Published January, 2010
SPECIAL SUBMISSIONS
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System for Appraisal
of Salt-Affected Soils in India
Gurbachan Singh, D. S. Bundela,* Madhurama Sethi, Khajanchi Lal, and S. K. Kamra Central Soil Salinity Research Institute
Quantification of the nature, extent, and spatial distribution
of salt-affected soils (SAS) for India and the world is essential
for planning and implementing reclamation programs in a
timely and cost-effective manner for sustained crop production.
The national extent of SAS for India over the last four decades
was assessed by conventional and remote sensing approaches
using diverse methodologies and class definitions and ranged
from 6.0 to 26.1 million hectares (Mha) and 1.2 to 10.1
Mha, respectively. In 1966, an area of 6 Mha under SAS
was first reported using the former approach. Three national
estimates, obtained using remote sensing, were reconciled using
a geographic information system, resulting in an acceptable
extent of 6.73 Mha. Moderately and severely salt-encrusted
lands having large contiguous area have been correctly mapped,
but slightly salt-encrusted land having smaller affected areas
within croplands has not been accurately mapped. Recent
satellite sensors (e.g., Resourcesat-1, Cartosat-2, IKONOS-
II, and RISAT-2), along with improved image processing
techniques integrated with terrain and other spatial data using
a geographic information system, are enabling mapping at large
scale. Significant variations in salt encrustation at the surface
caused by soil moisture, waterlogging conditions, salt-tolerant
crops, and dynamics of subsurface salts present constraints in
appraisal, delineation, and mapping efforts. The article provides
an overview of development, identification, characterization,
and delineation of SAS, past and current national scenarios
of SAS using conventional and remote sensing approaches,
reconciliation of national estimates, issues of SAS mapping,
and future scope.
Copyright © 2010 by the American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science
Society of America, and Soil Science Society of America. All rights
reserved. No part of this periodical may be reproduced or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including pho-
tocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher.
Published in J. Environ. Qual. 39:5–15 (2010).
doi:10.2134/jeq2009.0032
Published online 20 Nov. 2009.
Received 23 Jan. 2009.
*Corresponding author (dbundela@cssri.ernet.in).
© ASA, CSSA, SSSA
677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA
S alt-affected soils (SAS) are found in all continents under
different climatic conditions and are a major threat to
agriculture. These soils are present most extensively in arid and
semiarid regions of the world and cover approximately 7% of the
total land area of the Earth (Ghassemi et al., 1995). Salt-affected
soils occur as vast stretches of salt-encrusted lands or in small
and isolated patches interspersed with normal soils, forming no
contiguous pattern. In India, irrigation-induced SAS cover an
area larger than naturally occurring SAS, and both are widespread
in the arid and semiarid agro-ecological regions (Singh, 2005;
Smedema and Shiati, 2002). Mapping and inventorying of
SAS, including waterlogged soils, across the country have been
performed by different national organizations in collaboration
with state departments and agencies. A conventional field survey
approach including maps was used to assess the nature, magnitude,
and areal extent of SAS under various projects. However, these
methods are expensive, time consuming, and labor intensive
(Dwivedi, 1992). Area estimates using such methods were
subject to sampling error; therefore, reliable estimates were often
not available. Furthermore, surveying of inaccessible areas and
inhospitable terrain was difficult using a conventional approach.
Remote sensing technology, with its unique characteristics of
systematic, synoptic, rapid, and repetitive coverage, has emerged as
a cost-effective approach for studying and mapping SAS and other
degraded lands in space and time domains (Navalgund et al., 2007;
Metternicht and Zinck, 2008). Aerial photographs with limited field
surveys were visually interpreted in the 1960s and early 1970s. Sub-
sequently, visual interpretation of satellite multi-spectral data was
widely adopted for mapping and monitoring of SAS at regional and
national scales. The use of remotely sensed data has improved the
mapping accuracy because different types of SAS exhibited distinctive
patterns on standard false color composites (FCCs). Multi-tempo-
ral imageries and other ancillary data integrated using a geographic
information system (GIS) have been used to create spatiotemporal
databases to monitor the status and trends of salinization and the im-
pact of various reclamation programs on SAS. Calibration of image
classification algorithms and quantification of classification accuracy
were supported with ground-truth data through an appropriate sam-
pling scheme for arriving at reliable area estimates. With the advance-
Gurbachan Singh, Director; D.S. Bundela and S.K. Kamra, Division of Irrigation and
Drainage Engineering; and Madhurama Sethi and Khajanchi Lal, Divison of Soil and
Crop Management, Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal 132001 India.
Abbreviations: EC, electrical conductivity; ESP, exchangeable sodium percentage; FCC,
false color composite; GIS, geographic information system; IGP, Indo-Gangetic Plains;
pHs, soil reaction of saturation paste; SAS, salt-affected soils.
5
ment in multi-spectral sensor and image processing technologies,
it is now possible to generate and update information at moder-
ate and severe levels of salinity at the farm scale in a cost-effective
manner. More intensive efforts are needed to identify and map the
slightly affected SAS reliably. This review provides an overview on
development, identification, characterization, and delineation of
SAS under Indian climatic regimes, nationwide mapping of SAS
using conventional and remote sensing approaches, advances in
image analysis and processing, reconciliation of national estimates
and distribution, and issues of SAS mapping and future scope.
Further use of radar and hyperspectral data in the context of map-
ping of SAS in India is also discussed.
Development of Salt-Affected Soils
The development of SAS depends on climate, topography,
geology, soil mineral weathering, drainage, hydrology, irriga-
tion source, ground water depth and quality, and management
practices (Ghassemi et al., 1995). Accumulation of sodium or
neutral salts in soils over a period leading to the formation of al-
kali, saline-alkali, or saline soils may be compounded by natural
or irrigation-induced factors, such as weathering of natural salt-
bearing soil minerals; irrigation with saline, saline-alkali, or alkali
waters; and waterlogging due to a rising ground water table.
In the north, these soils are spread over most of the Indo-
Gangetic plains (IGP), which include the states of Uttar Pradesh,
Haryana, Punjab, Bihar, and Delhi. In the west, the states of
Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra have sizable areas of SAS.
In the center and south of the country, the states of Madhya
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu have ex-
tensive areas of SAS. In the east, SAS are found in the deltaic and
coastal parts of West Bengal and Orissa (Abrol et al., 1988; Singh,
2005). The information of nine benchmark profiles of SAS out
of 64 benchmark soils from all over the country were synthesized
and classified into 12 associations of great groups (Murthy et al.,
1980). Natrustalf, Natraqualf (Fig. 1a and 1b; profile data given
in Table 1), Haplaquept, and saline phases of Calciorthids, Hap-
largid, Camborthid, Ustochrept, Fluvaquent, and Haplaquept
(Fig. 1c) occur in the northern Indian plains. Salorthids, Na-
trargid, Haplaquept, and saline phases of Ustochrept form the
major units in the western region of the country. Haplaquept
and saline phases of Haplaquept occur in the eastern region. The
saline and alkali phases of Pellustert, Chromustert, Ustifluvent,
and Haplaquept (Fig. 1d; profile data given in Table 2) are found
in southern Peninsular India (Murthy et al., 1980).
Characterization and Identification
of Salt-Affected Soils
Two monsoons—southwest and northeast—are prevalent
in the country. The southwest monsoon mainly influences
soil salinization/desalinization in arid and semiarid regions
that have three distinct phases from the analysis of long-term
annual weather data (1971–2008). The first phase is the hot
and humid season (mid-June to September), referred to as the
“kharif ” (summer) crop period, when about 80% of the rain-
fall occurs. The second phase is the cool and dry season (Oc-
6 Journal of Environmental Quality • Volume 39 • January–February 2010
tober to March), referred to as the “rabi” (winter) crop period.
The third phase is the hot and dry weather (April to mid-June).
The winter and summer months are dry, water-deficit periods,
whereas the kharif crop season has surplus water. The build-up
of salts in soils is significantly influenced by wet and dry cycles
set in by the monsoon and prevailing irrigation practices (Fig.
2). From mid-April to mid-June, the land remains mostly fal-
low, and an upward moisture flux is dominant due to high
evaporative demand (5–10 mm d−1), which results in a buildup
of salts. The maximum possible concentration of salts in crop-
lands (up to 12 dS m−1) and non-arable lands (>12 dS m−1) is
observed in the pre-monsoonal period in June in waterlogged
saline areas (Tyagi, 2003). With the onset of the monsoon and
the planting of crops, the desalinization of the soils takes place,
and salt levels reach their minimum in October. From Novem-
ber to February, the evaporative demands are low, but the up-
ward flux begins to increase. This favors irrigation with saline,
alkali, and saline-alkali ground waters in areas of deficit canal
water supply, leading to increase in soil salinity/alkalinity.
Salt-affected soils, including those that may also be water-
logged, contain excessive concentrations of soluble neutral salts,
exchangeable sodium, or both, which impairs seed germination
and plant growth, leading to poor crop yield. The major ionic
composition of salts is Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, HCO3−, CO3–, SO4–,
and Cl−. Salt-affected soils are classified into saline, saline-alkali,
and alkali soils on the basis of soil reaction of saturation paste
(pHs), electrical conductivity of saturation paste (ECe), exchange-
able sodium percentage (ESP), and the sodium adsorption ratio
(Table 3). The Indian system of classification for characterization
of SAS is essentially the same as that of the USDA (U.S. Sa-
linity Laboratory Staff, 1954), except that the pH criterion was
reconsidered from 8.5 to 8.2 because this value of pH initiates
the sodication process and is associated with an ESP of 15 to 20
(Abrol et al., 1980). Unlike the USDA classification, the Indian
classification system for reclamation has classified SAS into two
main categories: saline or alkali. The saline-alkali soil category is
reconsidered to be saline or alkali based on a ratio of (2CO3– +
HCO3−)/(Cl− + 2SO4–) or Na+/(Cl− + 2SO4–). If the ratio is more
than 1, the saline-alkali soil is treated as alkali; if the ratio is less
than 1, the soil is treated as saline (Chhabra, 1996, 2005).
Under shallow water table (mostly within 2 m) conditions,
saline soils can be identified by the presence of a light gray to dull
white crust of chlorides of sodium, calcium, and potassium salts
on the surface; good physical conditions; high permeability; and
patchy, stunted, and wilting plant growth that is often deep green
to bluish color, even when the soil apparently contains enough
water (Fig. 3a–3c). Natural halophytic grasses (e.g., Cressa, Cy-
perus, and Chloris) are grown on such soils (Singh, 2005). Alkali
soils can be identified by the presence of white or dull white
crust of sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, or both salts on
the surface, with low permeability and poor physical conditions
caused by deflocculation of the sodium ion (Fig. 3d). The black
color brought about in alkali soils is due to dispersion of organic
matter and clay at high pH. These soils turn black, slippery, and
soft when wet and very hard when dry. These soils can also be
identified by the appearance of a pink color on addition of a phe-
Fig. 1. Profiles of (a and b) alkali soils, (c) saline soil in Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP), and (d) saline Vertisols in the Western Peninsula.

Table 1. Profile data at Bishoha village in Kanpur Dehat district (Typic Natraqualf) (source: Sethi et al., 2001).
Depth pHs† ECe ESP SAR Sand Silt Clay CaCO3 CEC
cm dS m−1 ––––––––––––––––––g kg−1–––––––––––––––––– cmolc kg−1
0–18 9.5 4.0 40.8 54 750 130 120 94 8.9
18–37 9.5 3.8 35.0 47 682 170 132 98 9.4
37–60 9.1 2.0 25.5 23 552 224 200 80 9.8
60–130 9.0 1.4 24.3 21 480 196 290 108 12.0
130–150 8.9 1.0 19.0 16 264 252 450 100 12.4
150–180 9.0 1.3 23.6 21 420 280 262 100 12.4
† CEC, cation exchange capacity; ECe, electrical conductivity of saturation extract; ESP, exchangeable sodium percentage; pHs, pH of saturation paste;
SAR, sodium adsorption ratio.

Table 2. Profile data at Motwan village in Surat district (Vertic

Haplaquept) (source: Sethi et al., 1996).
Depth pHs† ECe SAR Sand Silt Clay CEC
cm dS m−1 ––––––g kg−1–––––– cmolc kg−1
0–10 8.0 27.1 30.4 32 28 40 12.5
10–90 7.9 18.5 30.1 29 29 42 43.4
90–115 8.2 3.8 14.9 25 30 45 42.2
>115 9.4 1.7 6.8 29 27 44 44.5
† CEC, cation exchange capacity; ECe, electrical conductivity of saturation
extract; pHs, pH of saturation paste; SAR, sodium adsorption ratio.

nolphthalein indicator, by low permeability, and by the turbidity

of stagnating runoff water. These soils contain free CaCO3 on
the surface and a “kankar” (CaCO3 nodules) pan at variable soil
depth. The soils remain devoid of natural vegetation, except for
the presence of very hardy grasses (e.g., Sporobolus, Leptochloa,
Cynodon, and Sueada) (Singh, 2005). The salt encrustation at
soil surfaces in saline and alkali soils varies greatly over time and
space and is influenced by the prevailing irrigation practices and
climatic conditions of India.
Delineation of Salt-Affected Soils in India
Conventional Approach
The first survey of SAS in India using a conventional approach
was conducted in 1902 to delineate several patches of alkali soil (lo-
cally termed as “usar”) in the Etah and Mainpuri districts of Uttar
Pradesh state in the IGP (Leather, 1902). After the nation’s inde-
pendence in 1947, the occurrence of SAS using a conventional ap-
proach including laboratory analysis was reported in other parts of
Fig. 2. Salinization and desalinization of soils in Indian climatic regimes
(Tyagi, 2003).
IGP, the Peninsula, Rajasthan, and Gujarat states and other parts of
the country (Agarwal et al., 1979). In 1966, an SAS area of 6 Mha
was reported by Raychaudhuri (1966). The national estimates of
SAS based on a conventional approach from various sources varied
from 6.0 to 26.1 Mha. The wide variations in the national estimates
reflected the variation in methodology and class definition of SAS
adopted by different researchers/organizations (Table 4). The first es-
timate from the Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI) put
the area under SAS at 7 Mha in the country (Abrol and Bhumbla,
1971). A generalized SAS map of the country was prepared at 1:6.6
million scale in 1975 (Bhumbla, 1975). Such a small-scale map pro-
vided a synoptic view of the problem at national scale but did not
help in locating the area under SAS at the district level required for

Singh et al.: Appraisal of Salt-Affected Soils in India 7

Table 3. Classification of SAS according to USDA system (adapted from Remote Sensing Approach
USSL [1954] and Eynard et al. [2006]).
Remote sensing can detect SAS directly from salt-encrusted
Soil class ECe† pHs ESP SAR
surfaces of varying salt mineralogy or indirectly from vegetation/
dS m−1 (m molc L−1)1/2
crop conditions and has been widely used in India for mapping
Non-saline, non-alkali <4.0 <8.5 <15 <13
Saline >4.0 <8.5 <15 <13 and monitoring of SAS. The earliest systematic mapping of land
Alkali <4.0 >8.5 >15 >13 degradation that included SAS in India was performed by visual
Saline-alkali >4.0 <8.5 >15 >13 interpretation of aerial photographs in the late 1950s. In the 1960s
† ECe, electrical conductivity of saturation extract; ESP, exchangeable and early 1970s, the mapping and monitoring of SAS for catego-
sodium percentage; pHs, pH of saturation paste; SAR, sodium rization were performed at the local and regional scales for assess-
adsorption ratio.
ment of extent and spatial distribution (Hilwig and Karale, 1973;
reclamation. Subsequently, the area under SAS in India reported by Iyer et al., 1975). Visual interpretation techniques developed using
researchers from other countries in the late 1970s and early 1980s aerial photography were extended to satellite multi-spectral data
was more than 20 Mha. The most detailed and comprehensive sur- for delineating and mapping of SAS at the regional and national
veys and classification were performed by Singh (1994b), who re- scales (Hilwig, 1980; Karale et al., 1983; Manchanda and Iyer,
ported 8.57 Mha of SAS in the country. 1983; Singh, 1994a). The appearance of SAS with salt encrusta-
In 1995, the Ministry of Agriculture collated national es- tion at the surface is generally smoother than normal soil surfaces
timates of SAS, including those derived from remote sensing, and has higher reflectance in the visible and near-infrared bands
from various researchers and organizations (Ministry of Agri- (Singh and Sirohi, 1994; Rao et al., 1995). Salt-affected soils on
culture, 1995). The national estimates varied from 6.0 to 10.9 standard FCCs of satellite data are expressed as bright white to
Mha (Table 4). After reviewing the data, the Ministry arrived at dull white patches within light reddish-brown background of nor-
a figure of 6.23 Mha under SAS. The distribution of SAS in 16 mal soils (Singh et al., 1977). The slightly or low-encrusted salt-
states was provided using a conventional approach by Abrol and affected soils initially occur in small patches within the cultivated
Bhumbla (1971) and Singh (1994b) (Table 5). There was large normal soils, and these extend to large patches with time.
variation in the national estimates by the conventional approach, Accuracy of SAS mapping on satellite FCC has been enhanced
and it was difficult to obtain precise spatial distribution at a by the adoption of on-screen visual interpretation. This is most ex-
national scale. Therefore, it was imperative to resort to remote tensively used in national and state soil survey organizations. Sub-
sensing technology to provide reliable and rapid spatiotemporal sequently, digital image processing is being applied in the country
information of SAS for planning effective reclamation strategies. for local- and regional-scale mapping due to the enhanced avail-

Fig. 3. A view of (a) barren saline soil in South West Punjab, (b) saline Vertisols in Gujarat, and (c) small and isolated saline patch in wheat field in
Haryana and (d) alkali soil in Uttar Pradesh.

8 Journal of Environmental Quality • Volume 39 • January–February 2010

Table 4. Estimates of salt-affected soils in India by different organizations/researchers (source: Sharma et al., 2004).
Individual/organization Area under SAS† Individual/organization Area under SAS
Mha Mha
Singh and Bandyopadhya (1996) 8.6 Ministry of Agriculture (1985) 9.08
Chauhan (1996) 7.2 Bhumbla and Khare (1984) 7.2
Abrol (1994) 10.9 Ministry of Agriculture (1980) 7.00
Dent et al. (1992) 7.02 Ponnamperuma and Bandyopadhyay (1980) 26.1
Ministry of Agriculture (1990) 9.4 National Commission on Agriculture (1976) 7.17
Bhargava (1989) 10.0 Massoud (1974) 23.2
† SAS, salt-affected soils.

Table 5. Distribution of salt-affected soils in 16 states of India by different approaches.

Conventional approach Remote sensing approach
State Abrol and Bhumbla (1971) Singh (1994b) NRSA† (1996) Wasteland Atlas (NRSA and DoLR, 2005)
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Mha––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Uttar Pradesh 1.295 1.295 1.369 0.484
Gujarat 1.214 1.214 2.222 0.140
Rajasthan 0.728 1.122 0.375 0.377
West Bengal 0.850 0.800 0.441 0.000
Punjab 0.689 0.520 0.152 0.002
Maharashstra 0.534 0.534 0.607 0.029
Haryana 0.526 0.455 0.233 0.008
Orissa 0.404 0.400 0.147 0.003
Karnataka 0.404 0.404 0.150 0.017
Madhya Pradesh 0.224 0.242 0.140 0.000
Andhra Pradesh 0.042 0.813 0.274 0.043
Delhi 0.016 0.000 – –
Kerala 0.016 0.026 0.020 0.000
Bihar 0.004 0.400 0.153 0.008
Tamil Nadu 0.004 0.340 0.368 0.089
Andaman and Nicobar Islands NA‡ NA 0.077 0.000
Total area 6.949 8.565 6.728 1.200
† NRSA, National Remote Sensing Agency.
‡ NA, not available.

ability of image processing hardware and software in national and
state remote sensing application centers. In digital image process-
ing, statistical pattern recognition techniques based on inherent
spectral reflectance properties have aided in the differentiation of
SAS classes. Standard per pixel classifiers (e.g., as maximum likeli-
hood) and advanced algorithms (e.g., fuzzy logic, decision trees,
and artificial neural networks) have been used for inventorying
and monitoring (Lillesand et al., 2003; Metternicht and Zinck,
2003; Dwivedi et al., 2008). Space-borne data for mapping and
monitoring provide greater accuracy and economy than the con-
ventional approach at the district scale.
With the advent of improved sensors and digital image pro-
cessing, spectral reflectance studies using field spectroradiom-
eters have been used for understanding the spectral behavior of
SAS for recognition, delineation, mapping, and monitoring us-
ing remote sensing data. In India, a few studies on the spectral
behavior of SAS have been reported in the literature (Rao et al.,
1995). Salt mineralogy (carbonates, bicarbonates, sulfates, and
chlorides) produces distinctive macromorphological features at
the terrain surface and determines the presence or absence of
absorption bands leading to salt discrimination. Based on in situ
spectral measurement studies, a higher spectral response was ob-
served in alkali soils in comparison to saline soils (Kalra and Joshi,
1994; Joshi et al., 2002a; Howari et al., 2002). Subsequently, a
national soil spectral library of 128 surface soils, including SAS
classes in digital and analog forms, has been developed; this can
be used to derive the salient information on soil spectra of SAS
and other soils (NBSSLUP, 2006) for further use in digital image
classification for accurate discrimination.
Due to the large variation in the surface encrustation of salts
caused by soil moisture, organic matter, and vegetation and a
similarity in spectral reflectance with non-SAS, SAS may not
always exhibit unique spectral response patterns. Therefore, a
suitable date of satellite data is essential for accurate identi-
fication. The spectral similarity between SAS and sandy soils
and salt-affected Vertisols could be solved by combining multi-
temporal images, field data, and terrain information during
different cropping periods using GIS (Farifteh et al., 2007).
Most studies have emphasized that soil spectral signatures need
to be derived from the representative mixture of soil-vegetation
signals because vegetation cover in SAS influences the over-
all spectral response of SAS, particularly in the green and red
spectral bands (Rao et al., 1995; Metternicht and Zinck, 2003;
Farifteh et al., 2006, 2008), leading to errors in classification.
With the availability of high and very high spatial resolution
multi-spectral data from 80 to 30 m and then 4 m from the other
countries, the level of information on SAS extracted from the data
has improved tremendously. Landsat-MSS data (80-m spatial
resolution) were interpreted visually for the first time in India at
the National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), Hyderabad (now

Singh et al.: Appraisal of Salt-Affected Soils in India 9

the National Remote Sensing Center) for mapping degraded
lands including SAS (Singh et al., 1977). Subsequently, MSS
data enabled delineation, mapping, and monitoring of SAS in
the Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains (Venkataranam, 1983; Sharma
and Bhargava, 1988; Singh and Dwivedi, 1989; Dwivedi, 1996;
Dwivedi and Sreenivas, 1998a; Manchanda et al., 2002), in the
arid region (Kalra and Joshi, 1996), and in the coastal plains of
Saurashtra (Joshi and Sahai, 1993). Multi-spectral and multi-date
data of Landsat-TM and ETM+ were processed visually or digi-
tally for mapping of SAS over different parts of the country (Saha
et al., 1990; Rao et al., 1991; Raina et al., 1991; Dwivedi, 1992;
Singh, 1994a; Verma et al., 1994; Goyal et al., 1995; Dwivedi et
al., 1999; Sujatha et al., 2000; IDNP, 2002). Apart from the nor-
mal combination of band-2 (0.52–0.60 μm), band-3 (0.63–0.69
μm), and band-4 (0.76–0.90 μm) for FCC, a new three-band best
combination from Landsat-TM data—band-1 (0.45–0.52 μm),
band-3 (0.63–0.69 μm), and band-5 (1.55–1.75 μm)—was iden-
tified on the basis of information content for characterizing SAS
in the IGP (Dwivedi and Rao, 1992; Csillag et al., 1993). Further
high-resolution data (20-m) from the SPOT satellite were used
to generate detailed information for mapping and monitoring of
SAS in North India (Sharma and Bhargava, 1987; IDNP, 2002).
Alternatively, applications of image differencing and principal
component analysis have provided objective assessment of moni-
toring changes in salt-affected areas.
Multi-spectral and multi-temporal data from the first Indi-
an remote sensing satellite, IRS-1A, became available in March
1988, and data from IRS-1B became available in August 1991.
The potential of the LISS-I, LISS-II, and LISS-III (linear im-
aging self-scanning sensor) data has been exploited in several
studies for the identification and mapping of SAS in differ-
ent parts of the country (Dwivedi and Venkataratnam, 1992;
Sethi et al., 1996; Dwivedi et al., 1998; Dwivedi and Sreenivas,
1998b; Sharma et al., 2000; Sethi et al., 2001; Mandal and
Sharma, 2001; Joshi et al., 2002b; IDNP, 2002; Sethi et al.,
2006; Joshi and Rathore, 2007; Mandal and Sharma, 2008;
Chowdary et al., 2008). Advanced image fusion techniques
have been used to enhance 23.5-m LISS-III data to 5.6 m by
merging 5.6-m panchromatic data to LISS-III data. This re-
sulted in improved resolution but poor classification accuracy
in comparison with LISS-III data. Multi-spectral LISS-IV data
(5.6 m) from Resourcesat-1 (IRS-P6) have revealed the poten-
tial for mapping of SAS on a farm scale from the preliminary
studies (Verma and Singh, 1999). The Landsat-MSS and IRS
LISS-I data could only provide the overall nature and extent of
SAS at a 1:100,000 to 1:250,000 scale, whereas Landsat-TM
and ETM+, SPOT HRV/HRVIR, IRS LISS-II, and IRS LISS-
III provide extent, nature, and magnitude of the problem at a
1:50,000 scale. The merged LISS-III and PAN data provide
detailed information on a 1:25,000 scale, whereas LISS-IV and
SPOT-5 HRVIR data provide information at a 1:12,500 scale.
IKONOS-II multi-spectral data provide information on a farm
scale (1:10,000 scale). The overall accuracies of classification
for LISS-II, LISS-III, and PAN-LISS-III merged data were in
the order of 89.6, 85.9, and 81.5%, respectively (Dwivedi et
al., 2001, 2008; Dwivedi, 2002).
10
Space-borne radar data from the other countries (i.e., ERS-1
and 2, JERS-1) and Radarsat and ENVISAT have been exploited
in preliminary studies in India because these data offer advantages
in the identification of SAS and waterlogged areas (Metternicht,
1998). Radar data can be acquired during night and inclement
weather conditions. Ground-based microwave radiometers have
been applied for detecting and studying SAS (Singh and Srivastav,
1990; Sreenivas et al., 1995). The radar backscattering coefficient
model uses the imaginary part of the dielectric constant for ef-
fect of salts. For a particular soil, the imaginary part increases with
the increase of salinity and soil moisture content (Sreenivas et al.,
1995). This information can be used for separating saline soil from
sodic soil at L-band frequencies under moist soil conditions. India
has recently launched an active X-band synthetic aperture radar
sensor aboard RISAT-2 on 20 Apr. 2009 and a hyperspectral cam-
era aboard IMS-1 on 28 Apr. 2008 (ISRO, 2009) for exploration
in salinity mapping at various scales.
Nationwide Mapping of Salt-Affected Soils
A national classification scheme with uniform methodology
and class definition and quality multi-spectral data were used for
nationwide mapping of SAS under different projects/missions.
Visual interpretation skills of collaborative partners engaged in
conventional soil surveys or having experience in remote sensing
techniques across the country came together for this national
effort. Because all partners did not have adequate hardware and
software and associated skills required for digital image process-
ing, visual interpretation supported with ground truth and labo-
ratory investigations was used as the norm. Three major map-
ping projects of SAS undertaken at different times by different
organizations adopting different criterion are discussed below.
As Part of Soil Resources Mapping
The national mapping of soil resources including SAS was ac-
complished by visual interpretation of Landsat-MSS images at a
1:250,000 scale together with rigorous ground checks and labora-
tory analysis. Approximately 100,000 soil profiles and samples were
collected at a 10-km grid spacing for preparing state level soil re-
source maps at a 1:250,000 scale. Soil resources data were further
processed using the GLASOD (Global Assessment of Soil Degrada-
tion) methodology (FAO, 1994) to prepare soil degradation maps
of the states at a 1:250,000 scale and of the country at a 1:4 million
scale. The SAS were appraised at 10.1 Mha, of which 2.8 and 7.3
Mha were classified as low and moderate to severe classes of saliniza-
tion, respectively (Sehgal and Abrol, 1994). The national estimate
was an overestimate because of the small scale of mapping and the
non-accounting of area reclaimed under different reclamation proj-
ects in the country (NBSSLUP, 2002). The lower limit of EC and
ESP within the classification criteria for salt-affected black cotton
Vertisols resulted in errors in overestimation (Table 6).
As Part of Salt-Affected Soils Mapping on Mission Mode
The first systematic mapping of SAS of the country under mis-
sion mode was accomplished in 1996 with various project partners
including NRSA, CSSRI, NBSSLUP, All India Soil and Land Use
Journal of Environmental Quality • Volume 39 • January–February 2010
Survey, state soil survey departments, and state/regional remote sens-
ing application centers (NRSA, 1996, 2008). A total of 125 stan-
dard FCC prints of Landsat-TM at a 1:250,000 scale were used in
the project. The methodology consisted of developing a nationwide
mapping scheme that included a national legend, visual interpreta-
tion criteria, ground-truthing, analysis of soil samples, post-field in-
terpretation, and reconciliation. The country was divided into seven
broad physiographic units—the Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains, allu-
vial aeolian plains of the arid zone, peninsular plains, coastal plains,
deltaic plains, lacustrine plains, and mangrove swamps—using the
physiography-soil development conceptual framework. The salt-
affected soils were delineated on FCC based on the knowledge of
terrain. The sample areas in broad units for field verification were
identified and located at a 1:250,000 scale on Survey of India topo-
graphical maps. In addition to soil profiles and auger bores, surface
soil samples were studied to account for variations within the unit
for characterization. A mapping legend for different categories of
SAS was established on the basis of EC, pH, and ESP (Table 6). The
project reported a total area of 6.73 Mha of SAS in the country, with
saline and alkali areas being 2.96 and 3.77 Mha, respectively (Fig.
4). The distribution of saline and alkali soils in 15 states has been
reconciled with other national agencies (Table 5). The nationwide
mapping of SAS and other degraded lands at larger scale (1:50,000)
is being performed (NRSA, 2008).
As Part of Wasteland Mapping
The first wasteland mapping of the country was performed on
a 1:1 million scale by NRSA for the Department of Land Re-
sources (DoLR) under Ministry of Rural Development using IRS-
1A/B LISS-II, IRS-1C/D LISS-III, and Landsat-TM data of late
rabi season during 1982. The methodology included a national
mapping legend, 1:50,000 scale FCC data, and visual interpreta-
tion criteria to identify and delineate different types of wastelands
including SAS in non-arable areas. The survey and ground-truth
data collected in the vector format during previous projects were
used to prepare a Wasteland Atlas in 2000. The mapping of waste-
lands provided a gross estimate and spatial distribution of major
categories including SAS. Because of the small scale and low spa-
tial resolution data, isolated larger patches with more than 100 ha
were mapped. The mapping provided spatial distribution but was
not useful for reclamation at the farm level. Subsequently, another
national mission for wastelands mapping at a 1:50,000 scale (dis-
trict level) was initiated involving 40 partner centers across the
country. On-screen visual interpretation of IRS LISS-III data of
the rabi season of 2003 was used to generate a wastelands database
for the entire country. A Wasteland Atlas of India was released
in 2005 with slight, moderate, and strong classes of saline and
alkali soils and their distribution in 12 states. The salt-affected
wastelands were reported to be approximately 1.2 Mha in 2005,
as compared with 2.05 Mha in 2000 (NRSA and DoLR, 2005).
Reconciliation of National Estimates
of Salt-Affected Soils
The estimates available on SAS can be grouped into two
types: (i) estimate based on a conventional approach and (ii)
Singh et al.: Appraisal of Salt-Affected Soils in India
estimate based on a remote sensing approach. There is a sub-
stantial difference between these two estimates. In the absence
of a uniform methodology and class definition, these are not
comparable in absolute terms (Reddy, 2003). To address the
problem of diverging national estimates by remote sensing for
arriving at an acceptable figure, CSSRI, NRSA, and NBSSLUP
held a series of consultations and have developed a GIS-based
approach to reconcile the above-mentioned three national
estimates (Maji, 2007). At the national level, the area under
SAS was overlaid and reconciled to 6.73 Mha in 2007 (CSSRI,
2007; Maji, 2007). The planners and decision-makers are us-
ing this information for planning reclamation programs.
Issues of Salt-Affected Soils Mapping
With the ongoing development in satellite sensor technology
and image-processing techniques, there are specific issues and
problems related to identification, mapping, and monitoring of
SAS. Most studies have centered on detecting moderately to se-
verely salt-affected soils, and less attention has been given to the
detection and monitoring of slightly and slightly to moderately
salt-affected soils. Significant variation in surface conditions of
salts caused by soil moisture, organic matter, vegetation, and spec-
tral similarity with other soils (e.g., sand dunes, sandy soils, river-
ine sands, and limestone outcrops) have hampered the identifica-
tion and mapping of SAS using remote sensing. In the presence of
salt-tolerant crops grown on the “slight” class of SAS, the spectral
signature is not correctly identified, leading to classification errors.
To remove classification errors to some degree, the soil adjusted
vegetation index model and other enhancement models have
helped to separate soil and vegetation signals. Application of such
models provides insight into the possibility of generating informa-
tion on SAS in the vegetated terrain (Farifteh et al., 2006, 2007).
Other possibilities for differentiating besides enhancement
models would be the use of multi-temporal images for the
months of April and May because the increased capillary rise of
water increases surface salt encrustation in SAS, which in turn
creates a distinct spectral signature to differentiate between the
two. Another possibility is the use of thermal band of satellite
sensors (e.g., Landsat-TM, ETM+) to resolve the spectral simi-
larity between SAS and sand dunes, riverine sand, sandy soils,
and built-up land (Metternicht and Zinck, 2003). These fea-
tures exhibit high emissions in the thermal band in comparison
to SAS, helping considerably in their accurate assessment.
A current impediment of bandwidth and spatial resolution
of the available satellite sensors, particularly the Indian sensors,
is the inherent limitation. Despite significant improvements in
current sensors, inherent limitations remain, including limited
bandwidth and the number of spectral bands that are inap-
propriate for identification and mapping of SAS under varying
soil and agro-climatic conditions. Inadequate spatial resolu-
tion for within-field variability analysis and non-availability of
adequate repeat coverage during a cropping season are major
setbacks along with non-availability of a dedicated salinity sen-
sor, despite the importance of remote sensing in nationwide
mapping. The availability of satellite-borne hyperspectral data
11
Table 6. Soil salinity and alkalinity classes including Vertisols by two agencies (source: Sehgal and Abrol [1994] and NRSA [1996, 2008]).
NBSSLUP† NRSA
Alkalinity
Class Salinity (ECe)‡ Alkalinity (ESP) Salinity (ECe) pHs ESP
dS m−1
Slight 2–4 <5 4–8 8.5–9.0 <15
Moderate 4–8 5–15 8–30 9.0–9.8 15–40
Moderate to strong 8–15 >15 – – –
Strong 15–25 – >30 >9.8 >40
Severe 25–50 – – – –
Very severe >50 – – – –
† NBSSLUP, National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning; NRSA, National Remote Sensing Agency.
‡ ECe, electrical conductivity of saturation extract; ESP, exchangeable sodium percentage; pHs, pH of saturation paste.

Fig. 4. Distribution of salt-affected soils in India.

for the country with more than 100 to 120 bands with greater
ability to identify various types of SAS and vegetation between
0.45 and 2.50 μm would provide an accurate and efficient
method for mapping SAS (Metternicht and Zinck, 2003).
Spectral measurements made using hyperspectral data enable
detection of otherwise spectrally similar features that occur
with SAS. The techniques to differentiate between saline and
alkali soils (and similarly between sandy soils and SAS) and
normal soils and salt-affected Vertisols have been established
using hyperspectral data (Lu et al., 2005). Laboratory-based
high-resolution measurements to identify the salinity status
of soils along with multivariate analysis of high-resolution soil
spectra now offer greater potential for discriminating between
soil development and the state of soil degradation within spe-
cific environmental conditions (Leone and Sommer, 2000).
The information on subsurface layers (e.g., salt deposits,
clay pans, kankar pans, and gypsum layer) and their role in
salinization cannot be investigated by remote sensing. Ground-
penetrating radar with subsurface imaging of less than 0.5-m in
fine-textured soils to about 25-m in coarse-textured soils under
unsaturated conditions can be useful in recording the depth
and extent of such subsurface layers (Farifteh et al., 2006). The
use of electromagnetic induction meters, ground spectroradi-
ometers, and other instruments will improve the effective dif-
ferentiation of SAS (Metternicht and Zinck, 2003).

12 Journal of Environmental Quality • Volume 39 • January–February 2010

Future Scope
Unlike in India, the responsibility of data collection of SAS in
USA, Australia, and Hungary lies with a single national agency.
The designated agency in these countries conducts nationwide
mapping using state-of-the-art technology to generate national
extent and spatial distribution. This is the reason that they pro-
duce a single national estimate after stringent accuracy analysis;
for example, the national extent of SAS for the USA is reported
to be 8.5 Mha by the USDA Soil Conservation Service, 1.2 Mha
for Hungary by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, and 357.2
Mha for Australia by the Australian Conservation Foundation.
These estimates are used for developing land reclamation pro-
grams in the country by the policymakers, planners, and con-
cerned agencies. In India, we do not follow a single agency ap-
proach but rather a project approach that is allotted to different
agencies in different years. Data generated from such projects
using different criteria need to be brought together to resolve the
variation in spatial distribution and national estimates.
In India, the voluminous information on SAS in digital and
analog form (maps and attributes) is spread across various or-
ganizations all over the country. These scattered data need to be
integrated and harmonized to develop a comprehensive digital
spatiotemporal geo-database on SAS first at the 1:250,000 and
1:50,000 scales for planning land reclamation. The informa-
tion needs to be updated at least every 5 yr at the 1:250,000
scale and every 10 yr at the 1:50,000 scale for effective moni-
toring of reclamation measures for sustaining crop production.
A comprehensive digital database at a 1:250,000 scale have
been created at CSSRI, which is being used by state develop-
ment agencies as well as the user community (CSSRI, 2007).
Very high spatial resolution data from recently launched sat-
ellites, such as Cartosat-1, IRS-P6 (Resourcesat-1), Cartosat-2,
IKONOS-II, Quickbird, RISAT-2, and IMS-1, have to be used
for achieving greater accuracy in identifying SAS in the coun-
try. The next generation of satellites with improved spatial and
spectral resolutions in the optical and radar range (e.g., Resourc-
esat-2, Cartosat-2B, RISAT-1, etc.) and advanced image pro-
cessing integrated with improved GIS techniques will enhance
information on SAS for developing cost-effective reclamation
plans on the cadastral scale. Mapping of SAS will further be
refined with the development of a dedicated soil salinity sen-
sor and the use of a soil spectra library for detection of SAS.
Multi-temporal image classification, multi-temporal modeling,
and improved digital image processing techniques have shown
the capability of refining the area estimate obtained from current
satellites by using existing remotely sensed data more effectively
or by combining it with terrain and other spatial data (Verma,
2005; Farifteh et al., 2007; Metternicht and Zinck, 2008).
Conclusions
The identification and mapping of SAS for the country using
conventional and remote sensing approaches are performed by
several organizations. Advancing our understanding and ability
to map areas at risk from salinization/alkalization is an issue that
emerges from the multitude of data generated in the country.
Singh et al.: Appraisal of Salt-Affected Soils in India
There is uncertainty associated with the information of SAS,
indicating that the expert knowledge generated must be amal-
gamated to update our database at various scales using new and
existing satellite data in optical, radar, and hyperspectral imaging
adapted to soil salinization processes. Improved accuracies may
also be achieved by examining sampling strategies for training
and testing data. The strategies must include landform patterns
and other spatial data for analysis of emerging salinity/alkalinity.
A national mapping methodology scheme with unambiguous
class definition using remotely sensed and GIS data along with
trained manpower must be at the core for all mapping programs.
This review has highlighted a national appraisal by convention-
al and remote sensing approaches and estimate reconciliation.
However, it must take into account the identification of slightly
affected SAS in croplands. Even though the advances in sensor
technology and image processing have been the keystone to map-
ping, national estimates require a sustained and constant effort
to deal with the problems and prospects using remote sensing for
evolving sound mapping strategies. It would be prudent to use
digital image processing to generate spatial databases in a GIS
format to carry out salinity mapping. These spatial databases will
monitor the effect of reclamation programs on the current status
of SAS and trends of salinization. This will help the development
agencies to locate the SAS precisely for developing reclamation
and aid the farming community to implement effective plans for
sustaining crop production.
References
Abrol, I.P. 1994. Land degradation: A challenge to sustainability. p. 7–8. In
D.L.N Rao et al (ed.) Salinity management for sustainable agriculture.
CSSRI, Karnal, India.
Abrol, I.P., R. Chhabra, and R.K. Gupta. 1980. A fresh look at the diagnostic
criteria for sodic soils. p. 142–147. In Proc. Int. Symp. Salt-Affected
Soils, Karnal, India, 18–21 Feb. 1980. Central Soil Salinity Research
Institute, Karnal, India.
Abrol, I.P., and D.R. Bhumbla. 1971. p. 42–52. Saline and alkali soils of
India: Their occurrence and management. In Soil survey and soil fertility
research in Asia and the Far East: Report on regional seminar, New
Delhi, India, 15–20 Feb. 1971. World Soil Resources Report No. 41.
FAO, Rome, Italy.
Abrol, I.P., J.S.P. Yadav, and F.I. Massoud. 1988. Salt-affected soils and their
management. FAO soils bulletin 39. FAO, Rome, Italy. Available at
www.fao.org/docrep/x5871e/x5871e00.htm (verified 5 Nov. 2009).
Agarwal, R.R., J.S.P. Yadav, and R.N. Gupta. 1979. Saline and alkali soils of India.
Revised ed. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India.
Bhargava, G.P. 1989. Salt-affected soils of India. Oxford & IBH Publication,
New Delhi, India.
Bhumbla, D.R. 1975. Map of India-salt-affected soils. Central Soil Salinity
Research Institute, Karnal, India.
Bhumbla, D.R., and A. Khare. 1984. Estimates of wastelands in India. Society
for Promotion of Wastelands Development (SPWD), New Delhi, India.
Chhabra, R. 1996. Soil salinity and water quality. Oxford & IBH Publication
Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, India.
Chhabra, R. 2005. Classification of salt-affected soils. Arid Land Res. Manage.
19:61–79.
Chauhan, H.S. 1996. Management of problem area in irrigation commands
through conjunctive use and other methods. p. 79–86. In Proc. National
Workshop Reclamation of Waterlogged Saline and Alkali Lands and
Prevention, New Delhi. Ministry of Water Resources, New Delhi, India.
Chowdary, V.M., R.V. Chandran, N. Neeti, R.V. Bothale, Y.K. Srivastava, P.
Ingle, D. Ramakrishnan, D. Dutta, A. Jeyaram, J.R. Sharma, and R.
Singh. 2008. Assessment of surface and sub-surface waterlogged areas in
irrigation command areas of Bihar state using remote sensing and GIS.
13
 Agric. Water Manage. 95:754–766.
Csillag, F., L. Pasztor, and L.L. Biehl. 1993. Spectral band selection for the
characterization of salinity status of soils. Remote Sens. Environ. 43:231–242.
CSSRI. 2007. Annual report 2006–07. Central Soil salinity Research Institute,
Karnal, India.
Dent, F.J., Y.S. Rao, and K. Takeuchi. 1992. Regional strategies for arresting
land degradation (Womb of the Earth). FAO/RAPA, Bangkok, Thailand.
Dwivedi, R.S. 1992. Monitoring and the study of the effects of image scale on
delineation of salt-affected soils in the Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains. Int.
J. Remote Sens. 13:1527–1536.
Dwivedi, R.S. 1996. Monitoring of salt-affected soils of the Indo-Gangetic
alluvial plains using principal component analysis. Int. J. Remote Sens.
17:1907–1914.
Dwivedi, R.S. 2002. Spatio-temporal characterization of soil degradation.
Trop. Ecol. 43:75–90.
Dwivedi, R.S., and B.R.M. Rao. 1992. The selection of the best possible
Landsat-TM band combination for delineating salt-affected soils. Int. J.
Remote Sens. 13:2051–2058.
Dwivedi, R.S., and K. Sreenivas. 1998a. Image transforms as a tool for the
study of soil salinity and alkalinity dynamics. Int. J. Remote Sens.
19:605–619.
Dwivedi, R.S., and K. Sreenivas. 1998b. Delineation of salt-affected soils and
waterlogged areas in the Indo-Gangetic plains using IRS-1C LISS-III
data. Int. J. Remote Sens. 19:2739–2751.
Dwivedi, R.S., and L. Venkataratnam. 1992. Land degradation studies
using IRS-1A data. p. 153–169. In R.L. Karale (ed.) Natural resources
management: A new perspective. NNRMS, Bangalore, India.
Dwivedi, R.S., R.V. Kothapalli, and A.N. Singh. 2008. Generation of farm
level information on salt-affected soils using IKONOS-II multispectral
data. p. 73–90. In G. Metternicht and J.A. Zinck (ed.) Remote sensing
of soil salinization: Impact on land management. CRC Press, Taylor &
Francis, Boca Raton, FL.
Dwivedi, R.S., K.V. Ramana, and S.S. Thammappa. 1998. Evaluation of
regional-level mapping of salt-affected soils and waterlogged areas
using IRS-1C WiFS data. p. 109–116. Remote sensing and geographic
information system for natural resources management. A joint
publication, Indian Soc. Remote Sens. and NNRMS, Bangalore, India.
Dwivedi, R.S., K.V. Ramana, and S.S. Thammappa. 2001. The utility of
IRS-1C LISS-III and PAN-merged data for mapping salt-affected soils.
Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens. 67:1167–1175.
Dwivedi, R.S., K. Sreenivas, and K.V. Ramana. 1999. Inventory of salt-
affected soils and waterlogged areas: A remote sensing approach. Int. J.
Remote Sens. 20:1589–1599.
Eynard, A., R. Lal, and K.D. Wiebe. 2006. Salt-affected soils. p. 1538–1541.
In R. Lal (ed.) Encyclopedia of soil science, Vol. 2. Second ed. Taylor &
Francis, Abingdon, UK.
FAO. 1994. Land degradation in south Asia: Its severity, causes and effects
upon the people. World Soil Resources Reports 78. FAO, UNDP and
UNEP, Rome, Italy. Available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/V4360E/
V4360E00.htm (verified 5 Nov. 2009).
Farifteh, A.J., A. Farshad, and R.J. George. 2006. Assessing salt-affected soils
using remote sensing, solute modelling, and geophysics. Geoderma
130:191–206.
Farifteh, J., F. van der Meer, and E.J.M. Carranza. 2007. Similarity measures
for spectral discrimination of salt-affected soils. Int. J. Remote Sens.
28:5273–5293.
Farifteh, J., F. van der Meer, M. van der Meijde, and C. Atzberger. 2008.
Spectral characteristics of salt-affected soils: A laboratory experiment.
Geoderma 145:196–206.
Ghassemi, F., A.J. Jakeman, and H.A. Nix. 1995. Salinization of land and
water resources: Human causes, extent, management and case studies.
CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
Goyal, V.P., R.L. Ahuja, B.S. Sangwan, and M.L. Manchanda. 1995.
Application of remote sensing technique in wasteland mapping and their
land use planning in Karnal district of Haryana state (India). IGRASS
95:932–934.
Hilwig, F.W. 1980. Visual interpretation of multi-temporal Landsat data
for inventories of natural resources: A north Indian case study. ITC J.
2:297–327.
Hilwig, F.W., and R.L. Karale. 1973. Physiographic systems and elements of
photo-interpretation as applied to soil survey in Ganges plain. J. Indian
Soc. Soil Sci. 21:205–212.
14
Howari, F.M., P.C. Goodell, and S. Miyamoto. 2002. Spectral properties of
salt crusts formed on saline soils. J. Environ. Qual. 31:1453–1461.
IDNP. 2002. A methodology for identification of waterlogging and soil salinity
conditions using remote sensing. Indo-Dutch Network Project. CSSRI,
Karnal, India and Alterra-ILRI, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
ISRO. 2009. Specifications of RISAT-2 and IMS-1. Indian Space Research
Organization, Bangalore, India.
Iyer, H.S., A.N. Singh, and W. Kumar. 1975. Problem area inventory of parts of
Hoshiarpur district through photo-interpretation. J. Indian Photoint. 3:79.
Joshi, M.D., and B. Sahai. 1993. Mapping of salt-affected land in Saurashtra
coast using Landsat satellite data. Int. J. Remote Sens. 14:1919–1929.
Joshi, K.N., and N.S. Rathore. 2007. Environmental study of command
area in semi-arid zone of Rajasthan using high resolution satellite data
and GIS. In Proc. 28th Asian Conf. Remote Sens. Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia. 12–16 Nov. 2007. Available at http://www.aars-acrs.org/acrs/
proceeding/ACRS2007/Papers/TS34.7.pdf (verified 5 Nov. 2009).
Joshi, D.C., T. Toth, and D. Sari. 2002a. Spectral reflectance characteristics
of Na-carbonate irrigated arid secondary sodic soils. Arid Land Res.
Manage. 16:161–176.
Joshi, D.C., T. Toth, and D. Sari. 2002b. Visual discrimination of surface
features of salt-affected soils using satellite images in arid region of
Rajasthan (India). Indian J. Remote Sens. 30:33–38.
Kalra, N.K., and D.C. Joshi. 1994. Spectral reflectance characteristics of salt-
affected soils of Rajasthan. J. Indian Soc. Remote Sens. 22:183–193.
Kalra, N.K., and D.C. Joshi. 1996. Potentiality of Landsat, SPOT and IRS
satellite imagery for recognition of salt-affected soils in Indian arid zone.
Indian J. Remote Sens. 17:3001–3014.
Karale, R.L., Y.P. Bali, and K.V. Seshagiri Rao. 1983. Soil mapping using
remote sensing techniques. Sadhana 6:197–208.
Leather, J.W. 1902. Some excessively saline Indian well waters and soils. Trans.
Chem. Soc. 18:887–888.
Leone, A.P., and S. Sommer. 2000. Multivariate analysis of laboratory spectra
for the assessment of soil development and soil degradation in the
Southern Apennine (Italy). Remote Sens. Environ. 72:346–359.
Lillesand, T.M., R.W. Kiefer, and J.W. Chipman. 2003. Remote sensing and
image interpretation. 5th ed. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ.
Lu, N., Z. Zhang, and Y. Gao. 2005. Recognition and mapping of soil
salinization in arid environment with hyperspectral data. IGARSS IEEE
Int. 6:4520–4523.
Maji, A.K. 2007. Assessment of degraded and wastelands of India. J. Indian
Soc. Soil Sci. 55:427–435.
Manchanda, M., and H. Iyer. 1983. Use of Landsat imagery and aerial
photographs for delineation and categorization of SAS of part of north-
west India. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 31:263–271.
Manchanda, M.L., M. Kudrat, and A.K. Tiwari. 2002. Soil survey and
mapping using remote sensing. Trop. Ecology 43:61–74.
Mandal, A.K., and R.C. Sharma. 2001. Mapping waterlogged areas and salt-
affected soils in the IGNP command area. J. Indian Soc. Remote Sens.
29:229–235.
Mandal, A.K., and R.C. Sharma. 2008. Delineation and characterization of
waterlogging and salt-affected areas in a canal irrigated semiarid region
of north west India. Geocarto Int. 23:181–195.
Massoud, F.I. 1974. Salinity and alkalinity as soil degradation hazards. FAO/
UNDP Expert Consultation on Soil Degradation, FAO, Rome, Italy.
Metternicht, G.I. 1998. Fuzzy classification of JERS-1 SAR data: An evaluation
of its performance for soil salinity mapping. Ecol. Modell. 111:61–74.
Metternicht, G.I., and J.A. Zinck. 2003. Remote sensing of soil salinity:
Potentials and constraints. Remote Sens. Environ. 85:1–20.
Metternicht, G.I., and J.A. Zinck (ed.) 2008. Remote sensing of soil
salinization: Impact on land management. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis,
Boca Raton, FL.
Ministry of Agriculture. 1980. Status of land degradation in India. Directorate
of Economics and Statistics. Ministry of Agriculture. New Delhi, India.
Ministry of Agriculture. 1985. Status of land degradation in India. Directorate
of Economics and Statistics. Ministry of Agriculture. New Delhi, India.
Ministry of Agriculture. 1990. Status of land degradation in India. Directorate
of Economics and Statistics. Ministry of Agriculture. New Delhi, India.
Ministry of Agriculture. 1995. Status of land degradation in India. Directorate
of Economics and Statistics. Ministry of Agriculture. New Delhi, India.
Murthy, R.S., L.R. Hirekar, and J.C. Bhattacharya. 1980. The taxonomy of
the salt-affected soils of India sub-continent. NBSSLUP, Nagpur, India.
Journal of Environmental Quality • Volume 39 • January–February 2010
National Commission on Agriculture. 1976. Report of the National
Commission on Agriculture. Part V and IX, Abridged Report. Ministry
of Agriculture and Irrigation, New Delhi, India.
NBSSLUP. 2006. Soils of India. NBSS Pub. 94. National Bureau of Soil
Survey and Land Use Planning, Nagpur, India.
NRSA. 1996. Mapping salt-affected soils of India on 1:250,000. NRSA,
Hyderabad, India.
NRSA. 2008. National wide mapping of land degradation on 1:50,000 scale
using multitemoporal satellite data. NRSA, Hyderabad, India.
NRSA and DoLR. 2005. Wastelands atlas of India. Department of Land
Resources (DoLR), Ministry of Rural Development, New Delhi and
National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad, India.
Navalgund, R.R., V. Jayaraman, and P.S. Roy. 2007. Remote sensing
applications: An overview. Curr. Sci. 93:1747–1766.
Ponnamperuma, F.N., and A.K. Bandyopadhyay. 1980. Extent of salt-affected
soils and their management. p. 3–19. In Proc. Int. Symp. Priorities for
Alleviating Soil-related Constraints to Food Production in the Tropics,
Los Banos, Philippines, IRRI, Philippines.
Raina, P., D.C. Joshi, and A.S. Kolarkar. 1991. Land degradation mapping by
remote sensing in the arid region of India. Soil Use Manage. 7:47–51.
Rao, B.R.M., R.S. Dwivedi, L. Venkataratnam, T. Ravi Sankar, S.S. Thammappa,
G.P. Bhargawa, and A.N. Singh. 1991. Mapping the magnitude of sodicity
in part of the Indo-Gangetic plains of Uttar Pradesh, Northern India,
using Landsat-TM data. Int. J. Remote Sens. 12:419–425.
Rao, B.R.M., T. Ravi Sankar, R.S. Dwivedi, S.S. Thammappa, L.
Venkataratnam, R.C. Sharma, and S.N. Das. 1995. Spectral behaviour
of salt-affected soils. Int. J. Remote Sens. 16:2125–2136.
Raychaudhuri, S.P. 1966. Land and soil. National Book Trust, New Delhi, India.
Reddy, V.R. 2003. Land degradation in India: Extent, costs and determinants.
Economic and Political Weekly 43:4700–4713. Available at www.epw.
org.in (verified 5 Nov. 2009).
Saha, S.K., M. Kudrat, and S.K. Bhan. 1990. Digital processing of Landsat-
TM data for wasteland mapping, parts of Aligarh district (UP) India. Int.
J. Remote Sens. 11:485–492.
Sehgal, J., and I.P. Abrol. 1994. Soil degradation in India: Status and impact.
Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India.
Sethi, M., S.K. Gupta, and D.D. Dubey. 1996. Assessment of soil salinity
and waterlogging in the Ukai–Kakrapar command area using remotely
sensed data. p. 56–63. In Proc. Scientific Meeting on Waterlogging
and Soil Salinity in Ukai-Kakrapar Command: Causes and remedial
Measures, Anand, India.
Sethi, M., D.K. Ghosh, and M. Kudrat. 2001. Inventorying salt-affected soils:
A case study of Kanpur District, Uttar Pradesh, India. p. 417–422. In
I.V. Muralikrishnan (ed.) Spatial information technology, remote sensing
and geographical information systems. Vol. 2. ICORG, BS Publications,
Hyderabad, India.
Sethi, M., G.S. Dasog, A. Van Lieshout, and S.B. Salimath. 2006. Salinity
appraisal using IRS images in Shorapur Taluka, Upper Krishna Irrigation
Project-Phase I, Gulbarga District, Karnataka, India. Int. J. Remote
Sens. 27:2917–2926.
Sharma, R.C., and G.P. Bhargava. 1987. Operational use of SPOT-1 image in
mapping and management of alkali soils. p. 23–24. In Proc. National
Symp. Remote Sensing in Land Transformation and Management,
Hyderabad, India. 21–24 Jun. 1987. Indian Soc. Remote Sens.,
Dehradun, India.
Sharma, R.C., and G.P. Bhargava. 1988. Landsat imagery for mapping saline
soils and wet lands in north-west India. Int. J. Remote Sens. 9:39–44.
Sharma, R.C., R.K. Saxena, and K.S. Verma. 2000. Reconnaissance mapping
and management of salt-affected soils using satellite images. Int. J.
Singh et al.: Appraisal of Salt-Affected Soils in India
Remote Sens. 21:3209–3218.
Sharma, R.C., B.R.M. Rao, and R.K. Saxena. 2004. Salt-affected soils in India-
current assessment. p. 1–26. In Advances in sodic land reclamation. Int.
Conf. Sustainable Management of Sodic Lands, Lucknow, India. 9–14
Feb. 2004, UPCAR, Lucknow and CSSRI, Karnal, India.
Singh, A.N. 1994a. Monitoring change in the extent of salt-affected soils in
northern India. Int. J. Remote Sens. 15:3173–3182.
Singh, A.N., and R.S. Dwivedi. 1989. Delineation of salt-affected soils through
digital analysis of Landsat-MSS data. Int. J. Remote Sens. 10:83–92.
Singh, A.N., M.F. Baumgardner, and S.T. Kristof. 1977. Delineating salt-
affected soils in part of Indo-Gangetic plain by digital analysis of Landsat
data. Technical Report. LARS, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN.
Singh, N.T. 1994b. Land degradation and remedial measures with reference
to salinity, alkalinity, waterlogging and acidity. p. 442–443. In D.L.
Deb (ed.) Natural resources management for sustainable agriculture and
environment. Angkor Publication, New Delhi, India.
Singh, N.T. 2005. Irrigation and soil salinity in the Indian subcontinent: Past
and present. Lehigh Univ. Press, Bethlehem, PA.
Singh, N.T., and A.K. Bandyopadhya. 1996. Chemical degradation leading
to salt-affected soils and their management for agriculture and alternate
uses. p. 89–101. In T.D Biswas and G. Narayanasamy (ed.) Soil
management in relation to land degradation and environment. Indian
Soc. Soil Sci. Bull. 17, New Delhi, India.
Singh, R.P., and A. Sirohi. 1994. Spectral reflectance properties of different
types of soil surfaces. ISPRS J. Photogramm Remote Sens. 49:34–40.
Singh, R.P., and S.K. Srivastav. 1990. Mapping of waterlogged and salt-affected
soils using microwave radiometers. Int. J. Remote Sens. 11:1879–1887.
Smedema, L.K., and K. Shiati. 2002. Irrigation and salinity: A perspective
review of the salinity hazards of irrigation development in the arid zone.
Irrig. Drainage Syst. 16:161–174.
Sreenivas, K., L. Venkataratnam, and P.V. Narasimha Rao. 1995. Dielectric
properties of salt-affected soils. Int. J. Remote Sens. 16:641–649.
Sujatha, G., R.S. Dwivedi, K. Sreenivas, and L. Venkataratnam. 2000.
Mapping and monitoring of degraded lands in part of Jaunpur district
of Uttar Pradesh using temporal spaceborne multispectral data. Int. J.
Remote Sens. 21:519–531.
Tyagi, N.K. 2003. Managing saline and alkali water for higher productivity. p.
69–87. In J.W. Kijne et al (ed.) Water productivity in agriculture: Limits
and opportunities for improvement. CAWMA Series, No 1. CABI
Publication, London, UK.
U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff. 1954. Diagnosis and improvement of saline and
alkali soils. USDA Handbook No. 60. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, DC.
Venkataranam, L. 1983. Monitoring of salinity in Indo-Gangetic plains of
North-Western India using multi-date Landsat data. p. 369–377. In
Proc. 17th Int. Symp. Remote Sens. Environ. 23–28 Apr. 1983.Vol. 1.
ERIM, Ann Arbor, MI.
Verma, D., and A.N. Singh. 1999. Monitoring change in the status of sodic
lands in part of UP plains consequent upon reclamation. p.125–132. In S.
Adiga (ed.) Proc. National Symp. Remote Sensing Applications for Natural
Resources: Retrospective and perspective. Bangalore. 19–21 Jan. 1999.
Indian Soc. Remote Sens. Dehradun and NNRMS, Banagalore, India.
Verma, K.S., R.K. Saxena, A.K. Barthwal, and S.N. Deshmukh. 1994. Remote
sensing technique for mapping salt-affected soils. Int. J. Remote Sens.
15:1901–1914.
Verma, V.K. 2005. Assessment of land degradation by integrated analysis of
spectrally based information and terrain attributes in semi-arid region.
M.Sc. Thesis, IIRS and ITC, Dehradun, India. Available at http://www.
iirs-nrsa.gov.in/pdf/veerendra_thesis2004.pdf (verified 5 Nov. 2009).
15