Airport Engineering

Syllabus
Functional areas of airports- Runways, Taxiways,
Aprons, Terminal buildings; Classifications of Airports;
Airport site selection; Design of Runway, Runway
orientation, Wind Rose diagram; Design of Taxiway and
Terminal building.

Books
1. Airport Planning and Design – Khanna, Arora & Jain
2. Airport Engineering – Rangawala
3. Air Transportation Planning & Design – Virendra Kumar & Satish
Chandra
4. Reference Book: Planning & Design of Airport – R. Horonjeff & F.X.
Mckelvey
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Introduction
1.1 Characteristics of Air Transportation
Advantages of Air Transportation
I. Speed:- High Speed among all the transport mode
II. Accessibility:- Open up any region that is inaccessible by
other means of transport e.g. Hill area
III. Continuous Journey:- Movement is possible continuous over
land and water unlike other modes
IV. Aerial Photography
V. Military use
VI. Encourage Trade and commerce:- More opportunities for
business
VII. Agricultural spraying
VIII. Impact on Economic and Social life of country
IX. Safety:- Safer than road way travel. Fatal air accident is less
than 20% of that of highway accident. 3

Disadvantages are
1. High Cost
2. Noise Pollution
3. High Energy Consumption: Per passenger fuel consumption is 10
times more than bus
1.2 Air Transport in India & Abroad
• History of Development of Air Transport and its characteristics.
• Different Stages and modification in Air Transport mode.
• Present Scenario of worldwide Air Traffic.
• Development of Air Transportation in India.
¾ History and Back Ground
¾ Operational Development
¾ Present Private and Govt. Participation in operation of
Domestic as well as International Air Transportation
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 1.3 Elements of Air Transport

Airport: It is an area of land and water which is to be regularly used for

commercial purposes for arrival, departure and movement of
aircrafts.
Aerodrome: Any defined area of land or water intended to be used for
arrival and departure of aircraft is called aerodrome.
Any airport is largely divided into three major components:
• The air side: this consists of airfield and landing take-off area
i.e. runway and taxiway
• The land side: this consists of terminal areas i.e. apron,
hanger, terminal building.
• Air traffic control: this consists control movement of aircrafts
in airspace surrounding the airport.

Airport Engineering deals with first two components

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B B B
B

A : Runway
B: Taxiway
C: Apron C D
D: Hanger
E: Terminal Building
F: Car parking Zone E

F
Fig. Schematic Diagram of an airport
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3
Runway:
• Long and comparatively narrow strip of land which is used for
landing and take-off of aircraft along its lengths.
• Paved.
• More than one runway.
Taxiway:
• Access of the aircraft from runway to apron or hanger.
• Speed of the aircrafts are less than runway.
• Less thick pavement.
Apron:
• Paved portion in front of the terminal building or adjacent to
hanger.
• Space for parking of aircrafts.
• Size of the apron depends upon aircraft volume
• Paved space provided near the runway is known as holding
apron.
• Apron exclusively used for fueling purpose is known as
fueling apron 7

Hanger:
• Space for servicing, overhauling and repairing of aircrafts
• Important airports may have more than one hanger
Terminal Building:
• Building complex mainly used for passengers, airliners and
airport administration facility.
• Passenger facilities for convenient and direct access to ground
transportation and parking area.
An airport encompasses a wide range of activities which have
different and conflicting requirements. As they are
interdependent, a single activity may limit capacity of entire
complex.

The airport activity system is shown in the next slide

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 Enroute Airspace
Airfield Surface System

Terminal Airspace

Air side
Runway

Holding Apron Exit Taxiway

Taxiway

Apron/Gate Area

Terminal Building

Vehicular
Land side Circulation Parking

Aircraft flow
Airport Ground
Fig. Components of the airport Passenger flow
Access System
system for a large airport 9

1.4 Classification of an Airport

1.4.1 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

– Most important international agency concerned with airport
development.
– Specialized agency of UNO with head quarter at Montreal,
Canada.
– 169 nations are members.
– The objective of ICAO are:
• Safe and orderly growth of international civil aviation.
• Aircraft design and operation for peaceful purpose.
• Development of airways, airports and air navigation facilities.
• Safe, regular, efficient and economic air transportation.
• Rights of the contracting nations are fully respected.
• Promotion of all aspects including safety of flight of
international civil aeronautics. 15

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 The document – “Aerodromes, Annex 14 to the convention on
International Civil Aviation” issued by ICAO provides
international design standards and recommended practices
applicable to all international airports.

ICAO uses a two-element code to clarify geometric design

standards at an airport. The code element consist of a numeric
designator and an alphabetic designator. Aerodrome code
numbers 1 through 4 classify the length of runway available or
the reference field length.
Aerodrome code letters A through F classify the wingspan and
outer main gearwheel-span for the aircraft for which the airport
has been designed.
This aerodrome reference code is shown in Table 1.0 16

Table 1.0 ICAO Aerodrome Reference Code

Aerodrome Reference field Aerodrome Wing Span Outer main gear

Code No. length (m) Code Letter (m) wheel span (m)

1 <800 A < 15 < 4.5

2 800 - <1200 B 15 - < 24 4.5 - < 6

3 1200 - <1800 C 24 - < 36 6-<9

4 ≥1800 D 36 - < 52 9 - < 14

E 52 - < 65 9-< 14

F 65 - <80 14-<16

Reference Field Length: Actual Runway takeoff length converted to an

equivalent length at MSL, 150C, and 0 percent gradient.

Wing Span: Distance between outside of two wings of the aircraft.

Outer main gear wheel span: Distance between outside edges of tyres
on the main gear wheel. 17

6
 Table: Aerodrome Reference Code

(m)
(m)

Source: ICAO Annex 14, Aerodromes, Volume I, Aerodrome Design and Operation 4th edition

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1.4.2. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
This is an agency which governs air transportation including airports in
United States. It develops and establishes standards, government
planning methods and procedures, airport design, construction
management, operation and maintenance. It clarifies airports for
geometric design purposes based upon airport reference code. It is
based upon the aircraft approach category and the airplane design
group to which the aircraft is assigned.
Utility Airport: Utility airports serves and accommodate small aircraft with
maximum take off weight of 12,500lbs. or less.

Transport Airport: Transport airports can accommodate large aircraft

with maximum take off weight in excess of 12,500 lbs.
FAA also defines five aircraft approach categories. The approach
category is defined by aircraft approach speed which is defined as 1.3
times the stall speed in the landing configuration of the aircraft at the
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maximum certified landing weight.

Stall Speed

• A stall is a sudden reduction in the lift forces generated by a airfoil.

• This occurs when the critical angle of attack of the airfoil is

exceeded,typically about 15 degrees.

• Typically it is the situation in aerodynamics and aviation where the

angle between the wing’s chord line and the relative incomong wind
(the angle of attack) increases beyond a certain point such that the
lift begins to decrease.

• The angle at which it occurs is known as the critical angle of attack.

• At the stall neither the engine(s) of the aircraft stopped working or

aircraft has stopped moving.

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Table 2.0 FAA Aircraft Approach Category Classification

Airport Approach Category Aircraft approach Speed (Knot) Airport Category

A <91 Utility Airport

B 91 - <121 Utility Airport

C 121 - <141 Transport Airport

D 141 - <166 Transport Airport

E ≥ 166 Transport Airport

Table 3.0 FAA Airplane Design Groups for Geometric Design of Airport
Airplane Design group Aircraft Wing Span (ft.) Typical Aircraft

I < 49 Beech Bonanza A 35 Learjet 25

II 49 <79 DeHavilland DHC-5 Gulfstream II
III 79 - <118 Boeing 737, Martin-04
IV 118 - <171 Boeing 757, Lockheed 1011
V 171 - < 214 Boeing 747-400
VI 214 - < 262 Lockheed C5A
1 Knot = 1.87 km/hr.
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1.4.3. Govt. of India, Dept. of Civil Aviation Classification.
I. a) Central Govt. Aerodrome
b) Privately owned licensed aerodrome
II. a) State Govt. Aerodromes maintained in a serviceable condition
b) State Govt. Aerodromes maintained not in a serviceable condition
iii. Air force aerodrome available for limited civil use
Airport configuration
The airport configuration is the number and orientation of runways
and the location of the terminal area relative to the runways.

‰ The number of runways provided at an airport depends on the

volume of traffic.
‰ The orientation of these runways depends to a large extent on
the direction of the prevailing wind patterns in the area, the
size and shape of the area available for airport development,
and land-use or airspace restrictions in the vicinity of the
airport
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Runways
In general, runways and connecting taxiways should be arranged so
as to-
• Provide adequate separations between aircraft in the air traffic
pattern.
• Cause the least interference and delay in landing, taxing, and
takeoff operations.
• Provide the shortest taxi distance possible from the terminal
area to the ends of the runways.
• Provide adequate taxiways so landing aircraft can exit the
runways as quickly as possible and follow the shortest
possible routes to the terminal area.
• At busy airports, holding or run-up aprons should be provided
adjacent to the takeoff ends of the runways – these aprons
should be designed to accommodate three or possibly four
aircraft to bypass one another. 25

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Taxiways
The principal function of taxiways is to provide access between
runways and terminal area and service hangers
• Taxiways should be arranged so that aircraft which have just landed
do not interfere with aircraft taxiing to take off.
• At busy airports where taxiing traffic is expected to move
simultaneously in both directions, parallel one-way taxiways should
be provided .
• Taxiway should be located at various points along runways so that
landing aircraft can leave the runways quickly to clear them for use
of other aircraft – commonly known as exit taxiways.

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Runway Configuration
The basic runway configuration are
• Single runway.
• Parallel runways.
• Dual-lane runways.
• Intersecting runways.
• Open or V-runways.
Single runway: This is the simplest of the runway configurations.
Parallel runways:The capacities of parallel runway systems depend a
great deal on the number of runways and on the spacing between
them.
The spacing is classified as close, intermediate, and far depending
on the C.L. seperation between two parallel runways.
Close parallel runways – seperations 700 ft to < 2500 ft.
Intermediate parallel runways – seperation 2500 ft to < 4300 ft.
Far parallel runways – seperation at least 4300 ft. 27

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Intersecting runways: When two or more runways in different
directions crossing each other the intersecting runways formed.

¾ Intersecting runways are necessary when relatively strong winds

come from more than one direction, resulting in excessive
crosswinds when only one runway is provided.
¾ When winds are strong only one runway can be used.
¾ If the winds are relatively light, both runways can be used
simultaneously.
¾ The capacity of the intersecting runways depends on the location of
intersection (i.e., midway or near the ends), the manner in which
runways are operated for takeoffs and landings (runway-use
strategy) and the aircraft mix.
¾ The highest capacity is achieved when the intersection is close to
the takeoff and landing threshold. (Figure 1.e)
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Open-V runways:: Runways in different directions which do not

intersect are known as open-V runways

¾ The strategy which yields the highest capacity occurs when

operations are away from the V, which is referred as a diverging
pattern (Fig 1h).
¾ When the operations are towards the V , it is reffered as a
converging pattern (Figure 1i).

Combinations of runway cofigurations

9 Single direction-runway configuration is most desirable from the
view point of capacity and air traffic control.
9 The open-V runway pattern is more desirable than an intersecting-
runway configuration
9 If intersecting runway is not avoidable, then the intersection be
placed as close as possible to their thresholds.
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 S= close, intermediate,
or far

TO – takeoff
L - Landing

(a) Single runway

(b) , (c), (d) Parallel runways
(e) , (f), (g), Intersecting runways
(h) , (i), open-V runways

Figure 1: Runway configurations

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RUNWAY ORIENTATION
• Runway is usually oriented in the direction of prevailing
wind. If the take off is performed in the direction opposite
to the direction of wind flow, greater lift on the wings of
the aircraft is available.
• Due to the force applied by the wind, the aircraft can rise
above the ground much earlier and therefore a shorter
length of runway is required.
• This wind, directly opposite to the movement of the
aircraft, is called head wind.
• During landing the wind provides a breaking effect and
the aircraft comes to a stop within a shorter distance
requiring a shorter length of runway.
• Thus, shorter runway length is required if the landing or
take-off operation is performed along the head wind
direction 31

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 Takeoff
w

Landing
wsinθ W
θ
w Wind Direction wcosθ
However, this is not always possible to have the wind blows in the
direction of runway as the direction of wind is not same through out the
year.
When the wind direction meets the runway at angle θ, its components
along the runway centre line will be wcosθ and perpendicular to the
runway centre line will be wsinθ. This perpendicular components of wind
is referred as Cross Wind.
This cross wind components interrupts the landing and take off operation
of the aircraft on runway. The excessive cross wind may put off the
aircraft away from runway.
Therefore the runway or system of parallel runway should be directed in
such a way that the cross wind component does not cross the specified
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limit most of the time in a year.

The percentage of time in a year during which the cross wind

components remain within the specified limit is called wind coverage or
usability factor of airport.
ICAO recommended a minimum wind coverage of 95%.
The permissible cross wind components on different runway length as
recommended by ICAO are

Reference Field 1500m or 1200m – 1499m Less than

Length over 1200m
Maximum cross wind 37 km/hr. 24 km/hr. 19 km/hr.
component (20 knot) (13 knot) (10 knot)

This 95% criterion suggested by ICAO is applicable to all conditions of

weather. When a single runway or a set of parallel runways cannot be
oriented to provide the required wind coverage, one or more cross
wind runway should be provided.

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 The period during which wind blows at a velocity below 6.4 km/hr is
called calm period. This intensity does not influence the aircraft
operation.
Maximum allowable cross wind component depends upon size of
aircraft, wing configurations and pavement surface.

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) recommends that

runways be oriented so that aircraft may be landed at least 95%of the
time with allowable crosswind components do not exceeding
specified limits specified by the airport reference codes

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WIND ROSE DIAGRAM

• The wind data and its direction, duration and intensity are
represented by a diagram called ‘wind rose’.
• This wind rose is used to analyze the wind data graphically to
determine the best runway orientation.
• The wind data should be collected preferably for a period of 10
years and at least for 5 years.
• The wind rose diagram are of two types and there are two
methods to determine the runway orientations.
• The wind data for preparation of wind rose diagram should
provide:
a) Direction of wind preferably in 16 directional segments
each covering 22.50. and
b) Duration of wind in % of the total time in different velocity
group and at least three group should be taken starting
from 6.4 kmph.
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Table: Typical Wind Data: Percentage of time that Winds Come from
Particular Directions at Various Velocities in All Weather Conditions

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WIND ROSE TYPE I

In this method the duration
and direction of wind are
N used, but data on velocity
NNE of wind is not required
NE
This is not very accurate
ENE method.
The radial lines indicate the
W E
wind direction and the
duration is marked in this
ESE
radial line to some suitable
SE scale.
SSE All plotted lines are joined
S
by straight lines. The best
runway orientation is
usually along the direction
In the figure the best orientation is of the largest line on the
along EW direction., wind rose diagram. 37

16
 Wind Rose Co-ordinate system Cross wind components template
showing limits of 15 mi/h

38

WIND ROSE TYPE II

• The type II wind rose diagram shows information of wind on

direction, duration and intensity.
• This diagram is used for orientation of runway.
• The wind rose diagram consists of a number of concentric
circles, each circle represents the wind intensity to same scale.
• The circles are divided into number of segments, preferably 16
segments, each covering 22.50.
• Each segment represents a direction of wind flow.
• The duration of wind flow as a percentage of time in a year is
noted in segment representing the respective direction of wind
flow.

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 40
Wind rose type II

RUNWAY ORIENTATION

The procedure for determining the orientation of runway with the

help of wind rose diagram is described in the following steps

Step I : Draw the equi-spaced parallel lines on a transparent paper

strip. The middle line represents the runway centre line and the

distance between it and each of the out side lines is equal to the

allowable cross wind component.

Step II : Place the transparent strip on the wind rose so that the middle

line passes through the centre of the wind rose.

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RUNWAY ORIENTATION

Step III : Rotate the strip with respect to the pivot until the sum of the
percentage between the outside lines is a maximum. When the strip
covers only a fraction of a segment, corresponding fractional part of
the percentage shown should be used. The sum of percentages
between the out side lines indicate the percentage of time that the
runway with the proposed orientation will conform with cross wind
standard.

Step IV : Note the direction of runway and calculate the wind coverage.

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Wind coverage for runway 9-27 43

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 Wind coverage for runway 3-21 44

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Wind coverage for runways 9-27 and 3-21

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 Wind Data for day light hours for visual meteorological
conditions for an airport

1. Plot the wind rose diagram under VMC

2. Determine the best orientation of primary runway at this airport.
Permissible cross wind component 15km/hr
46

RUNWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Runway Length
Length of runway depends upon various factors
– Characteristics of airport
– Trip length
– Environmental factors
The length of the runway under the following assumed condition is
known as the basic runway length
1) No wind is blowing in the runway.
2) The aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity.
3) The airport is situated at sea level.
4) The standard temperature of 150C exists in the airport.
5) The runway is leveled in the longitudinal direction.
6) There is no wind blowing enroute to the destination.
7) Enroute temperature is standard.
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• The basic runway length depends upon the
performance characteristics of the aircraft using
the airport
• As a guide to the airport planners, FAA has
published the runway length requirements for air
carriers and general aviation aircraft
• The information from the aircraft manufacturer
can be obtained for this purpose also.

•The necessary correction required for any change

in elevation, temperature and gradient for the
actual site of construction should be done
48

Correction for Elevation

Reason: The density of air reduced with increase in elevation and the
aircraft requires longer length of runway for taking off.

ICAO Recommendation:
The basic runway length should be increased @ of 7% per 300m rise in
elevation above MSL

Correction for Temperature

Reason: The higher the temperature longer the runway required,

because high temperatures reflect lower air densities, resulting in lower
output thrust.

ICAO Recommendation:
The basic runway length should be increased @ of 1% for every 10C rise
of airport reference temperature (ART) above the standard equivalent
atmospheric temperature at that elevation.
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 Airport Reference Temperature (ART)
= TA+ (TM – TA)/3

TA = Monthly mean of average daily temperature for the hottest

month of the year
TM = Monthly mean of maximum daily temperature for the same
month of the year

Standard Equivalent Atmospheric temperature

= 150C – [6.5h]/1000
Where; h = rise in altitude(in m) above MSL
[Standard temperature = 150C, Decrease @ 6.50C per 1000m rise in elevation]

Check:
If the total correction for elevation plus temperature exceeds 35% of
the basic runway length then this should be checked by specific
studies
50

Correction for Gradient

An uphill gradient requires more runway length than a level or downhill

gradient. Though ICAO does not specifically provides any correction
for gradient, it suggest the FAA recommendation for correction on
runway gradient
It is recommended that the runway length after having been corrected
for elevation and temperature should be further increased @20% for
every 1% of effective gradient.

Effective gradient is the maximum difference in elevation between the

highest and lowest point of runway divided by total length of runway

Problem:

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TAXIWAYS
The main function of a taxiway is to provide access to the aircrafts
from the runways to the loading apron or hanger and back.

Dual Parallel Taxiway:

Two taxiways parallel to each other an which airplane can taxi in
opposite direction.

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Apron Taxiways
It is the taxiway located on the periphery of an apron in order
to provide a through taxi route across the apron

Taxi lane: It is a portion of the aircraft parking area used for access
between the taxiway and aircraft parking position

ExitTaxiway: Taxiways
provided at various
points along the runway
help to divert the landing
aircraft quickly.

Figure: Exit Taxiway

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Separation Criteria

To provide a margin of safety in the airport operating areas, the

taxiways must be separated sufficiently from each other and from each
other and from adjacent obstruction.

ICAO Recommendation Taxiway to taxiway separation

STT = WS + 2U1 + C1
C1
Where;
STT = Minimum centre to centre
U1 distance between two adjacent
STT taxiway
WS = Wingspan of the most
Taxiway to taxiway demanding aircraft
separation
U1 = Taxiway Edge safety margin i.e.
the minimum clearance between edge
C1 = Minimum wing tip clearance of each taxiway and the outer main
gear wheel

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ICAO Recommendation

C2 Taxiway and Fixed or movable object

U1
STO = 0.5WS + U1 + C2
Where,
STO = Minimum separation
C2 C2 = Required clearance between
wingtip and object

Taxiway and fixed or

movable object separation

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 Taxiway Layout

Factors controlling layout of taxiway

1. Arrangement: Aircraft which has just landed does not interfere with the
aircraft taxing to take off
2. Busy Airport: Exit taxiway should be provided at various points. Parallel
one way taxiway should be provided.
3. Crossing: Intersection of runway and taxiway should be avoided.
4. Route: Route should be so selected that it provides shortest practicable
distance.

Geometric Design Standard

Length of the taxiway should be as short as practicable. No specific
guideline is available for length of taxiway. Other features like width,
sight distance etc as per ICAO is given in table below

56

Aerodrome Code A B C D E
Width
Pavement 7.5 10.5 15 18 23
Pavement and Shoulder - - 25 38 44
Edge Safety Margin 1.5 2.25 3.0 4.5 4.5
C1 3.0 3.0 4.5 7.5 7.5
C2 4.5 5.25 7.5 12 12

Gradient
Longitudinal maximum 3.0% 3.0% 1.50% 1.50% 1.50%
Longitudinal maximum change 4.5% 4.0% 3.33% 3.33% 3.33%
Pavement transverse maximum 2.0% 2.0% 1.50% 1.50% 1.50%
Minimum length of vertical curve 25m 25m 30m 30m 30m
for 1% gradient change

Sight Distance
Height of object 1.5m 2.0m 3.0m 3.0m 3.0m
Clear distance 100m 200m 300m 300m 57
300m

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 Taxiway width

¾ Depending on the code letter of the runway, minimum margins of

safety between 1.5m to 4.5m should be provided between outer
main gear wheel edge and the taxiway edge
¾ Width of taxiway is less than the width of corresponding runway
because aircraft taxi speed is considerably slower than the speed on
take-off or landing.
¾ The taxiway width needs to be between 7.5m (code letter A) to
25m(code letter F).
¾ The taxiway width, WT is based on the formula;

WT = TM + 2C

Where; TM = outer main gear wheel span

C = clearance between the
outer main gear wheel and
taxiway edge Fig Taxiway width requirements
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Fillets
Taxiway need to be widened with fillets where they have sharp curves so that
the necessary safe separation distance between the outer main gear wheel
edge and runway edge may be maintained
Table: Fillet Radaii (m)
Whee Angle of Intersection
lBase
<450 450 -1350 >1350
(m)
15 22.5 30 60
to
20
10 7.5 15 60
to
15
<10 6.0 10 30

Fig: Taxiway widening to achieve minimum

wheel clearance on curve
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Fig: Typical runway and taxiway fillets for small airports
60

Fig: Typical runway and taxiway fillets for large airports

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Turning Radius
Horizontal curve is to be provided whenever there is a change in the
direction of taxiway
Circular curve of larger radius is most suitable

V 2 Where;
R=
125f V = exit speed of aircraft
F = coefficient of friction between aircraft wheel tyre and
taxiway pavement. The adopted value of f is 0.13

62

Exit Taxiway
The function of exit taxiway or runway turn offs is to minimize runway
occupancy by landing aircrafts.

Location of Exit taxiway

The location of exit taxiway depends on the following points:

i. Mix of aircraft
ii. Approach and touchdown speed
iii. Point of touchdown
iv. Exit speed
v. Rate of deceleration
vi. Pavement condition
vii. Air traffic control

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Fig: A 450 high speed exit taxiway for air craft category A and B (FAA)

64

Point of curvature

Fig: A 300 high speed exit taxiway for aircraft in category C, D and E (FAA)

65

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 Fig: A 900 exit taxiway (FAA)

66

Location of exit taxiway

Mathematical model are developed to determine the location of

exit taxiway
Simplified method may be:
D = Dtd + De Where: D = distance from runway threshold to exit
Dtd = distance from the runway threshold to point where
air craft touches down.
De = distance from touchdown point to exit

De = (Vtd2 – Ve2)/2a Where:

Vtd = aircraft speed at touch down
Ve = exit speed
a = deceleration rate which should not be more than
1.5 m/s2 for passenger comfort

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 Location of High speed Exit taxiway

V2 V0= 0
V1

D S2
Fig.1 High speed exit
S1
taxiway distance from
a threshold

The location of the start of a high speed exit taxiway may be derived by
assuming a constant retardation ‘a’
The following shall apply for such movement.

dv d 2s
= = a; v(t) = ∫ a.dt = at + C1
dt dt 2
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1 2
∴ S(t) = ∫ (a.t + C 1 )dt = a.t + C 1 t + C 2
2
With the beginning of path S=0 to the point with speed v=0 in the moment
then C1= C2 = 0 and the following expression is generally valid:

V(t) = a.t; 1
S(t) = a.t 2
2
If the direction to the right of the full-stop point (i.e (S(0) = 0) is
considered to be positive and at the same time the ‘acceleration ‘a’
negative. This is illustrated in Fig. 1 and the meaning of which is
expressed by the following:

1 2 V
S1 = at 1 ; V1 = at 1 ; t 1 = 1
2 a 69

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 2
1 ⎛ V1 ⎞ 1 V12
∴ S1 = a ⎜ ⎟ =
2 ⎝ a ⎠ 2 a
1 V 22
As an analogy we can derive; S2 =
2 a
V12 − V22
The Final Expression is:
D = S1 − S2 =
2a

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Figure 2. Exit Taxiway 71

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