Ethics and Morality

The Moral Agent

Standards and Dilemmas
Lesson
Ethics and Morality
refer to rules provided by an external

Ethics source, e.g., codes of conduct in

workplaces or principles in religions

relate to “right” and

“wrong” conduct

Morals refer to an individual’s own

principles regarding right and
wrong.
What are they?
Ethics
The rules of conduct
recognized in respect to a
particular class of human
actions or a particular group
or culture.
Morals
Principles or habits with
respect to right or wrong
conduct. While morals also
prescribe dos and don'ts,
morality is ultimately a
personal compass of right
and wrong.
Where do they come from?

Ethics Morals

Social system - External Individual - Internal

Why we do it?

Ethics Morals

Because society says Because we believe in

it is the right thing to something being right
do. or wrong.
Flexibility

Ethics Morals
Ethics are dependent Usually consistent,
on others for although can change if
definition. They tend to an individual’s beliefs
be consistent within a change.
certain context, but can
vary between contexts.
The "Gray"
Ethics
A person strictly following
Ethical Principles may not
have any Morals at all.
Likewise, one could violate
Ethical Principles within a
given system of rules in order
to maintain Moral integrity.
Morals
A Moral Person although
perhaps bound by a higher
covenant, may choose to
follow a code of ethics as it
would apply to a system.
"Make it fit"
Origin

Ethics Morals
Greek word Latin word "mores"
"ethos" meaning meaning "custom"
"character"
Both terms translate roughly into notions affecting
“custom,” ”habit,” and “behavior.”
Acceptability

Ethics Morals
Ethics are governed by Morality transcends
professional and legal cultural norms
guidelines within a
particular time and
place
Ethics

Is defined as the study of

morality, which raises two
questions:
1.What is morality?
2.What is the study of
morality?
Morality
Morality can be defined as a system of rules for guiding human
conduct, and principles for evaluating those rules.

Two points are worth noting in this definition:

1. morality is a system;
2. it is a system comprised of moral rules and principles.

Moral rules can be understood as "rules of conduct," which are

very similar to "policies."
Two Kinds of Rules of Conduct

1.Directives for guiding our conduct

as individuals (at the micro-level)
2.Social Policies framed at the
macro-level
Directives
Directives are rules (of conduct) that guide our actions, and thus
direct us to behave in certain ways.

"Do not steal"

"Do not harm others"
are examples of rules of conduct that direct us in our
individual moral choices at the "micro-ethical" level (i.e., the
level of individual behavior).
 Social Policies
Some rules of conduct guide our actions at the "macro-ethical" level by
helping us frame social policies.

“Proprietary software should not be copied“

“Software that can be used to invade the
privacy of users should not be developed"
are both examples of rules of conduct that arise out of our social
policies.

Notice the correlation between directives and social policies (e.g., rules involving stealing).
Principles
The rules of conduct in a moral system are evaluated by
way of standards called principles.
For example, the principle of "social utility“ (i.e.,
promoting the greatest good for the greatest number)
can be used to evaluate a social policy such as
“Proprietary software should not be copied without
permission."
 Basic Components of a Moral System

Rules of Conduct Principles of Evaluation

(Action-guiding rules, in the form of (Evaluative standards used
either directives or social policies) to justify rules of conduct)

two types Examples include principles such

Rules for guiding the
actions of individuals
(micro-level ethical rules)
as of social utility and justice as
fairness
Rules for establishing
social policies
(macro-level ethical rules)

Examples include directives such as: Examples include social policies such as:
"Do not steal" and "Software should be protected“ and
"Do not harm others." "Privacy should be respected."
Bernard Gert’s Scheme of a Moral System
• According to Bernard Gert (2005), morality is a system
that is:
like a game, but more like an informal game (e.g., a game
of cards)
public (open and accessible to all)
rational (open to reason)
impartial (fair to all).
Four Features of Gert’s Moral System

Public Informal Rational Impartial

The rules The rules are The system is The system is
are known informal, not based on not partial to
to all of the like formal principles of any one group
members. laws in a legal logical reason or individual.
system. accessible to all
its members.
Why stealing is wrong?
Grounds for Justifying Moral Principles
Grounding Moral Principles in a Religious System
Consider the following rationale for why stealing is morally wrong:

Stealing is wrong because it offends God or because

it violates one of God's (Ten) Commandments.

From the point of view of institutionalized

religion, stealing is wrong because of it
offends God or because it violates the
commands of a supreme authority.
 Grounding Moral Principles in a Legal System
An alternative rationale would be:

Stealing is wrong because it violates the law.

 Here the grounds for determining why stealing is

wrong are not tied to religion.
 If stealing violates a law in a particular nation or
jurisdiction, then the act of stealing can be declared
to be wrong independent of any religious beliefs
that one may or may not happen to have.
Grounding Moral Principles in a Philosophical System of Ethics
A third way of approaching the question is:

Stealing is wrong because it is wrong

(independent of any form of external authority or any external sanctions).

On this view, the moral "rightness" or

"wrongness" of stealing is not grounded in
some external authoritative source.
It does not appeal to an external authority,
either theological or legal, for justification.
Grounding Moral Principles in a Philosophical System of Ethics

Many philosophers and ethicists have argued

that, independent of either supernatural or
legal authorities, reason alone is sufficient to
show that stealing is wrong.
They argue that reason can inform us that
there is something either in the act of stealing
itself, or in the consequences that result from
this kind of act, that makes stealing morally
wrong.
Grounding Moral Principles in a Philosophical System of Ethics

• In the case of both law and religion, specific sanctions

against stealing exist in the form of punishment.
• In the case of (philosophical) ethics, the only sanction
would be in the form of social disapproval, and
possibly social ostracism.

Exclusion from a society or group

The Role of Values in a
Moral System
The term value comes from the Latin valere, which
translates roughly into having worth or being of worth (Pojman,
2006).

Values can be viewed as objects of our desires or interests.

Examples of values include very general notions such
happiness, love, freedom, etc.
Moral principles are ultimately derived from a society's
system of values.
Intrinsic VS Instrumental Values
Philosophers distinguish between two types of values:
intrinsic and instrumental values.
Any value that serves some further end or good is called an
instrumental value because it is tied to some external
standard.
For example, automobiles, computers, and money are
goods that have instrumental value.
Values such as life and happiness are intrinsic because they
are valued for their own sake.
Moral VS Non-Moral Values

 Morals and values are not

necessarily identical.
 Values can be either moral
or non-moral.
Moral Values
Once we bring in the notion of impartiality, we
begin to take the "moral point of view."
When we frame the rules of conduct in a moral
system, we articulate a system of values having to
do with notions such as autonomy, fairness,
justice, etc., which are moral values.
Non-Moral Values
 Are goal oriented
 They are a means to an end we wish to achieve.
 Non-moral values include independence,
prestige, fame, popularity, and wealth.
Non Moral Standards
• What falls outside the scope of moral concern
• Any violations that does not pose a serious threat to human well-
being.

Wearing shorts to a
formal party
Ethical Theories
 An essential feature of
theory in general is that it
guides us in our
investigations.
 In science, theory provides
us with some general
principles and structures to
analyze our data.

The purpose of ethical theory, like scientific theory, is

to provide a framework for analyzing issues.
Four Kinds of Ethical Theories
The Moral Agent
Lesson
Moral Agents
• Those who have the freedom
and rational capacity to be
responsible for choices
• Those capable of moral
reflection and decision.
• Example: adult humans of
sound mind
• Infants and mentally infirm
adults are NOT moral agents
Moral Standing • If you have moral standing:
• Your continued existence or
welfare is valuable in itself
(intrinsic value)
• Your interests and well-being
must be weighed when deciding
what is permissible to do.
• Example: humans of all kinds
• Babies, children, adults, old
people, etc.
• Women, different races,
different cultures
Moral Duties

• That which is owed by

moral agents to those with
moral standing.
•Example: It is wrong to kill
our children because we
have a moral duty toward
them
Standards and Dilemmas
Lesson
Dilemmas and Moral Issues

•It is worth noting that not every moral

issue (or moral problem) that arises is
(also) necessarily a moral dilemma.
•We sometimes tend to confuse the
phrases moral issue and moral
dilemma.
A dilemma is a situation
where one must choose
between two
undesirable options,
which often leads to
one’s having to choose
between “the lesser of
two evils.”
Moral Dilemma
Moral Dilemma
Moral Issues

Often used to refer to

those particular
situations that are often
the source of
considerable and
inconclusive debate.
Moral Decision

When one is placed in a situation and

confronted by the choice of what act to
perform
Moral Judgment

When a person is an observer who

makes an assessment on the actions or
behavior of someone.