMUM

Hence, Electric flux is maximum when Electric field perpendicular

to the normal of the surface.

 Gaussian surface:-
A imaginary closed surface at which every point the electric field at
must be same (equal) are called gaussian surface.
It is two types:-
1) SPHERICAL Body
 Point charge
 Spherical body.

2) Cylendrical Body
 Line charge
 Cylendrical body
 Plane sheet.
 Solide Angle (dw) :-
The angle made by the boundary of any close surface at a point is
called solid Angle.

dsCos 
dw  2
r

For spherical surface

 dsCos   4 r
2

 dw  4
For Cylendrical surface

 dsCos   2 r l
3

 dw  2 rl

 Gauss theorem :-
The total no. of electric flux passing through any close surface is
equal to the 1/ε0 times to the charge “q” present inside the point.

q
 
 0

For medium
q
 
K 0

Let “S” is a surface , a +ve charge is kept at point “O”. Let a point
situated at the distance “r” on the surface of area is “ds”.

Electric field intensitye due to a +v charge ”+q”.

1 q
E . Eqn→❶
4  r 0
2
Electric flux passing trough the close surface or gaussian surface.

 E  Ε  dsCos θ
1 q
E  . . ds.Cos θ
4π ε 0 r 2

q  dsCos θ  ds.Cos θ
E  .    dw  4 π
4π ε 0 r
2
r
2

q
E  .4 π
4π ε 0
q
E 
ε0
for medium
q
E 
Κε 0

 NOTE :-
 If is not charge in the surface then Electric flux is zero.

 Electric flux due to different charge.

   S1   S2   S3
q1 q2 ( q2)
  
ε0 ε0 ε0

 Some important defination :-

1) Linear charge Density [ (lemda)] ;- The charge per unit length is called
Linear charge density.

q
λ 
l
q  λl Cm
1

2) Surface charge Density [ (sigma)] : -The charge per unit Area is called
Surface charge density.

q

l
q  l Cm
1

2) Volume charge Density [  (rho)] ;- The charge per unit volume is called
Volume charge density.

q

V
q   .V Cm
1
 Derive the expretion for coulomb inverse squar law by using
gauss theorem.
Let a charge “q” kept at point “O” situated consider a point “P”
situated at the distance “r”. Now draw a sphere whose radius is “r1”
which will behaves as a gaussian surface.

Electric flux passing trough the close surface or gaussian

 E   E.dsCos θ
 E  E  dsCosθ
 E  E .4π r 2 Eqn  1

According to the " Gauss theorem"

q
E  Eqn  2
ε0
From Eqn (1) and (2)
q
E .4π r 2 
ε0
1 q
E .
4π ε 0 r 2
Let a another charge " q0 " is kept in point " P" in Electric Field Intensity

then it, s experiance a force.

F  q0 E
1 q.q 0
F .
4π ε 0 r 2
 Derive the expretion for electric field intensity due to a
“line charge” by using a gauss theorem.
Let “L” is wire uniformly +ve charge. Let a point “P” situated at the
distance “r”. Draw a cylinder of radius “r1” of length is “l” which will
behaves as a gassian surface.

Charge inside the gaussian surface

q  l
Elecrric flux passing through the gaussian surface.
   EdsCos 
  E  ds 3Cos 
  E .2rl Eqn  1
According to the gauss surface.
q
  Eqn  2
0
From Eqn 1 and 2
q
E .2rl 
0
q
E   q  l
2 rl  0
l
E 
2 rl  0

E 
2 r  0
Graph : 
1
E
r
 Derive the expresion for elctric field intensity due to
non- conducting charged sphere .
Let, a non- conducting sphere of radius “R” which is uniformly +ve
charge. Draw a sphere whose radius “r” which is behaves as a gaussian
surface.

charge inside the gaussian surface.

V  volume charge density  Volume of body
q  V .
4 3
q R . Eqn  1
3
Electric flux passing through the gaussian surface
   EdsCos 
  E  dsCos 
  E  4 r 2 Eqn  2
According to the gauss theorem
q
  Eqn  3
0
From Eqn 2 and 3
 q
E  4 r 2 
0
1 q
E  .
4  0 r 2
putting the value of " q ".
4 3
1 3 R .
E  .
4  0 r2
 .R 3
E 
3 0 r 2
At the surface

 .R
E   because r  R
3 0
case(1)  If point inside the surface.
Let a point " P" situated at the distance is " r" .Now
draw a sphere and of radius is " r' " which will behaves
as agassian surface.

charge inside the gaussian surface.

V  volume charge density  Volume of body
q  V .
4 3
q  r ' . Eqn  1
3
Electric flux passing through the gaussian surface
   EdsCos 
  E  dsCos 
  E  4 r '2 Eqn  2
According to the gauss theorem
q
  Eqn  3
0
From Eqn 2 and 3
q
E  4 r '2 
0
1 q
E  .
4  0 r '2
putting the value of " q ".
4 3
1 r ' .
E  . 3
4  0 r '2
 .r '
E 
3 0
At the center
E  0

Graph:-
 Derive the expretion forlectric field intensity due to
a “Infinite plane charged thin sheet.
Consider a thin plane charged sheet which is uniformly +ve charge the
surface density is sigma.
Let, a two point " P 1 " and P 2 at the same distance from the seen .
Now draw a cylender of length "2r" which will behaves as agaussian
surface.
Charge inside the gaussian surface.
q
 
A
q   .A Eqn  1

Electric flux passing through the gaussian surface.

   S 1   S2   S3
   E ds1   E ds 2   E ds 3
  E  ds1Cos 0 0   E  ds 2Cos 0 0   E  ds 3Cos 90 0 
  E  ds1  E  ds 2
  E.A  E.A  ds1  ds 2  A
  2E.A Eqn  2

According to the gauss theorem.

q
 Eqn  3
0
q
2E.A 
0
q
E  FOR THIN SHEET
2 A 0
Put the value of " q ".
 .A
E 
2A0

E 
20
For " THICK SHEET "
E  E1 E 2
 
E  
20 20

E 
 0

Due to the plane chart sheet the electric field intensity will be
uniform because it does not depend on the distance.

 NOTE:-
1) If electric field from “left side” then it taken to be +ve.

2) If electric field from “Right side” then it taken to be -ve.

 Derive the expression for