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It is the type of nutrition which involves feeding on ready made complex organic food
substances.
Heterotrophs include all animals, fungi and some bacteria and protoctists.
These are 3 types of nutrition of heterotrophic nutrition, which include
Saprotrophic nutrition
Parasitic nutrition
Holozoic nutrition
1. Holozoic nutrition
Involves feeding on already made solid complex food obtained from bodies of other
organisms which is broken down inside the organism into simple molecules which are
then absorbed and assimilated.
Holozoic nutrition involves the following process:
1. Ingestion: This is intake of complex organic food into the body/gut.
2. Digestion: which is the mechanical and chemical break down of complex organic
food substances into simpler , soluble and absorbable form.
Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of complex organic food substances
into smaller and simpler particles using the chewing action of teeth and churning effect of
the stomach towards food.
Chemical digestion: which is the breakdown of complex organic food substances into
simpler, soluble and absorbable units/forms using enzymes.
3. Absorption: which is the uptake of soluble molecules from the digestive region
across a membrane and into the body tissue. The soluble food may move directly
into the blood stream and then go to the tissues.
4. Assimilation: is the utilization of the absorbed food molecules by the body to
provide either energy or materials to be incorporated into the body structures.
5. Egestion: is the elimination from the body of undigested waste food
materials/from the guts of animals.
2. Saprotrophic/saprobiont/saprophytic nutrition
Involves feeding on soluble organic food substances from the dead decaying bodies of
plants and animals. Saprotrophs include protoctists, fungi, bacteria and some animals.
Saprotrophs take already well digested soluble food substances by a process called
absorption.
Food digestion takes place outside the body of the organisms by the ecto-enzymes
secreted by the organism.
Saprotrophs create space by removing the remains of dead organisms, decompose dead
organic matter and thus facilitate nutrient cycling availing nutrients to plants.
Significance of saprophytes
Saprotrophs are involved in the recycling nutrients in an ecosystem. Hence they
increase and maintain soil fertility, by causing decay and decomposition of dead
organic matter into nutrients.
It reduces the amount of dead decaying organic matter from the ecosystem.
3. Parasitic nutrition.
Involves feeding on complex organic food derived from the body of another living
organism called the host. There is a close association between the parasite which benefits
and the host which is harmed. Food is usually in soluble form and so if a digestive system
is present, if it is very simple. A few parasites ingest solid food and there for possess
digestive systems.
Examples of parasites include some animals, flowering plants, protoctists , fungi , and
bacteria.
There are 2 types of parasites which include
a) obligate parasites
b) facultative/ partial parasites
a) Obligate parasites
These are organisms which can only live , survive and reproduce as parasites, throughout
their lives because they cannot obtain nutrients by any other means.
b)Partial or facultative parasite.
Are those that can live parasitically at some times and can freely at other times
These do survive on the organic matter of their living and dead hosts body for food
e.g. bacteria. Or these are organisms which partly survive as a parasite and partly as a
saprotrophs mainly when its host dies.
Parasites can also be categorized as
i. ectoparasites
ii. endoparasites
Ectoparasites
It is the organism or parasite which lives on the body surface of its host e.g. ticks flea,
bedbugs e.t.c
Endoparasites
a) intracellular parasites
There are endoparasites which survive in side the cells of the hosts.
b) Extracellular parasites
These are endoparasites which survive outside the cells of their hosts.
Note; most parasites feed on already well digested soluble food substances while the rest
secrete the hydrolytic digestive enzymes to catalyze the hydrolysis of the organic matter
of their hosts into simpler, soluble and absorbable forms.
4. Mutualism
Is a close association between two living organisms of different species which is
beneficial to both partners for their survival?
Mutualism is a close association between two living organisms of different species
which is beneficial to both partners, as in lichens, root nodules of legumes, mycorrhizae.
The distribution and abundance of partners in a mutualistic association shows great
interdependence and in same cases one partner cannot survive in the absence of the other.
5. Commensalism
In this close association, one member benefits while the other neither benefits nor is it
harmed. Lichens on the bark of the tree
The distribution of the commensal depends on that is its host, while that of the host is
totally unaffected by that of the comensal.
Diet
1. carbohydrates
These include sugars and starch (a polysaccharide) carbohydrates are major energy
sources but sugars are also building blocks of more complex molecules i.e. nucleic
acids, nucleotides (i.e. ATP, NAD) and glycogen. Carbohydrates are made up of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen . Carbohydrates mainly provide energy.
2. proteins
These are mainly used for growth and repair. They can also be used as an energy
source. Proteins are made of amino acids and are of 2 types
i) Essential amino acids is the one which must be included in the diet because either
it cant be made in the body at all or it is made too slowly to meet the bodys needs.
8 of 20 amino acids are essential for adult human and ten for infants. Proteins rich in
essential amino acids are called first class protein. They are most commonly animal
protein but soya protein is a rich source for vegetarians. Other proteins are referred to as
second class proteins
3. fats
Are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Fatty tissues form a convenient long —
term energy sources. Fats in the diet may also be a source of fat — soluble vitamins. (A,
D, E, K).
Fats are made of glycerol and 3 fatty acids. Fatty acids are either saturated or unsaturated.
Saturated fatty acids are common in fats and are linked with cardiovascular disease.
Essential fatty acid is one which must be included in the diet coz it cannot be made in the
body. Two are strictly essential i.e. linoleic acid and alpha linolenic acid. They are both
polyunsaturated fatty acids
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds required in small quantities for good health. They
cannot be made within the body so must be present in the diet. vitamins are either water
soluble i.e. B and C or fat soluble i.e. A, D, E, K. whereas excess water soluble vitamins
are simply excreted in urine , fat — soluble vitamins tend to accumulate in fatty tissues of
the body and may even build up to let hal concentrations if taken in excess.
Minerals
Minerals are inorganic and needed for a wide range of functions. seven minerals are
needed in only trace amounts for good health and these are known as trace elements they
include manganese , copper , zinc and iodine. Only tiny quantities of trace elements are
required in the daily diet.
Diet
In mammals; carbohydrates and fats are needed in relatively large quantities as sources of
energy, and proteins are needed in large amounts for growth and repair. Vitamins and
minerals are required in much smaller quantities for a variety of specific functions. Water
is a vital constituents of the diet and dietary fibre (roughage) is necessary for efficient
digestion.
Principles of digestion
The teeth are involved in breakdown of food into small pieces. This mechanical
breakdown also has the effect of giving food a larger surface area for enzymatic activity.
The food must in any case, be made small enough to pass across cell membranes. This
breakdown is mainly achieved through hydrolysis reactions speeded up by enzymes and
is termed chemical digestion.
Enzymes are needed to completely breakdown a large macromolecule and one enzyme
breaks up molecules into smaller sections and others reduce these parts into their basic
components.
Protein molecules being larger and more varied require groups of enzymes to digest
them. These are called peptidases. One group hydrolyses the peptide bonds between
amino acids in the central region of molecules, these are endo-peptidases. Another group
then hydrolyses the peptide bonds on the terminal amino acids of these portions ,
progressively reducing them to their individual amino acids and these are exo-peptidase
and of two types
Amino peptidases; work at the end of the chain that has an amino acid with a free amino
(-NH2) group where the amino acid has a free carboxyl group (-COOH).
Food digestion begins from the buccal cavity and finalized in the ileum.
In the mouth/buccal cavity food is mechanically by the chewing action of the teeth
(mastication)
Chewing of the food facilitates mixing of food with saliva, in order for it to be softened
and rolled into a bolus for easy swallowing.
Chewing of food helps also to break down the large particles into smaller particles to
increase the surface area for their maximum chemical digestion by the enzymes.
When salivary glands secrete saliva, its used for
1. it contains water and mucus that softens food for easy swallowing
2. it contains mucus that enables the food particles to be stack together for easy
swallowing
3. Saliva contains salivary amylase (ptyalin) enzyme, which catalyses the hydrolyses
of starch into maltose. ptyalin requires neutral or slightly alkaline PH
4. Saliva is used for lubrication of food to enhance its movement through the
Oesophagus, without friction.
5. It also contains lysozyme that kills bacteria in the cavity by catalyzing the
breakdown of their walls.
Swallowing of food
During food swallowing, the tongue contracts and forces the bolus against the soft palate
meanwhile as a reflex action; the glottis is closed by the epiglottis to prevent food from
entering and blocking the trachea.
The bolus moves down the pharynx and enters into the oesophagus.
The oesophagus has circular and longitudinal muscles that allow peristaltic movement of
bolus from the buccal cavity into the stomach. Behind the bolus the circular muscles
contract, squeeze the bolus forward by making the lumen constricted, infront of the bolus,
the longitudinal muscles contract to widen the lumen.
In case some food particles enter the trachea via the glottis as a reflex mechanism the
individual coughs and forces the particles out the respiratory track.
Thats why gaseous exchange or breathing is momentally suspended during food
swallowing,
When the food (bolus) enters the oesophagus, it moves down to the stomach by
peristalsis. Peristalsis is the wave like movement of food within the gut, due to alternate
contraction of the circular and longitudinal muscles, as shown below
A DIAGRAM SHOWING PERISTALTIC MOVT OF THE BOLUS THROUGH
THE OESOPHAGUS
From the oesophagus, the bolus enters into the stomach, due to the relaxation the cardiac
sphincter.
1. Activate the conversion of pepsinogen and prorennin into pepsin and rennin
respectively.
2. Starting chemical digestion of sucrose into glucose and fructose.
3. Killing the microbes which come along with food.
4. Providing the suitable acidic PH medium needed by pepsin and rennin to carry
out their catalytic functions.
5. Denatures proteins to unfold them for their fast digestion by pepsin and other
proteases.
Role of stomach
As the food is being chemically digested in the stomach, it is also being
mechanically digested by churning action of the stomach into a semi- fluid/
liquid acidic substance called chyme due to the peristaltic contractions of the
stomach walls into the duodenum for its maximum chemical digestion.
For temporary food storage
Has peptic cells which secret pepsinogen, then activated by HCl to active pepsin
which catalyses the hydrolysis of protein to short polypeptide or peptides
Has peptic cell which secrete prorennin.
Has goblet cells which secretes mucus for lubrication of food
Has oxyntic cells which secrete HCl to provide optimum acidic PH for pepsin to
catalyze the hydrolysis of proteins.
It also serves an endocrine role of secreting gastrin hormone which stimulates
the gastric glands to secrete gastric juice.
The carbonic acid dissociates liberating hydrogen ions/H+ and hydrogen carbonate
ions/HCO3- .
Secretin hormone
Which is used to stimulate the liver to secrete bile and
It also stimulates the pancreas to secrete the non enzymatic substances of the
pancreatic juice e.g. sodium hydrogen carbonate, and potassium hydroxide to
neutralize the acidic chyme from the stomach.
Prevents HCl secretion in the oxyntic cells/parietal walls in the stomach.
Enterogastrone hormone
It inhibits further secretion of the hydrochloric acid by the oxyntic cells within the
stomach. This is because pancreatic enzymes require an alkaline PH and can be
inactivated or denatured by the acidic PH.
In the walls of the duodenum are Brunners glands which secrete alkaline fluid
(NaHCO3) for providing a suitable alkaline PH for the pancreatic enzymes activity.
They also to neutralize acidic chyme to provide an optimum PH=7.5-8-5 for pancreatic
enzyme.
Brunners glands also secrete mucus to prevent autolysis of its walls and also to offer
lubrication towards food movement.
Bile
Bile juice is temporarily stored in the gall bladder and poured directly into duodenum
through the bile duct.
When bile is secreted it flows down the bile duct to the duodenum. Bile is composed of
water, excess carbondioxide, and bile pigments. I.e.bilirubin and biliverdin, sodium
hydrogen carbonates and bile salts (sodium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate)
Bile salts:
Inside the duodenum, bile salts.i.e sodium taurocholate and sodium glycocholate .are
used for fat emulsification
During fat emulsification the bile salts physically breakdown fats into fine droplets by
lowering their surface tension, which increases their surface area for their effective
chemical digestion by the lipases
Bile pigments:-
These are bilirubin and biliverdin resulting from break down of haemoglobin in the liver.
The pigments do not take part in digestion but give characteristic colour of faeces.
Mineral salts ( NaHCO3 ):-
These neutralize the acid chyme from the stomach and so create more neutral PH for the
enzymes of the small intestine to catalysis reaction in effectively.
Bile also contains water ( 98%)
Pancreatic enzymes
Inside the duodenum the pancreatic enzymes hydrolyze different food substances as
shown below;
pancreatic lipase which catalyses the hydrolysis of fats into fatty acids and
glycerol
pancreatic amylase which catalyses the hydrolysis starch into maltose
nucleases which catalyses the hydrolysis nucleic acid(DNA and RNA) into
nucleotides
trypsin which catalyses the hydrolysis polypeptides/proteins into peptides
Chymotrypsin which catalyses the hydrolysis polypeptides into peptides.
Elastase which catalyses the hydrolysis of proteins into peptides/short
polypeptide.
Peptidase which catalyses the hydrolysis of shorter peptides to amino acids.
Carboxy- peptidases which catalyses the hydrolysis peptides/protein into amino
acids
Trypsin and chymotrypsin are secreted in their inactive form precursor trypsinogen and
chymotrypsinogen respectively.
Trypsinogen is activated into trypsin, by enterokinase enzyme, while chymotrypsinogen
is activated chymotrypsin by trypsin.
These enzymes are secreted in their inactive forms, in order to prevent them from
digesting and damaging the proteinous duodenal walls.
Into the ileum
When the food leaves, the duodenum, it moves into the ileum. The presence of food in
the ileum stimulates the intestinal glands known as crypts of leiberkuhn located within
the mucosa to secrete intestinal juice/succus entricus, mucus and alkaline fluid.
Note Its the enterocrinin hormone which stimulates the intestinal walls to secrete the
intestinal juice (succus entericus) which contains:-
The water — soluble materials e.g. glucose, amino acids , salts and water soluble
vitamins are absorbed into the blood capillaries via the thin epithelial wall, by mainly
active transport using energy from hydrolysis of ATP manufactured by the
mitochondria within the epithelial cells of the villi and by diffusion into the blood
capillaries to venules and eventually into the hepatic portal vein to the liver.
Fatty acids and glycerol first diffuse into the thin epithelial cells of the villi where they
re-combine to form neutral fats which then coat with proteins to form lipoproteins known
as chylomicrons.these by exocytosis enter into the lacteal from the epithelial cells and
offer them a characteristic milky appearance. The chylomicrons are transported by the
thoracic duct into the left subclavian vein, in which plasma lipases catalyses their
hydrolysis into fatty acids and glycerol which are then taken to the liver.
Water is absorbed into the blood capillaries by osmosis
Salts are absorbed by diffusion into the blood capillaries.
Diagram showing the villus
Assimilation of food
After its absorption the soluble food materials are utilized by the body tissues for various
functions as shown below.
Proteins/amino acids
They are used for
Formation of the protoplasm of the body tissues hence important for growth.
Formation of certain body structures e.g. walls , hairs, nails, muscles
Formation of enzymes
Formation of some hormones
For regulation of a constant normal PH of the body fluids
Formation of antibodies for defense of the body against infections
Transportation of certain metabolites of the body.
Formation of energy during severe starvation.
Excess proteins can be deaminated into ammonia by liver cells which are
eventually converted into less toxic and soluble urea.
transport of materials across the cell membrane
body repair
Carbohydrates (glucose)
Energy formation during tissue respiration
Anus
The anus is the opening via which the feaces are egested out of the gut, due to relaxation
of its anal sphincters
The feaces (egesta) consists of undigested food, and some excretory materials i.e.
cholesterols and the bile pigments i.e. bilrubin and biliverdin.
Food digestion is controlled by controlling the secretion of digestive juices by the gut
under hormonal and nervous influence.
Secretion of digestive enzymes is an energy consuming process and it would be
extremely wasteful if the body produces them constantly , in absence of food.
The presence of food in the buccal cavity, its swallowing, taste, and smell, sight and
thought of food induces the firing of impulses from the brain to the gastric glands via the
vagus nerve. The gastric glands of the stomach are stimulated to secrete gastric juice.
This takes place before food has reached the stomach and prepares it to receive the food.
The nervous phase of gastric secretion lasts for approximately one hour.
Hydrochloric acid and gastric enzymes are secreted before food reaches the stomach.
Some impulses from the brain flow along the vagus nerve to the liver and pancreas,
where the liver is stimulated to secrete bile while the pancreas secretes pancreatic juice.
Gastric phase
It involves both nervous and hormonal control.
The presence of food in the stomach causes the stomach walls to become stretched
causing expansion of the stomach walls. This stimulates the stretch receptors in the walls
of the stomach to send/fire nerve impulses to the meissners plexus of the submucosa
which in turn sends nerve impulses to the gastric glands which respond by which
secreting gastric juice.
Some of the impulses from the stretch receptors due to distension of the stomach walls
also stimulate the endocrine cells within the stomach walls to secrete gastrin hormone
into the blood stream, which stimulates the gastric glands to secrete gastric juice which is
reach in hydrochloric acid for about four hours.
Impulses from the stretch receptors some are sent to the liver to secrete bile and pancreas
to secrete pancreatic juice.
The products of peptic digestion are also efficient in gastric release.
Intestinal phase
This takes place in the small intestine.
When acidified food (chyme) enters and makes contact with the walls of the small
intestines, the stretch receptors and chemoreceptors within the intestinal /duodenal walls
become stimulated and via the reflexes of the brain, fire impulses to the gastric gland
which inhibits further secretion of gastric juice and slows down the release of chyme
/food from the stomach to the duodenum. This prevents too much food from being
released into the small intestine at once.
This serves to prevent secretion of HCl by the oxyntic cells and its flow to the duodenum.
It also regulates the amount of food which leaves the stomach into the duodenum for
efficient digestion.
The presence of food in the ileum stimulates the intestinal walls to secrete enterocrinin
hormone into the blood stream which stimulates the intestinal glands/walls to secrete
intestinal juice called succus entericus
a. Herbivores
Digestion in ruminants
Food in the ruminant mammals is first passed the largest chamber called the rumen,
where a huge population of anaerobic cellulase — secreting bacteria are located.
These begin the fermentation of cellulose and fermentation of food continues to the
reticulum and later the partially digested food (cud is regurgitated antiperistaltically via
the oesophagus, back to the mouth.
Rumination or chewing the cud takes to provide a large surface area and for effective
mechanical break down of cellulose in order for it to be chemically digested by cellulose
enzyme secreted by the cellolytic bacteria.
After it has been rechewed, the semi-fluid cud is directed to the omasum, where water is
removed osmotically absorbed.
From the omasum food (cud) goes to the abomasums (true stomach) where the gastric
juice is secreted for hydrolysis of proteins in the cud.
Note
The bacterial fermentation of cellulose in the rumen produce s products like sugars,
methane, carboxylic acids e.g. ethanoic acid, CO2.
The gases (CO2 and methane) are belched out while the carboxylic acids are absorbed via
the stomach walls into the blood stream.
The biggest amount of sugars is also absorbed into the blood stream of the herbivore, but
the small amount of sugars is used by the bacteria for the energy formation.
Apart from obtaining food, the bacteria is provided with shelter i.e. (the rumen of the
stomach). The association between the ruminants and the cellulolytic bacteria where both
partners mutually benefit is known mutualism.
Herbivorous insects
Herbivorous insects use mandibles to grind and crush the plant food materials. The
mandibles have serrated edge for cutting through leaves and blades of grass..
Drawing showing mandibles.
Carnivorous animals.
Carnivores have adapted for capturing the pray which include;
high speed movement ( high acuity )
Sharp senses of smell.
Some have sharp talon and claws for capturing the prey
Carnivorous mammals have well developed sharp — pointed conical canine teeth
Octopus and squids have sucker — bearing tentacles.
Hydra , jelly fishes and other coelenterates have tentacles with stinging cells
(nematoblasts)
Once capture prey can be dealt with in one the following ways.
The whole prey can be swallowed , there by taking along time to be digested and
absorbed e.g. boa constrictors and pythons , hydra
CARNIVOROUS PLANTS
These are autotrophic plants, which inhabits area deficient of nutrients, mainly nitrates.
These plants obtain their nutrients (nitrates) by a special mechanism of tripping, killing
and digesting insects using a fluid rich in protease enzymes.
These plants attract the insects using colour, scent or sugary bait.
The amino acids obtained from digestion of insects, proteins are absorbed into the plant.
Different plant species trap the insects, using different method.
e.g
Butter worts use sticky leaves.
bladder worts use elaborate sacs
Pitcher plants use pitcher — shaped leaves.
the venus fly-trap use infolding leaves with spikes along the free edges and a
hinge — like midrib
Carnivorous plants feed by photosynthesis
LIQUID FEEDERS
These are animals, which either feed on the well digested food from their host by
absorbing it straight the integument (i.e. absorbers) or may feed on blood or plant juices
by sucking them using a sharp proboscis i.e. (suckers)
Liquid feeders there fore are categorized under absorbers and suckers.
Because absorbers feed on already well digested food, they do not need digestive
enzymes and even lack gut.
Microphagous feeders
Feeds on tinny food particles suspended in water.e.g.anodonta (mussel), paramecia, and
rotifer
Challenges faced by microphagous feeders
Collecting the tiny particles
Filtering and sorting them out
Concentrating the tiny particles using appendages and cilia
Gills use large volume of mucus which traps the particles.
Saprophytes are organisms which obtain energy from dead remains of other organisms.
b) Compare saprophytes and parasites
Similarities
Both are heterotropic
Both absorb solube food
Both have simple digestive systems where they are present
Both have sexual and asexual phases in reproduction
Both have resistance stages in their life cycle
Both produce large number of offsprings
Differences
Parasites saprophytes
Energy is derived from living organism Energy is derived from dead organism
Have many stages in the life cycle Usually have a single adult stage plus
sporulation
Very specific to their hosts Use avariety of food sources
Nutritionally highly adapted Simple methods of nutrition
Most plant and animal groups have Almost only bacteria and fungi
representation
Most of them respire aerobically They respire aerobically and
anaerobically
Importance of saprophytes
Recycling of materials .e.g..carbon cycle
Brewing and baking e.g. yeast
Making antibiotics e.g. penicillin
Decomposition of wastes such as sewage
Production of yogurt and cheese
Carnivore Herbivore
Adaptations Well-developed sense of smell for Upper jaw lacks incisors to provide a
for finding locating prey hard pad against which lower incisors
and capturing Fast moving to outpace and capture prey press and cut grass.
prey Well-built body to manipulate and Tongue is highly muscular for
(carnivores) capture prey. manipulating food during chewing.
or grazing / Very sharp claws for gripping and killing
browsing prey.
(herbivores) Keen eye sight for locating prey from a
distance
Foot pads enable stealth movement to
ambush prey.
Long, sticky tongue for reaching distant
prey e.g. toads.
Elongated canines for digging up prey e.g.
walrus
Adaptations Sharp pointed canines for tearing the Molars and premolars are ridged for
for ingesting fresh of prey maximum grinding of hard cellulose
the food Flat molars to crush prey materials.
COMMON PARASITES
Definitive host (final host / primary host): a host in which a parasite attains sexual maturity.
Intermediate host (secondary host): a host in which a parasite passes one or more of its asexual
stages; usually designated first and second, if there is more than one.
Figure 1 Figure 2
The eggs kept in 0.8% saline for 6 hours as in figure 3 above were removed, divided equally into
four lots and placed in a range of saline solutions for a further 6 hours. The results are as shown
in table 1 below:
Table 1
Figure 3
Salinity (%) Total hatch after 6 hours (%)
0.0 100
0.2 40
0.4 20
0.6 8
(a) Comment on the effect of temperature on hatching of Schistosoma mansoni eggs. (7 marks)
(b) Explain the effect of light on percentage hatch of eggs. (6 marks)
(c) What is the effect of salinity on percentage hatch of the eggs? (4 marks)
(d) From the data presented and restricting yourself to egg stage only, discuss adaptations of S.
mansoni to its mode of life. (10 marks)
(e) (i) Name the disease caused by this blood fluke to man (1 mark)
(ii) Explain how the spread of disease can be controlled (4 marks)
(f)(i)Explain the physiological challenges facing human endo-parasites and how they are
overcome (6 marks)
(ii) What are the benefits of parasitic nutrition to organisms that exhibit it? (2 marks)
PROBABLE SOLUTIONS
(a) Comment on the effect of temperature on the hatching of the eggs of Schistosoma
mansoni. (7 marks)
At constant light, salinity and temperature of 280C; eggs hatched rapidly; to completion;
(f)(i) Explain the physiological challenges facing human endo-parasites and how they are
overcome
(Any 3, @ challenge — 1 mark, how overcome — 1 mark = 06 marks)
Challenge How it is overcome
Digestion by the hosts enzymes; Development of thick cuticle/secretion of inhibitory
substances /mucus
Osmotic changes in the habitat; Increased chemosensitivity in order to equilibrate with
host
Inhibitory chemical Secretion of anti-inhibitory substances;
environment; Ability to respire anaerobically;
Anaerobic conditions;
EXAMPLES OF SAPROTROPHS
(i) Saprobes: fungi like mushrooms, yeasts and moulds
(ii) Saprophytes: saprotrophic plants e.g. sugar stick, gnome plant, Indian-pipe and putrefying
bacteria which convert complex organic substances into simpler compounds e.g. Zygomonas
bacterium ferments glucose producing alcohol, lactic acid and carbon dioxide, Clostridium
aceto-butylicum forms butyl alcohol from carbohydrates, Lactobacillus converts sugars into
lactic acid.
(iii) Saprophages: Animal scavengers, such as dung beetles and vultures
Differences
Parasites Saprophytes IMPORTANCE OF
SAPROPHYTES
The alga/bacteria contributes organic food from photosynthesis, provides the fungus with
oxygen for respiration from photosynthesis. And protects the fungus from high light
intensity.
(b) Comparisons of mutualism and parasitism similarities
Both are relationships between living organisms of different species
In both associations the organisms do not kill each other usually
In both associations the organisms tend to be highly specific to each other.
DIFFERENCES
MUTUALISM PARASITISM
Both partners benefit from the association. Only one partner/the parasite benefits from the
association
None of the partners suffers harm One of the organisms/the host suffers
harm/losses/may die
Partners depend on each other for many Benefits of parasite from host is mostly
other benefits other than nutrition nutritional
Gastrin; stimulates gastric glands to secrete gastric juice rich in hydrochloric acid.
Secretin;
Inhibits secretion of gastric juice
Stimulates production of hydrogen carbonate ions in the pancreas and liver,
making pancreatic juice and bile more alkaline, neutralizing the acid from the
stomach.
Trypsinogen which, when converted to trypsin under catalysis of enterokinase from the
microvilli catalyses the hydrolysis of proteins in to smaller polypeptides and more
trypsinogen into trypsin.
Gastric by the epithelium, within the stomach walls, the surface epithelium is infolded to
give numerous cubulous glands called gastric pits.
It also contains the chief cells also called the peptic cells which secrete pepsinate and
prorenin. It also contains the goblet called mucus secreting cells which secrete the
mucus.
The rhythmical contraction of the stomach pounds the food into a semi fluid state called
chume, water, vitamins, mineral salt.
Mucus sticks the food particles together turning into a bolus is swallowed. The mineral
salts in saliva provide an alkaline medium which provides a suitable pH of 7 for the
action salivary amylase.
The chloride ions act as activators for salivary amylase part form digestive functions,
saliva protects the delicate membranes in the mouth by keeping it moist, cleaning the
teeth and destroying bacteria in the mouth using the enzyme lysozyme and moistening
the tongue making speech pors and since the bolus is formed, the tongue forces it again.
Soft palate ans swallowing takes place. Swallowing is a co reflex activity which occurs
automatically.
These serve to churn and mix food with digestive juice once food enters the stomach, its
churned by rhythmic of contraction which pass along the stomach thereby reduce it into
finer particles which increases the surface are and which enzymes act. This forms the
physical digestion to the stomach.
Chemical digestion within the stomach occurs by within the gastric juice produced by
gastric glands. The secretion of gastric juice is also a reflection stimulated by site, smell
taste and physical presence of in the stomach. These stimulate the secretion of the
hormone thicken into structures called sphincters. When these relax or contract e.g.
control the movement of food from one part of the elementary canal to another.
They are found at the junction of the oesophagus and the stomach forming the cardiac
sphincter and at the stomach and duodenum forming the pylonic sphincter, at the ileum
and cecarm and antion between the longitudinal and circular muscle layers is the over
bact is plexus which consts of nerves from autonomic nervous sub mucosa is another
nerve plexus called the meissners plexus. This control secretion from glands to the gut
walls. Alebachs plexus controls persistalisis.
THE SEROSA
This is the outermost layer which has connective tissue. It protects the rest of the gut
from friction which other parts of the abdomen its surrounded by an epithelium which
lines the abdominal cavity. Its function is to prevent friction when the gut wall slides
over the portions of itself on other organism. Muscin put particles together in the mouth.
Within the mouth, there is a tongue which has numerous muscles; this moves food
around the mouth, thereby mixing it properly by the saliva.
The tongue has taste buds which stimulate the production of saliva by the reflex action.
The flow to saliva is controlled by the taste of the food and sight of food.
Saliva contains mineral ions like potassium buscarbonate, Na+, chloride ions etc. It also
contains an enzyme called salivary amylase also called pylatin which hydrolyses the
polysaccharide like starch to disaccharides like maltose. Saliva also contains water.
ALIMENARY CANAL
This is a continuous muscular tube that runs from the mouth to the anus. The gut begins
in the mouth and the buccal cavity followed by the pharynx, the esophagus, the stomach,
the small in testiness made up et the duodenum and ileum.
The large intestines consisting of caecum bearing the appendix, the colon and rectum,
terminating at the anus. While each different portion on the digestion track possesses its
own special characteristics all conform to a basic common structure which consists of 4
distinct layers in their walls and these include;
i. The mucosa.
ii. The sub mucosa.