Kiln Control and Operation

12/28/2018 Kiln Control and Operation - INFINITY FOR CEMENT EQUIPMENT
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Kiln Control and Operation

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1 OWNING AND READING MOST IMPORTANT BOOKS IN CEMENT INDUSTRY +

MANUALS AND NOTES AND SHEETS FROM THE MOST SUCCESSFUL PLAYERS
IN CEMENT INDUSTRY WILL CHANGE YOUR CAREER AND WILL MAKE YOU
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EVERYTHING
2 Kiln Control and Operation
3 1. INTRODUCTION
4 1. CONTROL PARAMETERS
4.1 1.1 Location of the control parameters and variables
4.1.1 1.1.1 Wet kiln
4.1.2 1.1.1 Lepol kiln
4.1.3 1.1.1 Preheater kiln
4.1.4 1.1.1 Precalciner kiln
4.2 1.1 Burning Zone Temperature (BZT)
4.2.1 1.1.1 Pyrometer reading

4.2.2 1.1.2 NOx of the exhaust gases
https://www.cementequipment.org/cement-plant-operation-ccr-operator/kiln-control-operation/#Kiln_Control_and_Operation 1/63
4.2.3 1.1.1 Kiln torque

4.2.4 1.1.1 Secondary Air Temperature (SAT) or Tertiary Air
Temperature (TAT)
4.2.5 1.1.2 Position of the dark feed (valid only for pure natural gas
flames)
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4.3 1.1 Back End Temperature (BET)
4.4 1.2 Oxygen control
5 1. CONTROL VARIABLES
5.1 1.1 Fuel rate to the kiln
5.2 1.2 Feed rate to the kiln
5.3 1.3 Kiln draft
5.4 1.4 Kiln speed
6 2. CONTROL STRATEGY
6.1 2.1 General remarks
6.2 2.2 Possible kiln parameter conditions
6.3 2.3 Decision tree
6.4 1.1 Counteractions
7 2. PRECALCINER CONTROL
7.1 2.1 Calcination temperature
7.2 1.1 Oxygen control
7.3 1.2 Other control parameters
8 2. GRATE COOLER CONTROL
8.1 2.1 Bed height and grate speed
8.2 1.1 Subordinate control loops
8.2.1 1.1.1 Cooler air flow
8.2.2 1.1.1 Kiln hood pressure
9 2. LEPOL GRATE CONTROL
9.1 1.1 Subordinary control loops
9.1.1 1.1.1 Pressure control
9.1.2 1.1.2 Traveling grate speed control
9.1.3 1.1.3 Pelletizer control
10 1. PROCESS PROBLEMS AND KILN UPSET CONDITIONS
10.1 1.1 Cycling
10.2 1.2 Coating Collapse
10.3 1.3 Ring break out 
10.3.1 1.3.1 Clinker ring break out
10.3.2 1.3.2 Sinter, middle, meal and mud rings

10.4 1.4 Hot meal rush (avalanche)
10.5 1.5 Red spot on the kiln shell
10.6 1.6 Loss of kiln feed
11 2. STARTUP AND SHUTDOWN PROCEDURES
11.1 2.1 Start up
11.2 1.1 Shut down
12 2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
13 3. CALCULATION OF THE RETENTION TIME
OWNING AND READING MOST IMPORTANT BOOKS IN

CEMENT INDUSTRY + MANUALS AND NOTES AND
SHEETS FROM THE MOST SUCCESSFUL PLAYERS IN
CEMENT INDUSTRY WILL CHANGE YOUR CAREER
AND WILL MAKE YOU REACH MANAGERIAL
POSITIONS FASTER , KINDLY CLICK HERE TO GET
EVERYTHING
Kiln Control and Operation
SUMMARY
Control Parameters
The most important control parameters in any type of kiln system are:
Burning Zone Temperature (as an indicator for the produced clinker

quality)
Back End Temperature (as an indicator for the raw meal preparation,
which is mainly drying, heat up and calcination)
Oxygen concentration of the kiln exit gas (as an indicator for the efficiency
of combustion)
In case of precalciner systems: Temperature and oxygen concentration at
precalciner outlet
In case of a grate coolers: Bed height of the clinker layer on the grate

Control variables
The most important control variables that are adjusted to maintain the
previous control parameters in a certain allowed range are:
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Fuel rate to the kiln 
Material feed rate to the kiln
Draft in the kiln
Kiln speed
In case of precalciner systems: Fuel rate and draft in the precalciner
In case of a grate coolers: Grate speed
Objectives of kiln operation
The operation of a kiln system has to meet the following basic requirements:
Protection of equipment and personnel at all times

Consistently good clinker quality
Smooth and stable operation
Maximum thermal efficiency
Maximum production rate
1. INTRODUCTION
The different kiln systems can be distinguished by the moisture content of the
raw material, which is fed to the kiln system. The different process types are:
Wet process 30-40 % Moisture

Semi wet process 17-21 % Moisture
Semi dry process 10-15 % Moisture
Dry process < 1 % Moisture
Although each type of process has its own particular operation parameters,
the raw meal has to undergo similar chemical and physical reactions until the
clinker finally leaves the kiln system.
The basic reactions are:


Drying of the raw meal
Heat up of the material

Calcination
Formation of the clinker minerals
Cooling of the clinker
The main difference between the different types of process lies in the
required time and energy, each reaction needs to be completed.
Therefore the operating range of the different control parameters is varying

from one kiln system to the other. The same applies to the response time as
well as to the frequency and magnitude of any control variable adjustment.
Nevertheless certain basic rules are applicable for all types of kiln systems.
They are presented in the following and shall give an elementary concept of
kiln operation.
1. CONTROL PARAMETERS
Kiln systems normally are equipped with a great number of instruments,

sensors and measuring devices.
Some of them are for information purpose only (e.g. if a flap is opened or
closed), others to detect dangerous situations (e.g. cyclone blockages), but
only few of them are continuously used for kiln operation.
Those measured values that are the most important for kiln operation are
herein called the control parameters. To keep the control parameters
close to a certain target control variables (or actuators) are manipulated.
The most important control parameters that are looked at during kiln
operation are:
Burning Zone Temperature (as an indicator for the produced clinker

quality)
Back End Temperature (as an indicator for the raw meal preparation,
which is mainly dryout, heat up and calcination)
Oxygen concentration of the combustion gas at the kiln inlet or the
preheater (as an indicator for the efficiency of combustion and the gas 
atmosphere inside the kiln)

In case of precalciner systems: Temperature and oxygen concentration of
the exhaust gas at the precalciner outlet
In case of a grate cooler: Bed height of the clinker bed
1.1 Location of the control parameters and variables
The location where the different control parameters are measured and some
typical target values are given below. The control variables, which are
adjusted to keep the parameter close to target, are shown also for the
different types of kiln systems.
1.1.1 Wet kiln
wet kiln –
Figure 1: Control parameters and variables of a wet kiln
1.1.1 Lepol kiln
Figure 2 Control parameters and variables of a Lepol kiln
1.1.1 Preheater kiln
Figure 3 Control parameters and variables of a PH kiln

1.1.1 Precalciner kiln
Figure 4 Control parameters and variables of aprecalciner kiln
1.1 Burning Zone Temperature (BZT)
The BZT determines, how well the clinker is burned and how complete the
transformation from C2S to C3S is. When the clinker is leaving the burning
zone it should not have more than ~1.5% and not less than ~0.5% of
uncombined CaO or free lime (which roughly corresponds to a liter weight of
about 1250-1350 g/l).
The periodically measured free CaO (or the liter weight) is the main indicator
to state, if the actual BZT target is adequate or if it has to be increased or
lowered.
Due to changes of the raw meal composition an alteration of the BZT target
can be required now and then, since burnability of the raw material changes
with fluctuations of the LSF, SR, magnesia and alkali content among other
factors. A change in the flame characteristics, which can result from the use
of multiple fuels or varying combustion conditions has a similar impact and

therefore may also require an alteration of the BZT target.
Variations of the BZT target are made only over a long-term period, in the
same way as the free CaO (or liter weight) is measured normally only on a
one or two hourly basis.
The actual BZT must be measured to determine, if a deviation between the
temporary target and the actual BZT exists.
Since kiln operation is a dynamic process, deviations are quite frequent and
of a short-term character.
Several indicators are used to determine the BZT and they are listed below.
Most do not explicitly express an absolute temperature but they give

sufficient information to establish, if the BZT increased or decreased
compared to an earlier defined target. This means they give the short-term
trend of the control parameter BZT. This helps to estimate the probable free
CaO (or the liter weight) and must bridge the time until the actual clinker
analysis is available.
1.1.1 Pyrometer reading
The radiation of clinker and coating in the burning zone has a relation to its
temperature. Therefore the BZT can be determined by measuring the
intensity or the color of this radiation.
A rough temperature – color correlation is given below (visible range):
Lowest visible red to dark red 475-650 °C
Dark red to cherry red 650-750 °C
Cherry red to bright red 750-850 °C
Bright red to orange 850-900 °C
Orange to yellow 900-1100 °C
Yellow to light yellow 1100-1350 °C 
Light yellow to white 1350-1550 °C


By measuring the color of the burning zone and not only the radiation
intensity, the
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The most important books of thelike theIndustry
Cement dust load of
the secondary air and others.
Therefore modern pyrometers and kiln cameras mainly measure the color
and not the intensity of radiation.
1.1.2 NOx of the exhaust gases
The NOx that is produced during combustion varies according the

temperature of the flame and of the gases of the burning zone. The hotter
the flame is the more NOx is produced during combustion and vice versa.
When BZT is deduced from the NOx content of the exhaust gases, the oxygen
and CO concentration in the exhaust gases have to be considered also, since
CO reduces and oxygen promotes the formation of NOx.
A further factor influencing NOx formation is the type of fuel burned. If the
fuel mix changes, the quantity of NOx produced may change too (especially
when burning alternative fuels).
1.1.1 Kiln torque
The burning zone shifts upwards and gets longer, if the BZT rises.
A higher BZT produces more liquid phase in the clinker.
The diameter of the clinker balls increases and the granulation of the raw
meal in the kiln starts earlier. Therefore more and bigger clinker balls have to
be moved inside the kiln when the BZT is increasing.
At the same time, the material bed in the kiln is lifted up more, which moves
the center of gravity away from the kiln axis.
The different granulation of the clinker and the changing angle of repose 
increase the required torque to turn the kiln, if BZT rises.
Figure 5 Torque of a hot and a cold kiln
This kiln torque is proportional to the current of a DC – drive and proportional

to the quotient kiln power / kiln speed in case of an AC – drive or a hydraulic
drive.
A changing coating situation in the burning zone strongly influences the kiln
torque (as more as lower the L/D ratio of the kiln). As a result the kiln torque
can change significantly on a long-term basis without any change of the BZT.
Therefore the kiln torque signal in most cases only serves as a short-term
indication of the BZT. Short-term is defined as up to 12 hours. Torque is a
very useful indicator of kiln conditions relative to its trend.
1.1.1 Secondary Air Temperature (SAT) or Tertiary Air

Temperature (TAT)
Kilns with a grate cooler, which are equipped with a reliable SAT or TAT
measurement device, often use SAT or TAT as an indicator for the BZT.
The higher the BZT, the hotter the released clinker and the higher SAT or TAT
(and vice versa).

Nevertheless SAT and TAT are influenced by a number of other effects

(clinker granulometry, cooler operation, etc.), therefore not in all kilns can a
clear correlation between BZT and SAT or TAT be given.
1.1.2 Position of the dark feed (valid only for pure natural gas
flames)
If the visibility inside the kiln does permit (little dusty, flame shape, etc.), the
calcined hot meal can be seen as a dark flush, when entering the burning
zone. An area can be determined, where this meal, floating like water starts
to form liquid phases and where it transforms to solid clinker balls.
The position of the area where this transformation takes place is an additional
indicator of the BZT.
If this area shifts downwards, the BZT is falling and vice versa.
Figure 6 Position of the dark feed
1.1 Back End Temperature (BET)


The term BET refers to the temperature of the exhaust gas at the kiln inlet in
case of kilns with a preheater and to the intermediate gas temperature
(before the chain section), if the kiln is equipped with chains. The BET
depends on the type of system and the L/D – ratio of the kiln. It ranges from
~800 °C in wet kilns (before the chain section) up to ~1200 °C in AS
precalciner kilns.
If a reliable temperature measurement at the kiln inlet (kilns with preheaters)

or before the chain section (kilns with chains) is not available, frequently the
preheater exit temperature (kilns with preheaters) or the kiln inlet
temperature (kilns with chains) is used.
The BET is an indicator of how well the hot meal is prepared, when entering
the kiln (or when passing the intermediate measuring point, in case of kiln
systems with chains).
Before the meal is finally clinkerized in the burning zone, it has to undergo
dryout, calcination (release of CO2) and to a minor extend also reactions like
structural modifications and the formation of intermediate products like
C12A7 or CA).
The higher the energy demand for intermediate reactions in the kiln, (which
depends mainly from the type of process), the more important is a proper
control of the BET.
Hence the BET in a wet kiln is more critical (90-100% calcination missing)
than in an air separate precalciner kiln (~10% calcination missing).
The BET reacts as slower to any control variable adjustment as longer the kiln
(higher L/D ratio) and as more energy is consumed in the kiln for the
intermediate reactions before clinkerisation.
Ideally the material should always have the same degree of preparation, but
due to the kiln operation itself and normal fluctuations of the raw material
properties, fuels, ambient conditions and others, this is not the case.
Variations in the raw material are first observed through the BET, thereby
indicating early the future impact on the BZT. 
If all other parameters remain constant and the BET drops, this is evidence
that all reaction zones shift downward and vice versa.

If the zones within the kiln shift either down or up, the BZT will decrease or 
increase consequently afterwards also, if no counter measures are taken
earlier.
1.2 Oxygen control
For a good combustion of the fuels a certain amount of excess air is required.
The quantity of excess air is determined by measuring the oxygen content of

the exhaust gases. Proper control of the oxygen level is crucial for good
combustion and a high thermal efficiency.
Typical oxygen ranges (at the kiln inlet) for the most common kiln systems
are given in the following table. The required oxygen level depends on the
type of kiln system but also strongly on the type of fuel being used (e.g. gas
needs less excess air than coal or solid AFR).
A further important influence to the oxygen level is the amount of sulfur,

chlorine and alkali within the kiln system. Therefore the higher oxygen levels
within the given ranges are chosen, if sulfur volatilization is a problem.
Gas Fuel oil Coal Petcoke
Solid AFR
Wet kiln 0.5 – 1.0 % 1.0 – 2.0 % 1.5 – 2.0 % 2.0 – 2.5 %
Lepol kiln 1.0 – 1.5 % 1.5 – 2.0 % 1.5 – 2.5 % 2.0 – 3.0 %
Preheater kiln 1.0 – 1.5 % 1.5 – 2.0 % 1.5 – 2.5 % 2.0 – 3.0 %
Inline PC kiln 2.5 – 3.0 % 2.5 – 3.0 % 2.5 – 3.5 % 2.5 – 4.0 %
Separate PC kiln 1.0 – 1.5 % 1.5 – 2.0 % 1.5 – 2.5 % 2.0 – 3.0 %
Table 1: Typical oxygen levels at the kiln inlet (dry gas)

In most kiln systems the required amount of excess air is slightly above the
point where the flame temperature would be highest due to sulfur, chlorine or
alkali situation.
Therefore a slight reduction of the amount of excess air increases the flame
temperature a little.
Extremely low excess air (or oxygen) reduces the flame temperature, which
lengthens the flame (postcombustion) and lowers the fuel efficiency.
Additionally sulfur and alkali volatilization is enhanced, which may lead to
build up and incrustation problems within the kiln system.
Too much excess air (or oxygen) cools the flame too and leads also to a poor
thermal fuel efficiency due to the deteriorating heat transfer. Since the total
gas flow is increased, the kiln internal and external dust cycles also increase.
Hence lower oxygen levels are chosen, if sulfur volatilization is not

problematic.
As a general rule applies, that at the minimum permissible oxygen level no

notable CO is formed (i.e. < 0.05 % at kiln inlet).
1. CONTROL VARIABLES
In the proceeding paragraph the main control parameters used for kiln
control were presented.
Those parameters must be kept in a narrow range closed to target, in order

to run the kiln in a smooth and efficient manner. Generally speaking the
smaller the deviations of the parameter from the target, the better the kiln
control.
To keep the control parameters close to target it is generally necessary to

make adjustments to the control variables.

The main control variables are (excluding precalciner systems):
Fuel rate to the kiln

Material feed rate to the kiln
Kiln draft
Kiln speed
In the following the effect of any adjustment made to one of the four kiln
control variables is shown. To keep the normally relatively complex relations
simple it is assumed, that the adjustment is done only to one variable at a
time (the others remain untouched) and that the adjustment is so small, that
none of the control parameters deviates far from target.
1.1 Fuel rate to the kiln
When increasing the fuel rate into the kiln:
BZT increases
BET increases
Oxygen concentration decreases
(A decrease of the fuel rate has the inverse effect).
More energy is introduced into the system, therefore the BZT and the BET
rises. Oxygen level drops, since part of the excess air is consumed for the
combustion of the extra fuel.
Of course, the above applies only, if the combustion does not takes place
under reducing conditions.
1.2 Feed rate to the kiln
When increasing the material feed rate into the kiln:
BZT decreases
BET decreases 
Oxygen concentration decreases
(A decrease of the feed rate has an inverse effect).

When more feed is introduced into the kiln system the temperature starts to
drop first at the back end. After the higher amount of feed has reached the 
burning zone, the BZT starts to decrease also.
The extra feed releases additional H2O and CO2. The additional amount of
gas from the meal reduces the quantity of combustion air (and thus of excess
air), since the amount of exhaust gas remains (almost) constant. This leads
to a decrease of oxygen in the exhaust gas.
1.3 Kiln draft
When increasing the draft in the kiln:
BZT decreases
BET increases
Oxygen concentration increases
(A slight decrease of the draft has an inverse effect. If combustion takes

place under reducing conditions (too little excess air) the BZT drops again
and BET rises (see chapter 2.4).
When the kiln draft rises, more (and slightly colder) secondary air is pulled
into the kiln and through the burning zone. This decreases the flame
temperature and as a result the BZT drops.
Although the amount of heat supplied to the kiln system is somewhat higher
(more secondary air), less heat is released in the burning zone (lower flame
temperature results in reduced heat transfer) thus the BET rises.
The higher kiln draft increases both, the oxygen concentration and the
volume of the exhaust gases.
1.4 Kiln speed
When increasing the speed of the kiln:


BZT decreases (temporarily)
BET decreases (temporarily)

Oxygen decreases (temporarily)

(A decrease of the kiln speed has the inverse effect) 
When the ATTENTION

ATTENTION kiln speed !!!!
is increased, the meal
The most advancement
important is faster.
books of the Cement All reaction
Industry
zones shift temporarily downwards, which causes the BET and the BZT to
drop.
Since more meal enters temporarily the drying and the calcining zone (same
effect as an increased feed rate), a higher amount of H2O and CO2 is
released which leads to a drop in the oxygen concentration.
Those effects are only temporary, since a higher kiln speed at a fixed feed
rate reduces the filling degree in the kiln. Once the kiln filling degree has
been lowered in the entire kiln (all material, that was in the kiln, when the
speed change was made, has left the kiln), BZT, BET and oxygen recover.
Remark:
In almost all kiln operation strategies the kiln speed depends on the kiln feed
rate. The objective is to keep the filling degree in the kiln constant. Thus the
kiln speed is under normal operation conditions is not an independent
variable, but adjusted in tandem with the kiln feed rate.
In certain upset conditions (especially the dreaded hot meal rush), the kiln
speed has to be reduced that much that a parallel reduction of the kiln feed
would produce an overheating of the back end. In these situations, a
compromise between increased filling degree and BET must be made (under
this situation, the so-called cycling can occur).
2. CONTROL STRATEGY
2.1 General remarks
As seen before an adjustment to only one of the control variables has an 

impact on all three control parameters.
To keep all control parameters within a certain range close to target it is

normally necessary to make adjustments to more than one control variable.

But in doing so, the correction of one particular control parameter can 
increase the deviation of an other.
As a result a compromise must be found that reduces the weighted
average of all parameter deviations to a minimum.
The weight (degree of importance) of each particular control parameter

depends on the type of system and the particular kiln. In a precalciner kiln
for example the BET is less critical than in a wet kiln. Therefore the influence
of the BET is less weighted in a precalciner kiln than in a wet kiln.
The selection of the control variables used to bring one or more control
parameter that are out of range back to normal depends on the overall view
of all control parameters.
In the following an example of a kiln operation strategy is presented, which

describes the most typical actions, which may be taken for all types of kiln
systems. Certain modifications of this strategy may be necessary in particular
cases, since each kiln behaves differently and has dissimilar preconditions.
A very important factor herein plays the ability to make positive changes to
the control variables. In many kilns a bottleneck exists, that does not allow
any positive change to one of the control variables, once nominal capacity
has been reached (e.g. an ID fan that runs already with maximum speed or
with the damper completely opened). This consequently may require an
alteration of the presented strategy.
The purpose of this strategy is to understand the principles of kiln operation

and may not be directly applicable on all kiln systems.
2.2 Possible kiln parameter conditions
It is assumed that the three kiln parameters BZT, BET and Oxygen at kiln
inlet can be attributed to one of the following states (although transitions are
fluid), which are: 
Inside the desired range, which means k.

Above the desired range, which means high 
Below the desired range, which means low
The desired range for the three control parameters typically is as followed:
BZT BET Oxygen
Wet kiln Target +/- 20 °C Target +/- 10 °C Target +/- 0.3 %

Lepol kiln Target +/- 20 °C Target +/- 15 °C Target +/- 0.5 %
Preheater kiln Target +/- 20 °C Target +/- 15 °C Target +/- 0.5 %
Inline PC kiln Target +/- 20 °C Target +/- 20 °C Target +/- 0.7 %

Separate PC kiln Target +/- 20 °C Target +/- 20 °C Target +/- 0.5 %
Table 2: Desired range of the different control parameters
Combining the three control parameters and their respective state in any
combination, leads to 3^3=27 possible conditions. These 27 basic conditions
are shown graphically below in the so-called “decision tree”.
2.3 Decision tree
Based on the 3 possible conditions of the 3 control parameters, the following

decision tree is built, which covers all 27 possible states.
Figure 7 Decision tree
1.1 Counteractions
For each of the possible 27 states a particular action (control variable

adjustment) is described, to bring the control parameters back to target,
which is the desired state 14.
The counteractions apply under the assumption that no bottleneck exists.
Although it is not always explicitly mentioned, the magnitude of a possible

deviation plays a great role, since it influences the intensity of counteraction.
Any adjustment to the control variables must be more or less pronounced,
according the degree of parameter deviation from the target. Otherwise the
correction of the kiln parameters is either insufficient or too strong, which
results in a weak response or in an overshoot of the parameter reaction
(creating a cycling effect).
In kiln systems, where the BET is of minor importance, mostly the BZT and
the oxygen establish the actions. This means a certain deviation from the BET
target is temporarily accepted, if this helps to maintain a high productivity
and as long as the overall kiln condition does not suffer. If allowed to continue
for prolonged periods, elevated BET may result in increased condensation of
circulating elements in difficult to reach areas. This can cause plugging and
possible kiln stoppages and must be avoided. 
The actions to be usually taken are (the actions to be taken lay more
emphasis on a stable kiln operation than on maximum productivity):
CaseCondition Action Reason

1 BZT low When BZT is
slightly low:
OXYGEN low 1 increase kiln increase oxygen and prepare for step 2,
draft increase BET
BET low 2 increase fuel increase BZT and BET, bring oxygen
rate back to normal

When BZT is very
low:
1 increase kiln increase oxygen and prepare for step 2,

draft increase BET
2 increase fuel increase BZT and BET, bring oxygen
rate back to normal

3 decrease kiln increase BZT and BET
speed even more
4 decrease feed maintain kiln filling

rate degree constant
2 BZT low 1 increase kiln increase oxygen, increase BET to
draft slightly prepare for step 2

OXYGEN low 2 decrease fuel increase oxygen even more, bring BET
rate back to normal
BET o.k. 3 decrease kiln increase BZT

speed

3 BZT low 1 decrease fuel increase oxygen and prepare for step 2,
rate decrease BET
OXYGEN Low 2 decrease kiln decrease BET 

draft
BET High 3 decrease kiln increase BZT

speed
4 BZT
ATTENTION Low When
ATTENTION !!!! BZT is The most important books of the Cement Industry
slightly low:
OXYGEN o.k. 1 increase kiln increase BET, increase oxygen to
draft prepare for step 2

BET Low 2 increase fuel increase BZT and BET
rate
When BZT is very
low:
1 increase kiln increase BET, increase oxygen to

draft prepare for step 2
2 increase fuel increase BZT and BET
rate
speed even more
4 decrease feed maintain kiln filling degree constant

rate and increase BET
5 BZT Low When BZT slightly low and oxygen slightly
high, but still o.k.:
OXYGEN o.k. 1 increase fuel increase BZT
rate
BET o.k. When BZT very

low:
1 increase kiln increase oxygen and prepare for
draft slightly step 2
2 increase fuel increase BZT
rate slightly
3 decrease kiln increase BZT more

speed
rate degree constant 

6 BZT Low When BZT is slightly low and oxygen is slightly
high, but still o.k.:

OXYGEN o.k. 1 decrease kiln increase BZT and
draft decrease BET
BET High When BZT is very
low:
1 decrease fuel decrease BET, increase oxygen to
rate prepare for step 2
2 decrease kiln decrease BET, bring oxygen

draft back to normal
3 decrease kiln increase BZT
speed
7 BZT Low When BZT is

slightly low:
OXYGEN high 1 increase fuel increase BZT and BET, decrease
rate oxygen
BET low When BZT is very
low:
1 increase fuel increase BZT and BET, decrease

rate oxygen
speed

slightly low:
OXYGEN high 1 increase fuel increase BZT, decrease
rate oxygen
BET o.k. When BZT is very
low:
1 increase fuel increase BZT, decrease

rate oxygen
2 decrease kiln increase BZT 

speed
3 decrease feed to maintain kiln filling


slightly low:
OXYGENATTENTION
ATTENTION high 1 !!!!
increase fuelTheincrease BZT, decrease
most important books of the Cement Industry
rate oxygen
BET high 2 decrease kiln decrease BET and oxygen, compensate BET
draft increase of step 1
When BZT is very

low:
1 increase fuel increase BZT, decrease
rate oxygen
2 decrease kiln decrease BET and oxygen, compensate BET
draft increase of step 1
3 decrease kiln increase BZT

speed
4 decrease feed to maintain kiln filling
10 BZT o.k. 1 increase kiln increase oxygen,
draft increase BET
OXYGEN low 2 increase fuel compensate BZT decrease of

rate slightly step 1
BET low
11 BZT o.k. 1 increase kiln increase oxygen
draft
OXYGEN low
BET o.k.
12 BZT o.k. 1 decrease fuel decrease BET, increase oxygen and
rate prepare for step 2
OXYGEN low 2 decrease kiln decrease BET
draft slightly
BET high
13 BZT o.k. 1 increase kiln increase BET

draft 
OXYGEN o.k. 2 increase fuel compensate oxygen increase and BZT
rate slightly decrease of step 1

BET low
14 BZT o.k. When this condition persists:

OXYGEN o.k. 1 increase kiln increase oxygen to prepare for
draft
ATTENTION ATTENTION !!!! Thestep
most2 important books of the Cement Industry
BET o.k. 2 increase fuel increase BZT to prepare
rate for step 3
3 increase feed increase production
rate
4 increase kiln to maintain kiln filling

speed degree constant
When this condition is only temporary:
1 No action
15 BZT o.k. When oxygen is slightly high, but still o.k.:
OXYGEN o.k. 1 decrease kiln decrease BET
draft
BET high When oxygen is slightly low, but still o.k.:
1 decrease fuel decrease BET and prepare for
rate step 2
2 decrease kiln decrease BET
draft
16 BZT o.k. 1 increase kiln increase BET, increase oxygen to

draft slightly prepare for step 2
OXYGEN high 2 increase fuel increase BET, compensate BZT
rate decrease of step 1
BET low
17 BZT o.k. 1 decrease kiln decrease oxygen
draft
OXYGEN high
BET o.k.
18 BZT o.k. 1 decrease kiln decrease oxygen and
draft BET
OXYGEN high 2 decrease fuel decrease BET, compensate BZT
rate slightly increase of step 1 

BET high
19 BZT high When BZT is

slightly high:
OXYGEN low 1 increase kiln increase oxygen,

draft increase BET
BET
ATTENTION low When
high:
1 increase kiln increase oxygen,
draft increase BET
2 increase kiln decrease BZT
speed
3 increase feed to maintain kiln filling
20 BZT high When BZT is slightly high:
OXYGEN low 1 increase kiln increase oxygen,
draft decrease BZT
BET o.k. When BZT is

high:
1 decrease fuel increase oxygen,
rate decrease BZT
speed

slightly high:
OXYGEN low 1 decrease fuel decrease BZT and BET, increase
rate oxygen
BET high When BZT is

high:
1 decrease fuel decrease BZT and BET, increase
rate oxygen
2 increase kiln decrease BZT and BET
speed
3 increase feed to maintain kiln filling 


slightly high:
OXYGEN o.k. 1 increase kiln decrease BZT, increase

draft BET
BET
ATTENTION low When
high:
1 increase kiln decrease BZT, increase
draft BET
speed

slightly high:
OXYGEN o.k. 1 decrease fuel decrease BZT
rate

high:
1 decrease fuel decrease BZT
rate
speed

slightly high:
OXYGEN o.k. 1 decrease fuel decrease BZT and BET
rate
BET high When BZT is

high:
1 decrease fuel decrease BZT and BET
rate
speed 

slightly high:
OXYGEN high 1 increase kiln decrease BZT, increase
draft
ATTENTION ATTENTION !!!! TheBET
most important books of the Cement Industry
BET low When BZT is
high:
1 increase kiln decrease BZT, increase
draft BET
speed

slightly high:
OXYGEN high 1 decrease fuel decrease BZT
rate

high:
1 increase kiln decrease BZT, increase BET to prepare
draft for step 2
speed

slightly high:
OXYGEN high 1 decrease fuel decrease BZT and BET
rate
BET high 2 decrease kiln decrease oxygen

draft
When BZT is
high:
1 decrease fuel decrease BZT and BET 

rate
2 decrease kiln decrease oxygen

draft

speed
4 !!!!
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maintain kiln filling
important books of the Cement Industry
The basic 27 counteractions apply to the kiln operation only and do not
consider precalcining, Lepol preheater or grate cooler operation.
If a precalcination system is installed, additional control parameters have to

be held on target.
The same applies for a grate cooler (which is the most common type of cooler
and has the highest operational adjustability) and a Lepol preheater.
2. PRECALCINER CONTROL
The purpose of precalcining is to shift the reaction of calcination from the kiln
upstream into a kiln external precalciner.
Although preheaters with secondary firing and air through precalciner belong
to this group also, they are not considered further, since the fuel rate to the
secondary firing or to the air through calciner is normally held constant and
they do not provide particular control of the calcining degree at the kiln inlet.
Also the amount of energy spent for precalcination is limited in those types
(normally << 20 % of the total thermal energy).
The presented system is the air separate calciner, where the combustion air is
not delivered through the kiln, but through a tertiary air duct.
In these precalciners, the meal is calcined almost completely (up to 90 %)

and more than half of the total thermal energy (up to 60 %) is spent for this
reaction.
It is the objective to calcine the meal as much and as uniform as possible. 
This is the main operational advantage of an air separate precalciner, because

it gives the possibility, to control the preparation of the meal completely
independent from the kiln. Therefore the BET has little importance from an
operational point of view.
2.1 Calcination temperature
In kiln operation the free CaO (or liter weight) determines the BZT target
(control parameter), which is held close to target mainly by means of the fuel
rate to the main burner (control variable).
Similarly in precalcining systems the calcination degree establishes the

calcining temperature (control parameter), which then is held, close to target
by the fuel rate to the calciner (control variable). This calcination temperature
in calciner systems basically takes over the function of the BET of the other
kiln systems.
A normal desired calcination degree in a precalciner system is around 90 %,

which corresponds to a material temperature (or a calciner exit gas
temperature) of 870-890°C.
A higher calcination degree is obtained with a higher calcination temperature,

but at temperatures above 900°C already liquid phase starts to form, which
leads to build-ups in the calciner and a restricted gas flow. Therefore excess
temperatures are not desired.
From an operational point of view the following general rules exist to

establish the calcining temperature and calcination degree:
– The higher the calcination temperature (and calcination degree), the more
uniform is the calcination degree (since the gradient of the calcining curve
decreases with increasing calcination temperature) and the more stable is
consequently kiln operation, but the lower is the thermal efficiency of the
precalciner kiln system, due to higher calciner and preheater exit
temperatures.
– The lower the calcination temperature (and calcination degree), the less

uniform the calcination degree (since the gradient of the calcining curve
increases with decreasing calcination temperature) and the more sensitive is

the calcination degree to fluctuations (disturbances) on rate and properties of
precalciner fuel and kiln feed.
Figure 8 Typical calcining curve
1.1 Oxygen control
The oxygen at the calciner outlet is controlled through the calciner draft, in
the same way as the oxygen at kiln inlet is controlled by the kiln draft.
A normal target value for the oxygen after calciner (bottom cyclone exit) is 1
– 1.5 %.
In air separate calciner systems, the calciner draft is adjusted by the exhaust
gas fan.
Adjustments to the exhaust gas fan also influence the kiln draft. Therefore
any adjustment to the exhaust gas fan normally implies also an adjustment
of the tertiary air damper (or depending on the design to the kiln orifice), in
order to maintain the kiln draft constant.

Only in case of separate line calciners the calciner draft can be controlled
independently from the kiln through the additional exhaust gas fan.

1.2 Other control parameters
Beside the two principal control parameters temperature and oxygen and the
two control variables fuel rate into the calciner and calciner draft, in certain
AS designs still more adjustability is given through a staged introduction of
fuel and / or meal and / or tertiary air. These design features are
implemented for different reasons (e.g. NOx reduction, better ignition and
burnout of low reactive fuels, refractory protection at a local hotspot, etc.).
The particular adjustment of them will not be discussed within this paper.
2. GRATE COOLER CONTROL
The grate cooler is not only the most widespread type of cooler, it is also the
one with the highest adaptability to the different process requirements.
2.1 Bed height and grate speed
The main objective of grate cooler operation is to recuperate the highest

possible amount of energy from the hot clinker, in order to achieve a high
combustion air temperature and to cool the clinker adequately.
Dependent upon the clinker granulometry a certain clinker bed height is

found, at which the efficiency of recuperation is best. The grate cooler
operation should try to maintain the thickness of the clinker layer on the
grate constant at this optimum height.
Since this optimum thickness depends principally on the clinker granulometry,

the bed height of best performance can vary over time and may change the
bed height target (control parameter).
To determine the thickness of the clinker bed the following methods are used:
Back-pressure under the first grate, if the flow of the respective cooler fan
is held constant (most common method) 
Level detecting systems, working with a radar distance measurement
Weighing systems that weigh the clinker load of a particular area, e.g. the
clinker load over the fixed inlet (rarely used)

The control variable to adjust the clinker bed thickness is the speed of the 
cooler grate (or transport velocity of the clinker). By increasing the grate
ATTENTION ATTENTION !!!!
speed the clinker bed is movedThe
outmost important books of the Cement Industry
faster and the bed height is lowered. A
decrease of the grate speed has the inverse effect.
Normally this grate speed is controlled automatically (mostly in function of

the backpressure of one or several chambers under the first grate).
The loop, which is responsible for this control, basically has to fulfill two
contrary tasks:
quickly speed up the grate during coating falls, ring break outs and all
other occasions, where the kiln releases rapidly a high amount of clinker
(which requires aggressive PID settings: Proportional , Integral ¯)
maintain under normal operating conditions the clinker bed height (i.e. the
backpressure under the grate) as close to the desired setpoint as possible,
without oscillation or cycling (which requires soft PID settings:
Proportional ¯, Integral )
A controller, which fulfills these requirements, may have the following typical
characteristics:
Smooth grate speed adjustment, if the pressure is within a certain

predefined band (e.g. 35 mbar +/- 2 mbar)
Aggressive grate speed adjustment, if the pressure is outside the
predefined band
Figure 9 Typical grate speed controller characteristic (example)
If the cooler consists of more than one grate, the speed of the following
grates is held normally in a proportional ratio to the speed of the first grate.
Thereby the grate speed ratio of the following grates increases gradually, thus
the clinker bed height decreases stepwise from the first grate to the following
ones.
1.1 Subordinate control loops
1.1.1 Cooler air flow
The flow of the cooler fans is normally automatically held constant and
independent from the backpressure of the grate and clinker bed.
The objective is to provide always the same amount of cooling air to the
grate, independently from minor fluctuations of the cooler throughput.
A constant airflow is a basic prerequisite to control the bed height of the


clinker when the grate speed control works with the backpressure under the
first grate.
The specific airflow (amount of cooling air per square meter and second) and
the backpressure are highest at the first rows of the cooler and have a 
descending pattern towards the cooler outlet.
This is due to the fact, that the cooling of the clinker and the recuperation of
the heat is as more efficient as greater the temperature difference between
clinker and cooling air is. Therefore more cooling air is used at the inlet,
where the clinker is still hot.
A typical air distribution (with the respective backpressures) of a cooler is

shown below (in the example the cooler has 1 grate and 6 chamber aerated
sections):
Figure 10: Cooling air flow distribution (example)
1.1.1 Kiln hood pressure


In a grate cooler, the amount of air used to cool the clinker is higher than the
amount of air required for combustion in the kiln (and calciner). The surplus
air has to be taken out of the cooler by a separate venting system, the so-
called waste air fan.
The draft of the waste air fan has to be adjusted so that the pressure in the
cooler and the kiln hood is neither positive nor too negative.
Normally this pressure is measured in the kiln hood and held constant at a
value of around – 0.2 – 0.5 mbar. To decrease the kiln hood pressure (make
more negative), the draft of the waste air fan is increased and vice versa.
Most frequently an automatic control takes care of this.
A constant and slightly negative kiln hood pressure is important for safety
reasons and for the protection of the equipment. As the waste air fan
counterbalances (pulls against) the ID fan the kiln hood pressure should not
be more negative than necessary under normal operation conditions.
Nevertheless the kiln hood pressure frequently is set during start ups (cold
kiln) to much lower values (– 2.0 – 3.0 mbar), in order to hold the flame
back (shorten flame) and to avoid an overheating of the back end (avoid high
BET due to long flame and overdrafting).
2. LEPOL GRATE CONTROL
A Lepol grate preheater basically consists of a traveling grate, which passes

through two compartments. The pellets on the grate, which were formed in
the pelletizer (semi dry process only), are first dried in the drying
compartment and are then heated up further and partly calcined in the hot
compartment.
The hot gases from the kiln penetrate the bed on the grate in the hot
compartment downward, from where they are withdrawn by the intermediate
fan, which controls the kiln draft.

From there they are pulled through the drying compartment by the exhaust
gas fan, which controls the pressures in the drying compartment.
Figure 11: Gas – and material flows of a Lepol

preheater
1.1 Subordinary control loops
1.1.1 Pressure control
The pressure drop over the grate in the drying and in the hot chamber is
typically in the magnitude of 6 – 10 mbar, depending on the bed height on
the grate and the void volume of the bed.
The size of the compartments of the Lepol preheater is designed in a way

that the pressure drop over the grate in both compartments is normally
equal. (Nevertheless in certain kilns, where the dust load at the kiln inlet is
high, the pressure drop over the bed in the hot compartment is higher than
the one in the drying compartment, due to a reduced void volume through
the dust).

Since the sealing in-between the two compartments is limited it is of utmost

importance to balance the pressures in between the two compartments
underneath and above the grate in a proper way.
This is the task of the exhaust gas fan which is usually adjusted in a way that
the pressure underneath the grate of the drying compartment is
approximately equal to the pressure underneath the grate of the hot
compartment (if the pressure drop over the grate in both compartments is
equal then consequently also the pressure above the grate of the drying
compartment must be equal to the pressure above the grate of the hot
compartment).
If the exhaust fan pulls too much, the pressure in the drying compartment
underneath and above the grate is more negative than in the hot
compartment, which leads to a short-circuit of hot gases from the hot
compartment into the drying compartment and the exhaust gas system.
This short-circuit of hot gases from the hot compartment into the drying
compartment often creates a bursting of the pellets (due to an excessive
water vapor pressure in the pellets).
If the exhaust fan does not pull enough, the pressure in the drying
compartment underneath and above the grate is less negative than in the hot
compartment, which leads to a short-circuit of “cold” gases from the drying
compartment into the hot compartment and a recirculation of the gases from
the drying compartment through the intermediate fan, which reduces
consequently the kiln draft.
1.1.2 Traveling grate speed control
In order to guarantee a good heat exchange between gases and pellets it is

important to maintain a certain bed height of the bed on the grate constant.
The optimum bed height of the pellets, which is basically a function of the
bed resistance must be found empirically and depends on the void volume of
the bed (pellet size distribution) 
The bed height is established by adjusting the passage wall between material
feed chute and drying compartment (see figure 11).

The level of the material in the feed bin is held constant by adjusting the 
material transport to and from the pelletizer to the grate.
With increasing traveling grate speed the material feed rate increases and
vice versa.
1.1.3 Pelletizer control
In semi dry kiln systems the pellets are formed from raw meal under addition
of 10 – 15 % water in the pelletizer, which is just a rotating dish.
Figure 12: Pelletizer (semi dry process)
The most important properties of the pellets are size, uniformity, porosity, 
moisture content and strength. These properties are influenced by the raw
meal feed rate (throughput), the ratio of water to raw meal (moisture content
of the pellets), the angle of tilt of the dish, the speed of rotation, the height
of the rim of the dish and other parameters.
From an operational point of view the raw meal feed rate (throughput) and
the ratio of water to raw meal are the most important factors, which influence
the properties of the pellets.
The influence of raw meal feed rate (throughput) and the ratio of water to
raw meal is:
Raw meal feed rate (at a fixed water to raw meal ratio)
The higher the raw meal feed rate, the smaller the pellet size (reduced void
volume), the more porous the pellets and the less uniform the size
distribution of the pellets (reduced void volume)
The lower the raw meal feed rate, the bigger the pellet size (bursting of the
pellets), the less porous the pellet (bursting of the pellets) and the more
uniform the size distribution of the pellets
Ratio of water to raw meal (at a fixed raw meal feed rate)
The higher the ratio of water to raw meal, the bigger the pellet size (bursting
of the pellets) and the higher the strength of the pellet
The lower the ratio of water to raw meal, the smaller the pellet size (reduced
void volume) and the lower the strength of the pellet (breakage during
transport)
The relation between pellet size, raw meal feed rate and ratio of water to raw
meal (moisture content of the pellets) is shown qualitatively in figure 12.
Figure 13 Pellet size in function of raw meal feed rate and ratio of
water to raw meal
In order to maintain a certain pellet size (example in figure 13), the ratio of
water to raw meal (moisture content of the pellets) has to be increased
slightly with higher raw meal feed rates (and vice versa).
Nevertheless the required change in the ratio of water to raw meal is small
(several tenth of a percent in moisture) and a proper granulation does not
simply depend on the raw meal feed rate and the ratio of water to raw meal,
but is also strongly influence by the chemical and mineralogical properties of
the raw meal, the design and setting of the pelletizer and a number of other
factors.
1. PROCESS PROBLEMS AND KILN UPSET

CONDITIONS
There are a number of unfavorable situations that require special attention

and counteractions. From the great number of possible problems and upset
conditions the most important ones and their respective counteractions are
now presented. 
1.1
home
Cycling
CategoriES Contact US
Cycling is a condition, where one or more kiln parameters (but mostly the
BZT) oscillate with great amplitude around the target. This is the so-called
overshooting.
An improper kiln operation itself causes quite frequently cycling, especially if

the counteractions that are taken to bring back one or more control variables
to target are too strong. This is a well-known phenomenon in control
engineering, a general problem that exists also in other areas of control.
To inhibit a cycling of the kiln, the operation has to be smooth, i.e. any
adjustment to the control variables must be as big as necessary, but as
small as possible. A counteraction should consider not only on the actual
condition, but also have a view to the past and future changes, i.e. beside the
actual value also the trend of a certain control variable has to be considered.
To break a cycle, the kiln operation must start to counteract against one
extreme of the cycle already before it gets there. When the period of the
cycle is known, the counteraction for the following extreme should be taken
already before the half of both extremes. This reduces the amplitude of each
following cycle and brings the kiln back into stable operation.
In cycles that are caused by the kiln operation itself, the periodicity
frequently is almost the same as the retention time of the material in the
kiln.
In chapter 11 two formulas to calculate the retention time are given. With the
knowledge of this periodicity it is possible to break a cycle early.
Beside those cycles, that can be attributed to the kiln operation other factors
are also responsible. The most common ones are fluctuations of the raw
material and the fuels properties. If those fluctuations have a periodic
character, they may be counteracted in the same way as explained above. If
they are random, the operation never will be a (counter-) action at time but
always a reaction, to remedy what already happened.
Since cycling conditions have a strong negative impact on the productivity of

the kiln, all efforts must be made to achieve a stable kiln operation. Therefore
one of the most basic prerequisites are homogenous feed and fuel properties.
1.2 Coating Collapse

Coating is the protective layer of molten and resolidified liquid phases on the
refractory in the burning zone. Dependent on the properties of the raw
materials, the refractory, the fuels and the flame, this coating can be more or
less pronounced.
A coating collapse is a situation, where large parts of this coating break away
from the refractory in big lumps, due to excessive weight, large temperature
changes in the burning zone (especially sharp temperature drops),
fluctuations of the raw material properties, inadequate operation and others.
A coating collapse is detected primarily through the kiln amps. A sharp

increase in the average kiln amps indicates that suddenly a higher amount of
material has to be moved in the kiln. Constant spiking of the kiln amps may
also indicate an uneven loss of coating in one area of the kiln.
In case a kiln camera is installed, the fallen coating can also be observed
visually in the last meters before the kiln outlet. These indications help to
estimate the severity of coating loss and the magnitude of counteraction that
has to be made.
When coating falls out and the quantity is not too excessive, no adjustment is
done to the control variables. The BZT may drop slightly for a short period
but normally quickly recovers, as the coating was already closed to sintering
temperature. A coating collapse results normally in elevated free CaO values
of the clinker, since it is difficult to clinkerise the large pieces. For this reason
no attempt should be made to clinkerise the collapsed coating, as this results
only in an overheating of the entire system.
If the coating collapse is more pronounced, special attention has to be paid to

the cooler, since an excessive amount of material may overfill the cooler and
the clinker transport systems or lead to an excessive clinker end 
temperature.
If a hammer crusher is installed a close look must be given, that the coating
lumps do not overload or block the crusher, otherwise the cooler grate speed
has to be reduced.
When a cooler or clinker crusher overload is probable and the cooler grate
speed has to be reduced significantly, the kiln should be slowed down
temporarily also, in order to decrease the clinker output of the kiln and to
avoid an overfilling of the cooler at the inlet. If the situation is that severe,
that the kiln has to be slowed down for a longer period (longer than five
minutes maximum, local equipment conditions must prevail), the fuel rate,
the feed rate and the kiln draft have to be reduced.
1.3 Ring break out
In the following the counteractions after a ring break out are described.
1.3.1 Clinker ring break out
A clinker ring, which forms at the kiln outlet, is an obstacle for the clinker
causing the clinker to dam up behind this ring. If this ring breaks out, an
excessive amount of completely sintered clinker is released from the kiln.
A sharp increase of the cooler bed height (for grate coolers), a smooth
decrease of the kiln amps and a smooth increase of the secondary air
temperature indicate a break out of a clinker ring. In most cases where a kiln
camera is installed, the break out of a clinker ring can be also observed
visually.
For grate coolers: Due to the temporarily resulting higher output of the kiln, it
is often necessary to slow down the kiln, in order to avoid an overloading of
the cooler which may result in excessive clinker and waste air temperatures
or a stalling of the cooler fans.
1.3.2 Sinter, middle, meal and mud rings
Each of the different ring types has its particular location and genesis
(origin). 
However they all have in common, that they dam up the material flow. Once
a rings breaks out, an elevated amount of only partly prepared material is
released. This cools down the kiln and shifts all reaction zones downwards.
The kiln “pushes”.
The immediate detection of ring breakouts is difficult. Since unsintered
material does not influence the kiln torque significantly, the kiln amps often
do not show any change. Only if the ring was big enough that it already
constituted a considerable hindrance to the gas flow, a small decrease in the
pressure loss over the kiln may then be observed.
Because an immediate detection of a ring break outs is often difficult, only a

sharp drop of the BZT and an suddenly increased kiln output can give rise to
the suspicion that a ring has broken out earlier.
Kiln shell scanners will assist in the detection of ring formation. Likewise they
can easily indicate the gradual loss of a ring. Unfortunately they will not often
respond fast enough to indicate a ring collapse.
The counteractions to be taken depend on the size of the ring breakout and
the general kiln condition and are most likely according to cases 1-9 of the
counteractions described previously.
1.4 Hot meal rush (avalanche)
A hot meal rush or the so-called “avalanche” is a situation where the BZT
drops that much that calcined but unsintered material reaches the kiln outlet.
This situation may be caused by the kiln operation itself, by irregular feed
advancement (e.g. ring break out, temporary cyclone blockage) or by failures
of the feed or fuel feeding systems among others.
Once the hot meal has reached the kiln outlet, every effort must be made to
avoid that this meal enters the cooler. Unsintered but hot meal can cause
serious damage to the cooler grate. 
Manual operation of the cooler may also be required if the flush reaches the
cooler before corrective kiln actions can be initiated.
If the hot meal

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the kiln. The very dusty atmosphere in the kiln inhibits a proper heat transfer
of the flame towards the burning zone. Additionally the dust cools down the
flame. Since nearly no heat can be recuperated from the meal, the secondary
air temperature decreases.
All of these factors negatively impact the heat transfer and lead to a further
drop of the BZT (but an increase of the BET).
Therefore the only, but absolute obligatory counteraction is to slow down the
kiln immediately, in order to avoid dust entering the cooler and to adjust the
control variables according case 1-9 of the counteractions described before.
Most likely the kiln speed has to be reduced that much that a parallel
reduction of the kiln feed is not possible to avoid an overheating of the back
end. In these circumstances cycling can occur.
1.5 Red spot on the kiln shell
A red spot is a locally limited area of the kiln shell that is overheated.
The shell is considered to be overheated, when the surface temperature

exceeds 450°C. visible radiation on the shell surface starts at temperatures
above approximately 475°C that is why it is called a red spot.
This normally comes from a worn out refractory and the lack of any coating in
this area, resulting in a too high heat transfer from the inside to the outside
of the kiln, due to the insufficient insulation.
High shell temperatures cause a warping of the kiln shell, which consequently
inhibit proper installation of the refractory and lead to a premature failure of
the bricks, due to excessive mechanical forces. Therefore they must be
avoided at all times. 
There are several possible reasons for a hot spot.

When the bricks are already thin and the protective coating layer breaks
away, the remaining refractory does not provide sufficient insulation. Hot 
spots created by this mechanism can appear from one moment to another.
When a coating collapse occurs, the coating breaks off a layer of the
refractory and weakens the brick. This may occur also as a secondary
effect, when the refractory starts to crack due to the thermal shock the
brick suffers, when it is exposed suddenly to the full heat of the burning
zone (thermal spalling).
All type of mechanical brick failures, where parts of the refractory fall out
and leaves the shell partly or completely unprotected.
A coating loss and a local overheating of the shell may be caused by:
A too hard burning practice, which melts away the coating and washes out
the lining. The generally hot kiln transfers more heat to the shell than
usual and a hot spot may occur in those areas, where the bricks were
previously weak.
Improper alignment of the burner pipe with respect to the kiln axis.
Incorrect adjustment of axial or radial dampers, especially when too much
radial air create a too broad and bushy flame.
Snowman build-up on burner pipe which deflects air flow (or fuel) at the
burner tip towards the bricks and the kiln shell.
Poor kiln feed chemistry control resulting in periods of heavy over-burning
followed by periods of under-burning.
If the hot spot is not too big (less than ~1 m2) and if it is in the burning
zone, where the coating is, the kiln operator first of all should try to rebuild a
protective coating layer.
A common practice is to maintain the kiln warm but to permit the calcined
meal to enter periodically the affected area (e.g. by variation of the kiln
speed). This cools down the concerned hot spot slightly and the meal starts
to solidify and to stick over the damaged area. Nevertheless, special attention
has to be paid to avoid a real cool down of the burning zone, since a cold kiln

does not form coating and the following heat up during recuperation ruins the
coating and the affected kiln shell even more.
In certain cases the same effect of moving the reaction zones up and down,
which favors the build up of coating can be obtained by a periodic change of
the temperature profile of the flame. The temperature profile is changed by
regularly moving the burner into the kiln (which makes the flame longer) and
out (which makes the flame shorter). Alternately the primary air settings
(ratio of axial / radial air) can be changed, although this is rather not
recommended.
With the correct chemistry a very slightly overheated kiln will build and
maintain coating whereas a cold kiln cannot easily build or sustain coating.
An external cooling of the kiln shell in the damaged area through a fan
promotes the formation of coating also. Thereby the shell temperature is
reduced locally, which decreases also the temperature inside the kiln. The
meal or already formed clinker will solidify more likely on the cooled area
than in the hotter neighborhood.
If the mentioned measures are not effective and the situation does not
improve after a certain lapse (not more than 4 h), the kiln must be shut
down.
If the hot spot is bigger than ~1 m2 it is almost impossible to recover a

normal shell temperature through the build-up of coating. In most case the
refractory is affected already that strongly that a further detoriation of the
lining through mechanical weakness is likely.
There can be also nothing done, if the red spot occurs in an area, where no
coating is formed.
The common practice is then to shut down the kiln immediately and to
replace the damaged refractory sections completely.
A red spot located under or adjacent to a tire is cause for immediate action.
Often plant management will mandate an immediate kiln shut down.
1.6 Loss of kiln feed


A loss of feed is a situation where the kiln feed devices like feeders, auxiliary
transport or extraction equipment lead to a reduction or a total loss of the
kiln feed.
Since no heat is absorbed by the missing feed, the system starts to overheat,
which may lead to equipment failures due to overtemperature. 
Therefore ATTENTION
ATTENTION the fuel rate
!!!! and theThe
kilnmost
speed havebooks
important to be
of reduced
the Cementsignificantly
Industry
(i.e. up to 80%). As a guideline, if the normal kiln feed cannot be restored
within less than 10 minutes, the kiln has to be shut down. Tower exit
temperature must be maintained below safety set points for cyclone dip
tubes, downcomer, ID fan along with any additional downstream equipment.
The actual temperature profile must be the guide to how fast and how severe
any required adjustments are made.
2. STARTUP AND SHUTDOWN PROCEDURES
The start up and the shut down of a kiln system are the most critical phases
during kiln operation. Most serious equipment failures and accidents, which
are caused by the operation itself, happen usually during these two periods.
Therefore special caution and attention has to be paid to the kiln system
before and during start up and shut down.
2.1 Start up
When starting up a cold kiln, the general rules that have to be considered are
(list not comprehensive):
Make sure all equipment is released and cleared from maintenance people
All vessels and risers have been inspected
All process measurement instruments are available
Ensure that all inspection doors and openings are closed
The flame is supervised after lighting the burner (by a flame detector or
by eye)
The draft in the kiln is sufficient, but not excessive (overheating of the
back).
The heat up of the kiln is according a determined rate, which is given
mainly by the kiln dimension and the type of refractory (normally ~50-

70°C/h at the beginning, 60-90°C/h when the shell is already warm). A
preheating curve is recommended. Various curves can be used depending

upon several factors including type and amount of refractory replacement
within the kiln system.
The kiln is periodically turned (jogged) 100 degrees, in order to avoid
unbalanced heating of the kiln The most important books of the Cement Industry
shell. The jogging schedule should be aligned
with the preheating curve. The kiln should be turned continuously once the
BET has reached 750°C (in case of heavy rain even earlier).
Figure 13: Example of a heat up curve (4 stage PH kiln)
Occasionally introducing small amounts of kiln feed during the preheat will
help the bricks to set during heat up (especially, if the bricks are just 
installed). This will also help to prevent brick migration during periods of
continuous kiln rotation.
In case of grate coolers: make sure the first rows of the grate are covered
with clinker, run the first cooler fans already during heat-up.
In case of grate coolers: decrease (more negative) kiln hood pressure to
maintain a short flame and to avoid overdrafting of the system
In case of grate coolers: start all cooler fans before feeding the kiln.
Adjust the total cooler airflow to ~2-2.5 Nm3/kg cli. Increase the cooler
airflow proportionally with the kiln feed. Maintain also during start up the
descending pattern of the specific air distribution, which is highest at the
inlet and lowest at the outlet (graph of 7.2.1.). In many cases, the first
fans reach nominal air flow already at 70 – 80% of the nominal kiln feed
rate.
In case of grate coolers: Automatic control of the cooler fans using the
above setpoint guidelines, including the cooler waste air fan is desired
before feeding the kiln. This will ensure sufficient air volumes for
combustion.
In case of cyclones: make sure all pendulum flaps are released and all
shutoff gates are opened.
In case of cyclones: make sure the draft is sufficient when starting to feed
in order to guarantee, that the meal is not falling directly through the
risers.
Shock blasters must be online and set in the automatic mode, manual
pulsing can still be initiate should the operator require it.
Careful and close observation of the tower temperature and pressure
profile must be maintained during this very critical phase of kiln operation.
1.1 Shut down
A typical shut down procedure of a kiln is (list not comprehensive):
In case of a short-term shut down: Shut off all fuel to the system and
reduce the draft in the kiln to a minimum (avoid overheating of the back
and maintain the burning zone hot). However in some plants a
maintenance flame is re-established in order to help maintain kiln

temperature.
In case of a long-term shut down: maintain a certain draft in the kiln but
avoid overheating of the back (cool the system as fast as possible).
Turn the kiln with the auxiliary drive for 30 minutes (in case of heavy rain
fall even longer). Later on turn the kiln gradually less frequent by 100
degree, in order to avoid unbalanced cooling of the kiln shell. Unless
requested for a kiln relining: do not run the kiln empty.
In case of grate coolers: shut of the grate drive to maintain the first rows
of the grate covered with clinker; leave the first cooler fans running.
In case of cyclones: make sure all pendulum flaps are tightened and all
shutoff gates are closed.
2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
When operating a kiln the following general principles have to be kept in

mind, which are the fundamental guidelines for proper operation.
Protection of personnel and equipment
It is mandatory in kiln operation to avoid dangerous situations, where

personnel may be injured or equipment may fail, even if a production loss or
a poor quality results.
Any abnormal situation such as, but not limited to hot spots on the kiln shell,
red grates in the cooler, uncontrolled hot meal rushes or fuel spillages must
be prevented or remedied as soon as possible. The physical damage to the
equipment that may result from an acceptance of these abnormal conditions
is out of all proportion to the possible loss of clinker production that may
occur from the resulting repair works.
This applies even more, if the health or life of personnel is concerned.
Constantly good clinker quality 
The aim of clinker manufacturing is to produce a clinker that is neither

overburned nor underburned, since both extremes are detrimental for the 
cement strength. The quality, most frequently expressed as free lime content
or the liter weight, should varyThe most important books of the Cement Industry
only in a small range.
Constant clinker quality is not only significant with view to the properties of
the final product cement, but also for the following milling process
(grindability, granulometry, gypsum addition, etc.).
Smooth and stable operation
A smooth and stable kiln operation is a condition, where only very small
adjustments have to be made to the kiln system.
Smooth operation is a prerequisite for a constant and uniform clinker quality.
Running a kiln in a smooth and stable manner prolongs the lifetime of the
refractory as it enhances the stability of the coating in the burning zone. Both
directly improve the overall productivity, since fewer kiln stops are necessary
for rebricking works.
A stable kiln operation must always be preferred to a temporary maximum

production that cannot be sustained.
Therefore the same emphasis that is put to push the kiln feed up should be
applied to reduce it, if this is necessary.
By respecting this rule, the highest long-term productivity will be achieved.
Maximum thermal efficiency 
For economical and environmental reasons it is naturally the interest of every

plant, to produce each ton of clinker with a minimum amount of fuel. 
Overburning the clinker, poor combustion, and unstable operation among
many others prevents high fuelThe most important books of the Cement Industry
efficiency.
Maximum production rate
The highest average production rate is achieved, when the kiln runs stable.
Any upset condition (especially cooling of the burning zone) must be avoided.
Hence the focus must not lay only on a temporary production increase, if this
provokes a cycling kiln or carries the risk of weakening (cooling off) the
burning zone, since these situations imply a dramatic decrease of the feed
rate and lead to a loss of overall productivity.
The feed should be increased only, if the kiln can be held fundamentally
stable at a certain high production rate over some time.
3. CALCULATION OF THE RETENTION TIME
The knowledge of the retention time of the material in the kiln is of a great
importance for kiln operation.
When making adjustments to the control variables, especially during cycling

conditions, the retention time is in most kiln systems a guide for the reaction
time of the kiln, since both are almost the same.
The retention time of the material in a dry rotary kiln can be determined
mathematically in the following ways:
According Duda:
ATTENTION ATTENTION !!!! duda

The most important books of the Cement Industry
According Labahn:
According
Labahn:
With: t: Time in minutes
l: Length of kiln in meter
q: Angle of repose in degrees: 35-40 ° for clinker 0-50 mm
n: Slope of kiln in degrees (normally 1 – 2.5 °)
a: Angle of the moved material in the kiln
(tan a must be calculated from sin a = sin n / sin q)
d: Internal diameter of the kiln in meter (in-between bricks)
n: Number of revolutions per minute
F: Factor, which equals 1, if the kiln has a constant diameter
Example:
PH Kiln with the following data: 
1.PH Kiln with the following data
PC Kiln with the following data: 
now you can be kiln Operator

EnJoy
project20062015@gmail.com
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i'm sincerely satisfied, thanks to you i can improve my level
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1 OWNING AND READING MOST IMPORTANT BOOKS IN CEMENT INDUSTRY +

4.2.3 1.1.1 Kiln torque

10.3.2 1.3.2 Sinter, middle, meal and mud rings

OWNING AND READING MOST IMPORTANT BOOKS IN