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HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

It is the type of nutrition which involves feeding on ready made complex organic food
substances.
Heterotrophs include all animals, fungi and some bacteria and protoctists.
These are 3 types of nutrition of heterotrophic nutrition, which include
 Saprotrophic nutrition
 Parasitic nutrition
 Holozoic nutrition
1. Holozoic nutrition

Involves feeding on already made solid complex food obtained from bodies of other
organisms which is broken down inside the organism into simple molecules which are
then absorbed and assimilated.
Holozoic nutrition involves the following process:
1. Ingestion: This is intake of complex organic food into the body/gut.
2. Digestion: which is the mechanical and chemical break down of complex organic
food substances into simpler , soluble and absorbable form.
Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of complex organic food substances
into smaller and simpler particles using the chewing action of teeth and churning effect of
the stomach towards food.
Chemical digestion: which is the breakdown of complex organic food substances into
simpler, soluble and absorbable units/forms using enzymes.
3. Absorption: which is the uptake of soluble molecules from the digestive region
across a membrane and into the body tissue. The soluble food may move directly
into the blood stream and then go to the tissues.
4. Assimilation: is the utilization of the absorbed food molecules by the body to
provide either energy or materials to be incorporated into the body structures.
5. Egestion: is the elimination from the body of undigested waste food
materials/from the guts of animals.

2. Saprotrophic/saprobiont/saprophytic nutrition

Involves feeding on soluble organic food substances from the dead decaying bodies of
plants and animals. Saprotrophs include protoctists, fungi, bacteria and some animals.
Saprotrophs take already well digested soluble food substances by a process called
absorption.
Food digestion takes place outside the body of the organisms by the ecto-enzymes
secreted by the organism.

Saprophytic bacteria and fungi


The filamentous fungi e.g. mucor use the tip of their Rooting hyphae to secrete the
digestive enzymes into the decaying organic matter, which then hydrolyze the complex
dead organic matter of plants and animals into simpler, soluble and absorbable forms
outside the body. The soluble products of digestion are then absorbed into the cells of the
hyphae. The enzymes are then called ecto-enzymes.

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Saprotrophism involves the consumption of complex organic food from the bodies of
dead or decaying organisms. Many fungi and bacteria ate saprotrophs. Saprotrophs
secrete enzymes onto their food, where it is digested externally and absorb and assimilate
the soluble end-products.

Saprotrophs create space by removing the remains of dead organisms, decompose dead
organic matter and thus facilitate nutrient cycling availing nutrients to plants.
Significance of saprophytes
 Saprotrophs are involved in the recycling nutrients in an ecosystem. Hence they
increase and maintain soil fertility, by causing decay and decomposition of dead
organic matter into nutrients.
 It reduces the amount of dead decaying organic matter from the ecosystem.

Such organisms (saprotrophs) are referred to as decomposers.

3. Parasitic nutrition.
Involves feeding on complex organic food derived from the body of another living
organism called the host. There is a close association between the parasite which benefits
and the host which is harmed. Food is usually in soluble form and so if a digestive system
is present, if it is very simple. A few parasites ingest solid food and there for possess
digestive systems.

Examples of parasites include some animals, flowering plants, protoctists , fungi , and
bacteria.
There are 2 types of parasites which include
a) obligate parasites
b) facultative/ partial parasites

a) Obligate parasites

These are organisms which can only live , survive and reproduce as parasites, throughout
their lives because they cannot obtain nutrients by any other means.
b)Partial or facultative parasite.
Are those that can live parasitically at some times and can freely at other times
These do survive on the organic matter of their living and dead hosts body for food
e.g. bacteria. Or these are organisms which partly survive as a parasite and partly as a
saprotrophs mainly when its host dies.
Parasites can also be categorized as
i. ectoparasites
ii. endoparasites

Ectoparasites
It is the organism or parasite which lives on the body surface of its host e.g. ticks flea,
bedbugs e.t.c
Endoparasites

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These are parasites which exist inside the body of its host e.g the gut parasites,
schistomsomes, plasmodia e.t.c
Endoparasites can be classified into;
a) Intracellular parasites
b) Extracellular parasites

a) intracellular parasites
There are endoparasites which survive in side the cells of the hosts.

b) Extracellular parasites
These are endoparasites which survive outside the cells of their hosts.

Note; most parasites feed on already well digested soluble food substances while the rest
secrete the hydrolytic digestive enzymes to catalyze the hydrolysis of the organic matter
of their hosts into simpler, soluble and absorbable forms.

4. Mutualism
Is a close association between two living organisms of different species which is
beneficial to both partners for their survival?
Mutualism is a close association between two living organisms of different species
which is beneficial to both partners, as in lichens, root nodules of legumes, mycorrhizae.
The distribution and abundance of partners in a mutualistic association shows great
interdependence and in same cases one partner cannot survive in the absence of the other.

Example include lichens, mycorrhiza, cellulolytic bacteria (secrete cellulose enzyme)


and herbivorous mammals.
Lichens is a mutualistic association between a fungus and an alga which is beneficial to
both partners whereby the alga obtains water, mineral salts, mechanical support and
protection from high light intensity from the fungus. While the fungus benefits by
obtaining oxygen and food from the photosynthetic alga.
Mycorrhiza is a mutualistic association between a fungus and plant roots, whereby the
fungus benefits by obtaining food from the plant roots and yet the plants benefits by
obtaining a large amount of water and mineral salts absorbed by the dense network of the
rooting hyphae of the fungus from a large distant area which cant be absorbed by the root
hairs.
They also obtain protection from mechanical and microbial damages offered by the
fungus. The fungus digests lignin, cellulose and pectin in soils and the products of their
digestion are by the plant roots.

5. Commensalism
In this close association, one member benefits while the other neither benefits nor is it
harmed. Lichens on the bark of the tree

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Commensalism is a close association between two living organisms of different species
which is beneficial to one (the commensal) and does not affect the other (the host). For
example, the colonial hydozoan Hydractinia attaches itself to wholk shells inhabited by
hermit carbs. Hydractibia obtains nourishment from the scraps of food left by the crab
after it has eaten and sop the crab is totally unaffected by the association.

The distribution of the commensal depends on that is its host, while that of the host is
totally unaffected by that of the comensal.

Diet
1. carbohydrates
These include sugars and starch (a polysaccharide) carbohydrates are major energy
sources but sugars are also building blocks of more complex molecules i.e. nucleic
acids, nucleotides (i.e. ATP, NAD) and glycogen. Carbohydrates are made up of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen . Carbohydrates mainly provide energy.
2. proteins
These are mainly used for growth and repair. They can also be used as an energy
source. Proteins are made of amino acids and are of 2 types
i) Essential amino acids is the one which must be included in the diet because either
it cant be made in the body at all or it is made too slowly to meet the bodys needs.
8 of 20 amino acids are essential for adult human and ten for infants. Proteins rich in
essential amino acids are called first class protein. They are most commonly animal
protein but soya protein is a rich source for vegetarians. Other proteins are referred to as
second class proteins

3. fats

Are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Fatty tissues form a convenient long —
term energy sources. Fats in the diet may also be a source of fat — soluble vitamins. (A,
D, E, K).
Fats are made of glycerol and 3 fatty acids. Fatty acids are either saturated or unsaturated.
Saturated fatty acids are common in fats and are linked with cardiovascular disease.
Essential fatty acid is one which must be included in the diet coz it cannot be made in the
body. Two are strictly essential i.e. linoleic acid and alpha linolenic acid. They are both
polyunsaturated fatty acids

Uses of essential fatty ac ids


1. manufacture of phospholipids
2. transport , breakdown and excretion of cholesterol

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3. linolenic acid may inhibit the blood clotting associated with atherosclerosis and
reduces risk of heart attack
4. for manufacture of other fatty acids i.e. prostaglandins
5. linolenic acids is needed for normal development and functioning of retina and
brain

Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds required in small quantities for good health. They
cannot be made within the body so must be present in the diet. vitamins are either water
soluble i.e. B and C or fat soluble i.e. A, D, E, K. whereas excess water soluble vitamins
are simply excreted in urine , fat — soluble vitamins tend to accumulate in fatty tissues of
the body and may even build up to let hal concentrations if taken in excess.

Minerals
Minerals are inorganic and needed for a wide range of functions. seven minerals are
needed in only trace amounts for good health and these are known as trace elements they
include manganese , copper , zinc and iodine. Only tiny quantities of trace elements are
required in the daily diet.

Diet
In mammals; carbohydrates and fats are needed in relatively large quantities as sources of
energy, and proteins are needed in large amounts for growth and repair. Vitamins and
minerals are required in much smaller quantities for a variety of specific functions. Water
is a vital constituents of the diet and dietary fibre (roughage) is necessary for efficient
digestion.

Principles of digestion

The teeth are involved in breakdown of food into small pieces. This mechanical
breakdown also has the effect of giving food a larger surface area for enzymatic activity.
The food must in any case, be made small enough to pass across cell membranes. This
breakdown is mainly achieved through hydrolysis reactions speeded up by enzymes and
is termed chemical digestion.
Enzymes are needed to completely breakdown a large macromolecule and one enzyme
breaks up molecules into smaller sections and others reduce these parts into their basic
components.

Protein molecules being larger and more varied require groups of enzymes to digest
them. These are called peptidases. One group hydrolyses the peptide bonds between
amino acids in the central region of molecules, these are endo-peptidases. Another group
then hydrolyses the peptide bonds on the terminal amino acids of these portions ,
progressively reducing them to their individual amino acids and these are exo-peptidase
and of two types
Amino peptidases; work at the end of the chain that has an amino acid with a free amino
(-NH2) group where the amino acid has a free carboxyl group (-COOH).

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Fats being smaller are broken down to fatty acids and mono-glycerides (a single fatty
acid linked to a glycerol) by the one enzymes lipase. Food moves along the alimentary
canal by peristalsis.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF MAN

DIGESTION OF FOOD IN MAN

Food digestion begins from the buccal cavity and finalized in the ileum.
In the mouth/buccal cavity food is mechanically by the chewing action of the teeth
(mastication)
Chewing of the food facilitates mixing of food with saliva, in order for it to be softened
and rolled into a bolus for easy swallowing.
Chewing of food helps also to break down the large particles into smaller particles to
increase the surface area for their maximum chemical digestion by the enzymes.
When salivary glands secrete saliva, its used for
1. it contains water and mucus that softens food for easy swallowing
2. it contains mucus that enables the food particles to be stack together for easy
swallowing
3. Saliva contains salivary amylase (ptyalin) enzyme, which catalyses the hydrolyses
of starch into maltose. ptyalin requires neutral or slightly alkaline PH
4. Saliva is used for lubrication of food to enhance its movement through the
Oesophagus, without friction.
5. It also contains lysozyme that kills bacteria in the cavity by catalyzing the
breakdown of their walls.

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Secretion of saliva by the salivary gland is initiated by smell, sight, though, taste, and
expectation of food.

Swallowing of food
During food swallowing, the tongue contracts and forces the bolus against the soft palate
meanwhile as a reflex action; the glottis is closed by the epiglottis to prevent food from
entering and blocking the trachea.
The bolus moves down the pharynx and enters into the oesophagus.

The oesophagus has circular and longitudinal muscles that allow peristaltic movement of
bolus from the buccal cavity into the stomach. Behind the bolus the circular muscles
contract, squeeze the bolus forward by making the lumen constricted, infront of the bolus,
the longitudinal muscles contract to widen the lumen.

In case some food particles enter the trachea via the glottis as a reflex mechanism the
individual coughs and forces the particles out the respiratory track.
Thats why gaseous exchange or breathing is momentally suspended during food
swallowing,
When the food (bolus) enters the oesophagus, it moves down to the stomach by
peristalsis. Peristalsis is the wave like movement of food within the gut, due to alternate
contraction of the circular and longitudinal muscles, as shown below
A DIAGRAM SHOWING PERISTALTIC MOVT OF THE BOLUS THROUGH
THE OESOPHAGUS

From the oesophagus, the bolus enters into the stomach, due to the relaxation the cardiac
sphincter.

Digestion in the stomach


The stomach is large, muscular and
distensible organs with secretory glands.
Food in the stomach spends about 4 hours.
The presence of food in the stomach
stimulates the stomach walls to secrete
gastrin hormone into the blood stream,
which stimulates the following gastric glands
to produce their respective secretions.
a) Goblet cells/ mucus-secreting glands which
secrete mucus for:-
i) Lubrication of food with the gut
ii) Mucus prevents corrosion and destruction
of the stomach walls by dilute HCl

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iii) Preventing the proteases mainly pepsin from digesting and damaging the stomach
proteineous wall.
b) Peptic or chief cells which secrete pepsin enzyme in form of pepsinogen to prevent
autolysis of the stomach wall.
Pepsin is important for catalyzing the hydrolysis of insoluble protein into short
polypeptides or peptides.
Pepsinogen is converted into pepsin by hydrochloric acid. Chief cells also, secrete
prorennin enzyme which is activated by HCl into active rennin which coagulates the
soluble milk protein caseinogen into soluble protein casein, which is then hydrolysed by
pepsin.
Peptic cells secrete also gastric lipase, which does work inside the stomach due the
inappropriate acidic PH
c) Oxyntic cells which secrete hydrochloric acid important for

1. Activate the conversion of pepsinogen and prorennin into pepsin and rennin
respectively.
2. Starting chemical digestion of sucrose into glucose and fructose.
3. Killing the microbes which come along with food.
4. Providing the suitable acidic PH medium needed by pepsin and rennin to carry
out their catalytic functions.
5. Denatures proteins to unfold them for their fast digestion by pepsin and other
proteases.
Role of stomach
 As the food is being chemically digested in the stomach, it is also being
mechanically digested by churning action of the stomach into a semi- fluid/
liquid acidic substance called chyme due to the peristaltic contractions of the
stomach walls into the duodenum for its maximum chemical digestion.
 For temporary food storage
 Has peptic cells which secret pepsinogen, then activated by HCl to active pepsin
which catalyses the hydrolysis of protein to short polypeptide or peptides
 Has peptic cell which secrete prorennin.
 Has goblet cells which secretes mucus for lubrication of food
 Has oxyntic cells which secrete HCl to provide optimum acidic PH for pepsin to
catalyze the hydrolysis of proteins.
 It also serves an endocrine role of secreting gastrin hormone which stimulates
the gastric glands to secrete gastric juice.

FORMATION OF HCl BY THE STOMACH WALL


Within the Oxyntic cells carbondioxide reacts with water under the catalysis of an
enzyme called carbonic anhydrase to form carbonic acid (H2CO3).
CO2 + H2O carbonic anhydrase H2CO3

The carbonic acid dissociates liberating hydrogen ions/H+ and hydrogen carbonate
ions/HCO3- .

H2CO3 (aq) H+ (aq) + HCO3- (aq)

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The free Hydrogen ions/H+ react with chloride ions from dissociation of sodium
chloride/NaCl to form HCl.
The Na+ ions react with hydrogen carbonate ions/ HCO3- to form sodium hydrogen
carbonate ions/NaHCO3.

Digestion in the small intestines


After a maximum of 4 hours, the acidic chyme gradually moves out of the stomach in bits
due to relaxation of pyloric sphincter.
When the pyloric sphincter relaxes, food (chyme) leaves the stomach ands enter into the
duodenum.
The presence of food in the duodenum, stimulates its walls (duodenal walls) to secrete
the following hormones
a) Secretin hormone
b) Cholecystokiinin — pancreozymin hormone
c) Enterogastrone hormone

Secretin hormone
 Which is used to stimulate the liver to secrete bile and
 It also stimulates the pancreas to secrete the non enzymatic substances of the
pancreatic juice e.g. sodium hydrogen carbonate, and potassium hydroxide to
neutralize the acidic chyme from the stomach.
 Prevents HCl secretion in the oxyntic cells/parietal walls in the stomach.

Cholecystokinin — pancreozymin hormone


 It stimulates the pancreas to secrete the pancreatic enzymes.
 It stimulates the gall bladder to release bile.
 It prevents emptying of food from the stomach

Enterogastrone hormone
 It inhibits further secretion of the hydrochloric acid by the oxyntic cells within the
stomach. This is because pancreatic enzymes require an alkaline PH and can be
inactivated or denatured by the acidic PH.
In the walls of the duodenum are Brunners glands which secrete alkaline fluid
(NaHCO3) for providing a suitable alkaline PH for the pancreatic enzymes activity.
They also to neutralize acidic chyme to provide an optimum PH=7.5-8-5 for pancreatic
enzyme.
Brunners glands also secrete mucus to prevent autolysis of its walls and also to offer
lubrication towards food movement.
Bile
Bile juice is temporarily stored in the gall bladder and poured directly into duodenum
through the bile duct.
When bile is secreted it flows down the bile duct to the duodenum. Bile is composed of
water, excess carbondioxide, and bile pigments. I.e.bilirubin and biliverdin, sodium
hydrogen carbonates and bile salts (sodium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate)

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Bile contains:-

 Bile salts:
Inside the duodenum, bile salts.i.e sodium taurocholate and sodium glycocholate .are
used for fat emulsification
During fat emulsification the bile salts physically breakdown fats into fine droplets by
lowering their surface tension, which increases their surface area for their effective
chemical digestion by the lipases
 Bile pigments:-
These are bilirubin and biliverdin resulting from break down of haemoglobin in the liver.
The pigments do not take part in digestion but give characteristic colour of faeces.
 Mineral salts ( NaHCO3 ):-
These neutralize the acid chyme from the stomach and so create more neutral PH for the
enzymes of the small intestine to catalysis reaction in effectively.
 Bile also contains water ( 98%)

Pancreatic enzymes
Inside the duodenum the pancreatic enzymes hydrolyze different food substances as
shown below;
 pancreatic lipase which catalyses the hydrolysis of fats into fatty acids and
glycerol
 pancreatic amylase which catalyses the hydrolysis starch into maltose
 nucleases which catalyses the hydrolysis nucleic acid(DNA and RNA) into
nucleotides
 trypsin which catalyses the hydrolysis polypeptides/proteins into peptides
 Chymotrypsin which catalyses the hydrolysis polypeptides into peptides.
 Elastase which catalyses the hydrolysis of proteins into peptides/short
polypeptide.
 Peptidase which catalyses the hydrolysis of shorter peptides to amino acids.
 Carboxy- peptidases which catalyses the hydrolysis peptides/protein into amino
acids
Trypsin and chymotrypsin are secreted in their inactive form precursor trypsinogen and
chymotrypsinogen respectively.
Trypsinogen is activated into trypsin, by enterokinase enzyme, while chymotrypsinogen
is activated chymotrypsin by trypsin.
These enzymes are secreted in their inactive forms, in order to prevent them from
digesting and damaging the proteinous duodenal walls.
Into the ileum
When the food leaves, the duodenum, it moves into the ileum. The presence of food in
the ileum stimulates the intestinal glands known as crypts of leiberkuhn located within
the mucosa to secrete intestinal juice/succus entricus, mucus and alkaline fluid.

Note Its the enterocrinin hormone which stimulates the intestinal walls to secrete the
intestinal juice (succus entericus) which contains:-

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 Intestinal lipases which catalyses the hydrolysis of fats into fatty acids and
glycerol
 Maltase enzymes which catalyses the hydrolysis of maltose into two molecules
of glucose.
 Lactase enzyme which catalyses the hydrolysis of lactose into glucose and
galactose.
 Sucrase which catalyses the hydrolysis of sucrose into glucose and fructose.
 Peptidase enzyme which catalyses the hydrolysis of peptides into amino acids.
 Nucleotidase enzyme which catalyses the hydrolysis nucleotides into phosphoric
acid, pentose sugars and nitrogen organic base.
 Proteases (eropsin):- these include exopeptidase and endopeptidase which
catalyses the hydrolysis peptides into amino acids. Endopeptidase (typsin,
pepsin, elastase, and chymotrypsin) which breaks down peptide bonds between
the amino acids within the protein to form peptides while exopeptidase breaks
off the terminal amino acid of the protein.
 Dipeptidase which catalyses the hydrolysis dipeptides into amino acids.
 Amino peptidase which catalyze the hydrolysis of proteins/peptides into amino
acids.
Examples of exopeptidase
 Carboxy- peptidases
 Amino peptidase
 Dipeptidase

Mechanism of food absorption in the ileum


In the walls of the ileum are smooth muscles which contract for their peristaltic
movements to enable the food to mix thoroughly with the enzyme for its maximum
digestion, for the well digested food to be in direct /close contact with the walls for its
absorption.

The water — soluble materials e.g. glucose, amino acids , salts and water soluble
vitamins are absorbed into the blood capillaries via the thin epithelial wall, by mainly
active transport using energy from hydrolysis of ATP manufactured by the
mitochondria within the epithelial cells of the villi and by diffusion into the blood
capillaries to venules and eventually into the hepatic portal vein to the liver.

Fatty acids and glycerol first diffuse into the thin epithelial cells of the villi where they
re-combine to form neutral fats which then coat with proteins to form lipoproteins known
as chylomicrons.these by exocytosis enter into the lacteal from the epithelial cells and
offer them a characteristic milky appearance. The chylomicrons are transported by the
thoracic duct into the left subclavian vein, in which plasma lipases catalyses their
hydrolysis into fatty acids and glycerol which are then taken to the liver.
Water is absorbed into the blood capillaries by osmosis
Salts are absorbed by diffusion into the blood capillaries.
Diagram showing the villus

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Note: - paneth cells secrete lysozymes to kill the microbes ingested with food.

Adaptations of ileum for food absorption


 It is long, wide and folded in order to provide a large surface area for maximum
food absorption.
 It has numerous finger- like projections called villi which are also composed of
tiny microvilli to provide a large surface area for maximum food absorption.
 It has a thin epithelium which reduces the diffusion distance of the soluble food
substances for its maximum diffusion.
 It has a thin permeable epithelium, which can allow free diffusion of digested
food materials with minimum resistance.
 Each villus has a dense net work of blood capillaries which provide a large
surface area for maximum uptake of the absorbed soluble food material away
from ileum there by maintaining a steep concentration gradient.
 Each villus has a lacteal for transportation of the absorbed fats away from the
ileum.
 The epithelial cells have many mitochondria for synthesis of ATP used for active
absorption of soluble food substances into the blood capillaries.
 The walls have longitudinal and circular muscles which contract and relax to
enable the food to come into contact with the walls for its absorption and for it
mix thoroughly with the digestive juices.
 It also has goblet cells which secrete mucus for lubrication of food movement and
protect the walls from digestive effects of the proteases.

Assimilation of food
After its absorption the soluble food materials are utilized by the body tissues for various
functions as shown below.
Proteins/amino acids
They are used for
 Formation of the protoplasm of the body tissues hence important for growth.
 Formation of certain body structures e.g. walls , hairs, nails, muscles
 Formation of enzymes
 Formation of some hormones
 For regulation of a constant normal PH of the body fluids
 Formation of antibodies for defense of the body against infections
 Transportation of certain metabolites of the body.
 Formation of energy during severe starvation.
 Excess proteins can be deaminated into ammonia by liver cells which are
eventually converted into less toxic and soluble urea.
 transport of materials across the cell membrane
 body repair
Carbohydrates (glucose)
 Energy formation during tissue respiration

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 Can be stored in the body muscles and liver cells as glycogen.
 Can be converted into fats.
 Recognition mechanisms of certain materials by the cells inform of glycoproteins.
 Synthesis of mucus

Assimilation of fats ( fatty acids + glycerol)


 For formation of bone marrow
 For formation of phospholipids and cholesterols
 Transport, destroy and excretion of excess cholesterols(unsaturated fatty acids)
 Used for formation of enzymes like prostaglandins
 Used as a store and serve as fat soluble-vitamins A, D, E, K and also their
transport.
 Cushion and protect the delicate organs
 Insulates against excessive heat loss
 Formation of sebum and synovial fluid. Sebum is used to soften and smoothen the
skin while synovial fluid lubricates joints and prevents friction between joints.
 Water proofing layer against excessive water loss by evaporation.
 Can be broken down during respiration for energy. Hence act as Source of energy
 They can be modified by the liver cells and sent to the adipose tissue whereby are
stored.
 Can be converted into glucose within the liver cells
 Can be used like glycolipids in recognication mechanisms
 Used for formation of the plasma membrane of the body cells. Hence form a
Component of the cell membrane
 Some unsaturated fatty acids e.g.linolenic prevents blood clotting associated with
atherosclerosis.
 Its also used for normal development and functioning of the retina
 Fats provide a large amount of metabolic water when metabolized.

Food in the large intestines


Adaptations
 Its long and wide to provide a large surface area for osmotic water absorption
 Its folded to offer a large surface area for maximum water reabsorption.
 Has a dense network of mesenteries and blood capillaries for osmotic water
absorption.
 Have mutualistic bacteria known as Escherichia coli (E.coli) used for manufacture
of vitamin K and some amino acids.
 Has goblet cells which secrete mucus in the walls to lubricate undigested food
movement.
The large intestines is composed of the
a. Colon
b. Caecum
c. Appendix
d. Rectum
e. Anus

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Colon
In the colon, there water absorption from the undigested food substances into the blood
stream by osmosis. Thats why it is folded to provide a large surface area for maximum
osmotic water absorption.

Caecum and appendix


These have no digestive functions in man
Note
The walls of the large intestines secrete mucus which is used for;
i. Lubrication of movement of the undigested food material through the
intestine.
ii. Sticking the undigested food particles together for both easy movement and
egestion.
iii. In the large intestines, there is a bacterium known as Escherichia coli which
synthesizes vitamins including vitamin k and biotin to prevent deficiency of
such vitamins in the body.
Rectum
Here the undigested food material is temporally store and more water osmotically
absorbed from the feaces into the blood stream. There is also secretion of mucus by the
epithelial cells.

Anus
The anus is the opening via which the feaces are egested out of the gut, due to relaxation
of its anal sphincters
The feaces (egesta) consists of undigested food, and some excretory materials i.e.
cholesterols and the bile pigments i.e. bilrubin and biliverdin.

CONTROL OF DIGESTION IN MAN

Food digestion is controlled by controlling the secretion of digestive juices by the gut
under hormonal and nervous influence.
Secretion of digestive enzymes is an energy consuming process and it would be
extremely wasteful if the body produces them constantly , in absence of food.

Control of secretion in the mouth cavity


In the buccal cavity, saliva secretion is released by reflex action, which include;
Unconditional cranial reflex
This occurs when food is present in the buccal cavity contact of food with the taste buds,
on the tongue, the chemoreceptors of the taste buds become stimulated and fire off
impulses along the sensory neurone to the brain.
The brain sends impulses along the motor or efferent neurone to the salivary glands
which secrete saliva.
Smelling Sight, and thinking about food via conditioned reflex, implses are fired to the
brain via sensory neurone. The brain sends impulses to the salivary glands via the motor
neurone which respond by secreting saliva.

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Gastric juice secretion is under control in the following phase

Cephalic phase /nervous phase

The presence of food in the buccal cavity, its swallowing, taste, and smell, sight and
thought of food induces the firing of impulses from the brain to the gastric glands via the
vagus nerve. The gastric glands of the stomach are stimulated to secrete gastric juice.
This takes place before food has reached the stomach and prepares it to receive the food.
The nervous phase of gastric secretion lasts for approximately one hour.
Hydrochloric acid and gastric enzymes are secreted before food reaches the stomach.

Some impulses from the brain flow along the vagus nerve to the liver and pancreas,
where the liver is stimulated to secrete bile while the pancreas secretes pancreatic juice.

Gastric phase
It involves both nervous and hormonal control.
The presence of food in the stomach causes the stomach walls to become stretched
causing expansion of the stomach walls. This stimulates the stretch receptors in the walls
of the stomach to send/fire nerve impulses to the meissners plexus of the submucosa
which in turn sends nerve impulses to the gastric glands which respond by which
secreting gastric juice.

Some of the impulses from the stretch receptors due to distension of the stomach walls
also stimulate the endocrine cells within the stomach walls to secrete gastrin hormone
into the blood stream, which stimulates the gastric glands to secrete gastric juice which is
reach in hydrochloric acid for about four hours.
Impulses from the stretch receptors some are sent to the liver to secrete bile and pancreas
to secrete pancreatic juice.
The products of peptic digestion are also efficient in gastric release.

Intestinal phase
This takes place in the small intestine.
When acidified food (chyme) enters and makes contact with the walls of the small
intestines, the stretch receptors and chemoreceptors within the intestinal /duodenal walls
become stimulated and via the reflexes of the brain, fire impulses to the gastric gland
which inhibits further secretion of gastric juice and slows down the release of chyme
/food from the stomach to the duodenum. This prevents too much food from being
released into the small intestine at once.

This serves to prevent secretion of HCl by the oxyntic cells and its flow to the duodenum.
It also regulates the amount of food which leaves the stomach into the duodenum for
efficient digestion.

Control of secretion of pancreatic juice and bile

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The stretch receptors within the duodenal walls become stimulated due to presence of
acidified chyme in the duodenum. They fire nerve impulses to the endocrine cells of the
duodenal walls via the reflexes of the brain.
The walls of the duodenum to secrete three hormones into the blood stream which
include:
 secretin,
 cholecystokinin and
 enterogastrone

1. Secretin hormone which does the following


 It stimulates the liver to secrete bile
 It stimulates the pancreas to secrete the non — enzymatic substance of the
pancreatic juices.(sodium taurocholate and sodium glycocholate)
 It inhibits the oxyntic cells /parietal cells from secreting hydrochloric acid.

2. Cholecystokinin — pancreaozymin hormone which


 Stimulates the pancreas to secrete the pancreatic enzymes
 Stimulates the gall bladder to release the bile
 Prevents emptying of food from the stomach.

3. Presence of food in the duodenum also stimulates the secretion enterogastrone


hormone into the blood stream which inhibits the oxyntic cells from further secretion
hydrochloric acid.

Control of secretion of intestinal juice

The presence of food in the ileum stimulates the intestinal walls to secrete enterocrinin
hormone into the blood stream which stimulates the intestinal glands/walls to secrete
intestinal juice called succus entericus

Importance of control of digestion


 To prevent wastage of energy inform of ATP since secretion of digestive juices
involves use of energy inform of ATP.
 Ensures digestive juices are secreted during the time of food availability so that
gut walls are protected from action of HCl and proteases.
 Increases the efficiency of food digestion
 Ensures maximum absorption of food
 Ensures optimum enzyme activity by providing optimum PH to the enzymes at
the different parts of the gut.

Nutrition in other organisms

a. Herbivores

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Herbivorous animals have certain adaptations which help them to mechanically and
chemically digest the cellulose materials within the plant tissues in order to derive
maximum nourishment from them
These adaptations include;
i) The herbivorous animals / mammals have large broad and well developed molars and
premolars which provide a large surface area for maximum grinding and crushing of
cellulose into simpler forms.
ii) The molars and premolars of the herbivorous mammals have ridges and grooves for
maximum crushing and grinding of cellulose in the plant leaves.
iii) The joints of the jaw bone i.e. the upper and lower jaws are loosely attached , which
enhance sideways movement of the jaws for maximum grinding of the of the plant
materials.
iv) There is a gap between the front and cheek teeth of the herbivorous mammals known
as diastema where the tongue manipulates the freshly cropped grass and separate it from
that which is being chewed, for its maximum grinding and crushing.
v) The herbivorous mammals lack incisors in their upper jaws to provide a hard horny
pad, against which the lower incisor press and cut grass, when its being cropped.
vi) Some herbivorous mammals have a 4 chambered stomach, which enables them to
regurgitate the swallowed food back to the mouth, to rechew it (chew the cud), for
maximum grinding and crushing of the hard cellulose material in the plant tissues.

Digestion in ruminants
Food in the ruminant mammals is first passed the largest chamber called the rumen,
where a huge population of anaerobic cellulase — secreting bacteria are located.
These begin the fermentation of cellulose and fermentation of food continues to the
reticulum and later the partially digested food (cud is regurgitated antiperistaltically via
the oesophagus, back to the mouth.
Rumination or chewing the cud takes to provide a large surface area and for effective
mechanical break down of cellulose in order for it to be chemically digested by cellulose
enzyme secreted by the cellolytic bacteria.
After it has been rechewed, the semi-fluid cud is directed to the omasum, where water is
removed osmotically absorbed.
From the omasum food (cud) goes to the abomasums (true stomach) where the gastric
juice is secreted for hydrolysis of proteins in the cud.

Note
The bacterial fermentation of cellulose in the rumen produce s products like sugars,
methane, carboxylic acids e.g. ethanoic acid, CO2.
The gases (CO2 and methane) are belched out while the carboxylic acids are absorbed via
the stomach walls into the blood stream.
The biggest amount of sugars is also absorbed into the blood stream of the herbivore, but
the small amount of sugars is used by the bacteria for the energy formation.
Apart from obtaining food, the bacteria is provided with shelter i.e. (the rumen of the
stomach). The association between the ruminants and the cellulolytic bacteria where both
partners mutually benefit is known mutualism.

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In non ruminant herbivores e.g. the rabbit, fermentation of cellulose occurs in the
caecum and appendix. In case of food scarcity, some non ruminants e.g. the rabbits feed
on their feaces a process called coprophagy for maximum fermentation of cellulose and
derivation of nutrients from it.
Coprophagy:-is the feeding on feaces for maximum extraction of nutrients from them.
A diagram to showing the four — chambered stomach ruminants

Herbivorous mollusc e.g. the snail


The snail has a rasping organ called Radula organ located in a sac opening into the lower
side of the buccal cavity.
Radula rasping organ presses the plant materials against the hardened roof of the mouth
tear and crush them by rubbing them against the roof as it moves backwards and forwards
as conveys or belt.
A diagram of the vertical section through the head of a snail to show the radula

Herbivorous insects
Herbivorous insects use mandibles to grind and crush the plant food materials. The
mandibles have serrated edge for cutting through leaves and blades of grass..
Drawing showing mandibles.

Carnivorous animals.
Carnivores have adapted for capturing the pray which include;
 high speed movement ( high acuity )
 Sharp senses of smell.
 Some have sharp talon and claws for capturing the prey
 Carnivorous mammals have well developed sharp — pointed conical canine teeth
 Octopus and squids have sucker — bearing tentacles.
 Hydra , jelly fishes and other coelenterates have tentacles with stinging cells
(nematoblasts)

Once capture prey can be dealt with in one the following ways.
 The whole prey can be swallowed , there by taking along time to be digested and
absorbed e.g. boa constrictors and pythons , hydra

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 The prey may be chewed up and down swallowed.
 The prey may be digested externally outside the body and then ingested

Carnivores have adaptations for chewing the prey which include.


 The craft fish maxilcipeds for tearing the prey by their shredding action and the
chewing action is done by done by the mandibles.
Carnivorous mammals have sharp incisors for biting pieces of flesh and tearing of the
bones
In some carnivorous mammals the last pair of premolars in the upper jaw and first pairs
of molars in the lower jaw are enlarged and have sharp ridges for shearing flesh and
effective scrapping of flesh off the bones. These teeth are called carnassial teeth.

CARNIVOROUS PLANTS
These are autotrophic plants, which inhabits area deficient of nutrients, mainly nitrates.
These plants obtain their nutrients (nitrates) by a special mechanism of tripping, killing
and digesting insects using a fluid rich in protease enzymes.
These plants attract the insects using colour, scent or sugary bait.
The amino acids obtained from digestion of insects, proteins are absorbed into the plant.
Different plant species trap the insects, using different method.
e.g
 Butter worts use sticky leaves.
 bladder worts use elaborate sacs
 Pitcher plants use pitcher — shaped leaves.
 the venus fly-trap use infolding leaves with spikes along the free edges and a
hinge — like midrib
 Carnivorous plants feed by photosynthesis

LIQUID FEEDERS
These are animals, which either feed on the well digested food from their host by
absorbing it straight the integument (i.e. absorbers) or may feed on blood or plant juices
by sucking them using a sharp proboscis i.e. (suckers)
Liquid feeders there fore are categorized under absorbers and suckers.
Because absorbers feed on already well digested food, they do not need digestive
enzymes and even lack gut.

Microphagous feeders
Feeds on tinny food particles suspended in water.e.g.anodonta (mussel), paramecia, and
rotifer
Challenges faced by microphagous feeders
 Collecting the tiny particles
 Filtering and sorting them out
 Concentrating the tiny particles using appendages and cilia
 Gills use large volume of mucus which traps the particles.

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Most absorbers are gut parasites and saprotrophs.
Examples of gut parasites include, ascaris lubricous and round worm.
Examples of saprotrophs include saprotrophic fungi and bacteria.
Saprotrophs feed on dead decaying animals and plants by secreting a variety of enzymes
across their body surface, which hydrolyze the complex organic matter into soluble,
simpler products.
E.g. protease hydrolyses proteins into amino acids because the enzymes hydrolyze
organic matter outside the body of an organism; they are referred to as ecto-enzymes.
The products of digestion are taken up into the body by a process called absorption.
During hydrolysis of organic matter of dead plants and animals, by the ecto-enzymes, the
tissues of these organism, undergo decay.
So saprotrophs are important in the recycling of nutrients, within an ecosystem.
Note
Many parasitic bacteria, fungi and protoctists use ecto-enzymes also to feed on organic
matter of their host.

a) What are saprophytes?

Saprophytes are organisms which obtain energy from dead remains of other organisms.
b) Compare saprophytes and parasites

Similarities
 Both are heterotropic
 Both absorb solube food
 Both have simple digestive systems where they are present
 Both have sexual and asexual phases in reproduction
 Both have resistance stages in their life cycle
 Both produce large number of offsprings

Differences
Parasites saprophytes
 Energy is derived from living organism Energy is derived from dead organism
 Have many stages in the life cycle Usually have a single adult stage plus
sporulation
 Very specific to their hosts Use avariety of food sources
 Nutritionally highly adapted Simple methods of nutrition
 Most plant and animal groups have Almost only bacteria and fungi
representation
 Most of them respire aerobically They respire aerobically and
anaerobically

Importance of saprophytes
 Recycling of materials .e.g..carbon cycle
 Brewing and baking e.g. yeast
 Making antibiotics e.g. penicillin
 Decomposition of wastes such as sewage
 Production of yogurt and cheese

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 Food source e.g mushroom
 Industrial processes e.g tanning of leather
 Production of vitamins e.g vitamin B

Adaptations of fungi for effective decomposition of organic matter


 Have highly branching mycelia to provide a large surface area for absorption of soluble
nutrients.
 Their rooting hyphae are chemotropic/grow towards the dead tissues that supply them
with food
 Have ecto-enzymes that digest lignin and cellulose that are abundant in organic matter.

Advantages of herbivores having large stomachs


 To increase storage capacity; since they feed on food that takes long to be digested;
 This also allows enough time for bacteria/cellulose to breakdown the cellulose thereby
increasing digestive efficiency;
 It also reduces the number of times the animals have to venture out in search of food;
which reduces the number of times are exposed to predation.

NUTRITION IN CARNIVORES AND HERBIVORES


(a) Carnivorous animals: are either predators or scavengers whose diet consists of mainly flesh
obtained from preys.
(i) Predator: An animal that hunts and kills animals for food.
(ii) Prey: An animal that is hunted and killed for food.
(iii) Scavenger: An animal that eats dead animals, but doesnt kill them.
(b) Herbivore: An animal whose diet is mainly vegetation
(i) Grazers: Mainly feed on grass
(ii) Browsers: Mainly feed on leaves of shrubs and trees

Carnivore Herbivore
Adaptations Well-developed sense of smell for Upper jaw lacks incisors to provide a
for finding locating prey hard pad against which lower incisors
and capturing Fast moving to outpace and capture prey press and cut grass.
prey Well-built body to manipulate and Tongue is highly muscular for
(carnivores) capture prey. manipulating food during chewing.
or grazing / Very sharp claws for gripping and killing
browsing prey.
(herbivores) Keen eye sight for locating prey from a
distance
Foot pads enable stealth movement to
ambush prey.
Long, sticky tongue for reaching distant
prey e.g. toads.
Elongated canines for digging up prey e.g.
walrus
Adaptations Sharp pointed canines for tearing the Molars and premolars are ridged for
for ingesting fresh of prey maximum grinding of hard cellulose
the food Flat molars to crush prey materials.

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Incisors pointed for nipping and biting. Molars and premolars have large
Carnassial teeth present for shearing surface area for maximum grinding of
flesh. the hard cellulose materials.
Upper jaw wider than lower jaw to Articulation of lower jaw permits
facilitate shearing. lateral movement to enable maximum
Up-and-down jaw action only prevents grinding of food.
lateral movement hence reducing the Well-developed jaw muscles provide
danger of dislocation much grinding power for crushing
Powerful jaw muscles provide much force cellulose materials.
for chewing Between the front and cheek teeth,
theres a gap called diastema for
separating crushed grass from
uncrushed grass for effective chewing.
Adaptations No cellulose in diet hence less developed Ruminant stomachs are four
for digesting caecum and appendix to reduce on body chambered to derive maximum
the food weight to enable fast running. nourishment from grass.
Relatively short alimentary canal reduces Mutualistic bacteria in caecum and
weight, since diet is entirely protein. appendix enable chemical digestion of
cellulose into glucose.
Relatively long alimentary canal to
digest vegetation
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CARNIVORES AND HERBIVORES RELATED TO NUTRITION
Carnivores Herbivores
Closed pulp cavity in teeth Open pulp cavity in teeth
Upper jaw incisors present Upper jaw incisors absent in most herbivores
Canines present and well developed Canines small or absent to create a diastema
Carnassial teeth present Carnassial teeth absent
Cheek teeth pointed Cheek teeth flattened with enamel ridges and dentine
Articulation of lower jaw prevents grooves
lateral movement Articulation of lower jaw permits lateral movement
Relatively short alimentary canal Relatively long alimentary canal
No cellulose digestion Cellulose digestion occurs in caecum

EXAMPLES OF SYMBIOTIC ASSOCIATIONS IN ANIMALS


Symbiosis: Ecological relationship between two or more organisms living together with some
form of feeding relationship.
Mutualism: Close relationship where two organisms of different species depend on each
other for reciprocal benefit, without any harm e.g. pollination flowers by insects, Trichonympha
and termites, cellulase producing bacteria and herbivores, etc.
Commensalism: Loose relationship in which two organisms of different species live together,
only one organism benefits while the other remains unharmed e.g. sea anemone and clown fish.
Parasitism: Close relationship between organisms of different species in which one organism
called parasite obtains nutrients from and harms a larger living organism called host.

DIGESTION IN RUMINANT MAMMALS


Ruminants: are the mammals, which have a 4-chambered stomach for the digestion of plant
based food.

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Rumination involves regurgitation of fermented grass known as cud, chewing and re-chewing it
again to further break down plant matter and stimulate digestion.
Ruminating mammals include cattle, goats, sheep, giraffes, deer, camels, antelope, etc.
Four-chambered stomach showing food movement during feeding
1. Rumen (Paunch): Bacteria and protozoa in the rumen
secrete cellulase enzyme which breaks down cellulose into
glucose which undergoes fermentation to form organic
acids, carbon dioxide and ethane. The fermentation process
produces heat that keeps ruminants warm.

2. Reticulum (Honeycomb bag): Here any foreign objects


that may have been accidentally swallowed with food settle
out in the honeycomb structure of the reticulums walls.
Reticulum is sometimes called “hardware stomach”.

3. Omasum (Psalterium / Manyplies): Absorbs water from


food and also absorbs more nutrients called volatile fatty
acids that supply ruminants with energy.
4. Abomasum (Reed / True stomach): Here, the food particles are digested by hydrochloric
acid in the same way it occurs in human stomachs. The remaining particles are then passed on to
the small intestine where most of the nutrients are absorbed by the body and made available to the
ruminant.

CELLULOSE DIGESTION IN TERMITES


Guts of wood-eating termites contain a micro-organism called Trichonympha, which secretes
cellulase enzyme to digest cellulose in wood. The termite absorbs some of the products of
digestion (glucose), while Trichonympha gets sheltered.

CELLULOSE DIGESTION IN RABBITS (NON RUMINANTS)


The caecum and appendix of a rabbit contain bacteria that secrete cellulase enzyme for
digesting cellulose into glucose. The herbivore gains glucose while the bacteria get shelter.
In the process described as coprophagy (coprophagia), rabbits eat own faecal pellets while dung
beetles feed on cow dung to enable absorption of glucose at the ileum.
PARASITISM
Close relationship between organisms of different species in which one organism called parasite
obtains nutrients from and harms a larger living organism called host.

Challenges / Dangers faced by ectoparasites Challenges / Dangers faced by endoparasites


Failure to cling on the host to avoid being Failure to penetrate the host
dislodged. Failure to obtain nutritive molecules from
Failure to obtain nutritive molecules from the host.
the host. Destruction by the digestive enzymes and
Failure to find the right host for dispersal to immune responses of the hosts.
their final host Complete elimination or extinction.
Fluctuating environment e.g. low oxygen
tensions, excess heat, solute concentration,
darkness etc.
Failure to find the right host for dispersal to
their final host
GENERAL ADAPTATIONS OF PARASITES

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Structural adaptations Physiological adaptations Reproductive adaptations
Possession of penetrative Production of enzymes to Some are hermaphrodites
devices for host entry e.g. digest the hosts tissues during with the ability to carry out
fungal haustoria, cutting teeth penetration into the host e.g. self fertilisation to increase
in hook worms Ancylostoma fungi and plasmodium the rate of reproduction e.g.
duodenale) Production of Fasciola, Taenia.
Possession of nutrient anticoagulants by blood Some asexually reproduce
suckers e.g. leech feeding parasitic animals such for high rate of reproduction
Development of digestive- as mosquitoes and ticks to to avoid extinction.
resistant outer covering to avoid blood clotting during Release of sexually mature
avoid hosts enzyme attack e.g. feeding. forms of the parasites as free
Ascaris and Taenia etc. Highly tolerant to living organisms e.g. in some
Camouflaging morphology fluctuating environment e.g. parasitic animals such as the
to increase survival chances anaerobic respiration in areas horse hair worms
e.g. brown ticks on brown of low oxygen tensions, high Production of large number
cattle. temperatures, darkness and of infective agents such as
Possession of specialised pH changes in places where eggs, cysts, and spores which
mouth parts in some ecto- they live e.g. most increase survival chances to
parasites to suck hosts e.g. endoparasites. avoid extinction e.g. tape
sharp stylets in aphids and Rapid means of escape worms.
tsetse flies. which increases their chances Development of
Possession of specialised of survival e.g. fleas and reproductive bodies that are
haustorial structures in mosquitoes. highly resistant when out of
Cuscuta (Dodder plants) for Production of much mucus the host to survive adverse
obtaining nutrients from the for resisting digestion by conditions e.g. cysts in
host hosts enzymes. amoeba, fungal spores, etc.
Degeneration of non- Some endoparasites Use of intermediate host
essential organs e.g. no produce chemicals to protect (vector) for their transfer to
feeding organs, no locomotory themselves against the primary host e.g. plasmodium
organs, no alimentary canal to immune response of the host. in female anopheles mosquito
reduce body size and fit in to man.
intestines /blood vessels and Some parasites localise the
for reducing energy strategic points for
expenditure on such organs propagation to the next host
for example Fasciola hepatica e.g. HIV which causes AIDS is
(liver fluke), tape worm, hook localised in the sex organs.
worm etc. Some use hereditary
transmission for increased
spreading i.e. some parasites
infect the ovary of primary
host which lays parasite
infected eggs.

COMMON PARASITES
Definitive host (final host / primary host): a host in which a parasite attains sexual maturity.
Intermediate host (secondary host): a host in which a parasite passes one or more of its asexual
stages; usually designated first and second, if there is more than one.

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Host Effect on
Phylum/division Parasite
Primary Secondary primary host
Pond
Fasciola hepatica (liver Fluke) Sheep, cattle Liver rot
snails
Schistosoma mansoni (blood Schistosomiasis
Humans Pigs
fluke) (Bilharzia)
Taenia solium (Pork tape Taeniasis;
Platyhelminthes Humans Pigs
worm) Anaemia,
Weight loss
Taenia saginata (Cattle Abdominal
Humans Cattle
tapeworm) (intestinal)
pain
Ascariasis,
Ascaris lumbricoides
Nematoda Humans None Intestinal
(roundworm)
obstruction
Nettle, Damages
Spermatophyta clover, tissues causing
Dodder plant (Cuscuta) None
(Seed plants) tomato, secondary
potato infections
Maize, Stunted
Spermatophyta millet, growth,
Striga sp. (witch weeds) None
(Seed plants) groundnut, wilting, and
etc. chlorosis
Late blight of
potato and
Tomato
Heterokontophyta Phytophthora infestans None tomato (Black
leaves
leaf spots,
tuber rot)
Female
Arthropoda Plasmodiun Humans Malaria fever
Anopheles
LIFECYCLES OF SELECTED PARASITES
Lifecycle of Ascaris lumbricoides (roundworm) Adaptations of Ascaris to parasitic life
Adult female in lumen of ileum lays about 200,000 Degeneration of structures reduces
eggs daily, which are passed out in faeces. space occupied.
Fertile eggs embryonate and become infective Possession of digestive-resistant
after about three weeks, (optimum conditions: cuticle resists destruction by the hosts
moist, warm, shaded soil). enzymes.
On being swallowed by humans, eggs hatch into Ability to position itself in a habitat
larvae, which invade intestinal wall, and are carried where it gains maximum nourishment.
via the portal, then systemic circulation to lungs. Eggs have protective/resistant shell
Larvae mature further in lungs (10 to 14 days), which is their main ineffective and
penetrate alveolar walls, ascend the bronchi to the resistant stage.
throat, and are swallowed into gut. Tolerance to oxygen deficient
Upon reaching the ileum, they develop into adult environment
worms. Ability to copulate within the
Between 2 and 3 months are required from intestines followed by the laying of very

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ingestion of the infective eggs to oviposition by the many eggs increases survival chances.
adult female.
Adult worms can live 1 to 2 years.

Lifecycle of Taenia sp. (Tapeworm) Adaptations of Taenia to


parasitism
Humans are the definitive hosts for T. saginata and T. Has hooks and suckers for
solium. holding tightly onto ileum wall.
Eggs or gravid proglottids are passed out in faeces; Flattened body increases
Cattle (T. saginata) and pigs (T. solium) become infected surface area for absorbing its
by ingesting vegetation contaminated with eggs or gravid hosts digested food
proglottids. Degeneration of structures
In the animals intestine, the oncospheres hatch, invade the reduces on space occupied.
intestinal wall, and migrate to striated muscles, where they Lays many eggs to increase
develop into cysticerci. A cysticercus can survive for several survival chances.
years in the animal. Humans become infected by ingesting Hooks for boring through
raw or undercooked infected meat. the gut of the host
In the human intestine, the cysticercus develops over 2 Eggs have a thick shell for
months into an adult tapeworm, which can survive for years. resisting enzyme destruction.
Adult tapeworms attach and stay in small intestine by their Being hermaphrodite
scolex. increases reproductive rate
The adults produce proglottids which mature, become
gravid, detach from the tapeworm, and migrate to the anus or
are passed in the stool (approx 6 per day).
The eggs contained in the gravid proglottids are released
after the proglottids are passed with the feces.

Hygienic practices for controlling endoparasites


Avoid eating infected under cooked meat
Through proper disposal of sewage which prevents these worms from spreading
Through cooking meat thoroughly for example prolonged heating destroys the tapeworm
bladders
Regular deworming to flush the worm out of the wall of the intestines in faeces.
Through regular meat inspection before it is consumed by man.
By prohibition of the discharge of raw sewage into inland waters and seas.

PLASMODIUM — THE MALARIA CAUSING PARASITE


There are approximately 156 named species of Plasmodium which infect various species of
vertebrates. Four species are considered true parasites of humans, as they utilize humans
almost exclusively as a natural intermediate host: P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale and P.
malariae.

LIFE CYCLE OF PLASMODIUM


Malaria parasite life cycle involves humans as intermediate host and adult female anopheles
mosquito as definitive host.
During a blood meal, a malaria-infected female Anopheles mosquito releases sporozoites into
human blood.

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On reaching the liver, sporozoites infect liver cells and mature into schizonts, which rupture
and release merozoites.
After this initial replication in the liver (exo-erythrocytic schizogony), the parasites undergo
asexual multiplication in the erythrocytes (erythrocytic schizogony).
Merozoites infect red blood cells, the ring stage trophozoites mature into schizonts, which
rupture releasing merozoites.
Some parasites differentiate into sexual erythrocytic stages (gametocytes).
Blood stage parasites are responsible for the clinical manifestations of the disease.
The gametocytes, male (microgametocytes) and female (macrogametocytes), are ingested by
an Anopheles mosquito during a blood meal.
The parasites multiplication in the mosquito is known as the sporogonic cycle.
While in the mosquitos stomach, the microgametes penetrate the macrogametes-generating
zygotes.
Zygotes become motile and elongated (ookinetes), invade the midgut wall of the mosquito to
develop into oocysts.
Oocysts grow, rupture, and release sporozoites, which enter the mosquitos salivary glands.
Inoculation of the sporozoites into a new human host perpetuates the malaria life cycle.

LIFE CYCLE OF PHYTOPHTHORA INFESTANS


Phytophthora produce two kinds of spore i.e. diploid oospores, formed sexually from fusion
of haploid antheridia and oogonia, and chlamydospores formed asexually. Both types of spore
have thick cell walls for surviving harsh conditions.
Under cool wet conditions, Phytophthora spores (oospores or chlamydospores) germinate to
form hyphae or directly produce sporangia.
Sporangia release free swimming biflagellated zoospores, which travel in moisture at the
surface of leaves, and in soil.
On reaching plant root or leaf surface a zoospore forms a cyst.
The encysted zoospore then germinates to form hyphae on the host surface, which
penetrates plant leaf or root tissues to absorb nutrients.
After Phytophthora infects the plant, it produces sporangia and zoospores which further
infect other tissues of the same plant or nearby plants.
Sexual reproduction occurs when positive and negative mating types are present.
Haploid nuclei of antheridium and oogonium fuse together when the antheridium enters the
oogonium to form a diploid oospore, which develops into a sporangium and the cycle will
continue as is would asexually.

TYPICAL EXAMINATION QUESTION


1. The blood fluke, Schistosoma mansoni is an important helminth parasite that resides within
the mesenteric veins of its definite host. Experiments were done and the graphs in figures 1, 2
and 3 below show the effect of temperature, light and salinity on the hatching of the eggs of
Schistosoma mansoni. At hourly intervals, the number of eggs hatching was determined and
expressed as a percentage of total hatch.
Figure 1 shows the effect of temperature on hatching. After 4 hours of treatment at the
temperatures shown, the samples were incubated for a further two hours at 280C at constant
light and salinity.

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Figure 2 shows the effect of light on hatching. One sample was kept in light for 6 hours while a
second sample was first kept in the dark for 3 hours, then transferred to light for 3 hours at
constant temperature and salinity.
Figure 3 shows the effect of salinity on hatching after treatment for 6 hours at constant
temperature and light (percentage of total hatch is expressed as a % of number of eggs hatching
in 0% saline).

Figure 1 Figure 2

The eggs kept in 0.8% saline for 6 hours as in figure 3 above were removed, divided equally into
four lots and placed in a range of saline solutions for a further 6 hours. The results are as shown
in table 1 below:

Table 1
Figure 3
Salinity (%) Total hatch after 6 hours (%)
0.0 100
0.2 40
0.4 20
0.6 8
(a) Comment on the effect of temperature on hatching of Schistosoma mansoni eggs. (7 marks)
(b) Explain the effect of light on percentage hatch of eggs. (6 marks)
(c) What is the effect of salinity on percentage hatch of the eggs? (4 marks)
(d) From the data presented and restricting yourself to egg stage only, discuss adaptations of S.
mansoni to its mode of life. (10 marks)
(e) (i) Name the disease caused by this blood fluke to man (1 mark)
(ii) Explain how the spread of disease can be controlled (4 marks)
(f)(i)Explain the physiological challenges facing human endo-parasites and how they are
overcome (6 marks)
(ii) What are the benefits of parasitic nutrition to organisms that exhibit it? (2 marks)

PROBABLE SOLUTIONS
(a) Comment on the effect of temperature on the hatching of the eggs of Schistosoma
mansoni. (7 marks)
At constant light, salinity and temperature of 280C;  eggs hatched rapidly;  to completion; 

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At higher temperature of 370C and lower temperature of 40C; hatching is just slightly
stimulated (greatly inhibited); 
Restoring temperature from 370C and 40C to 280C; stimulates rapid hatching; 
(b) Explain the effect of light on the percentage of the total hatch of the eggs. (6
marks)
The lot of eggs exposed to light hatch rapidly to completion;  because light stimulates /
activates a hatching substance/enzyme;  which digests/breaks down the egg membranes to
enable emergence of larvae; 
Darkness generally inhibits hatching;  because the hatching substance is inactive;  however
in this case a little hatching occurred in the dark probably due to experimental errors which
resulted in some illumination of eggs;
(c) What is the effect of salinity on the percentage of total hatch of the eggs? (4
marks)
In fresh water (at 0% salinity) all eggs hatched;  at 0.8% salinity no eggs hatched (hatching was
inhibited);  increase in salinity;  causes a rapid decrease in hatching; 
(d) From the data presented and restricting yourself to the egg stage only, discuss the
adaptation of S. mansoni
(For more information, see MBV Roberts; functional approach, pg. 552-553)
In the mesenteric veins of the main host of Schistosoma mansoni;  there is total darkness and
temperature is about 370C; both of which prevent hatching of eggs into miracidia (larvae) in
man; because they would die; 
When faeces with eggs reach fresh water bodies; where there is much illumination (light),
lower temperature and very low salinity;  all of which favour rapid hatching of eggs;  many
larvae (miracidia) are formed;  which infect water snails;  (intermediate host) and form more
larvae (cercariae) that infect man; 
(e) (i) Name the disease caused by this blood fluke to man (1
mark)
Bilharzia (Schistosomiasis); 
(ii) Explain how the spread of the disease can be controlled (method and its purpose = 01 mark
x 4)
Disposal of faeces in latrines/toilets to avoid their contact with fresh water bodies; 
Deworming to kill adult worms in humans; 
Wearing gear (boots/shoes) that shield/protect feet from larvae (cercaria) infection; 
Use molluscides to kill larvaes (miracidia) intermediate hosts (adult snails) in water; 
Biological control in which some fish and ducks are introduced in water to feed on larvae /snails;

(f)(i) Explain the physiological challenges facing human endo-parasites and how they are
overcome
(Any 3, @ challenge — 1 mark, how overcome — 1 mark = 06 marks)
Challenge How it is overcome
Digestion by the hosts enzymes; Development of thick cuticle/secretion of inhibitory
 substances /mucus
Osmotic changes in the habitat; Increased chemosensitivity in order to equilibrate with
 host
Inhibitory chemical Secretion of anti-inhibitory substances; 
environment;  Ability to respire anaerobically; 
Anaerobic conditions; 

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Attack by hosts immune system; Development of protective structures against the hosts
 immune attack
(ii) Importance of parasitic nutrition (2 marks)
A variety of nutrients required for growth, development and body maintenance may be
obtained from one meal
Less development of digestive system since most nutrients obtained are fully /partially digested.

SAPROTROPHISM (SAPROTROPHIC NUTRITION)


The process of obtaining soluble organic substances from extracellular digestion of dead or
decayed organic matter.
Saprotroph: An organism that absorbs soluble nutrients from extracellular digestion of
dead/decaying organic matter.

EXAMPLES OF SAPROTROPHS
(i) Saprobes: fungi like mushrooms, yeasts and moulds
(ii) Saprophytes: saprotrophic plants e.g. sugar stick, gnome plant, Indian-pipe and putrefying
bacteria which convert complex organic substances into simpler compounds e.g. Zygomonas
bacterium ferments glucose producing alcohol, lactic acid and carbon dioxide, Clostridium
aceto-butylicum forms butyl alcohol from carbohydrates, Lactobacillus converts sugars into
lactic acid.
(iii) Saprophages: Animal scavengers, such as dung beetles and vultures

DESCRIPTION OF SAPROTROPHISM IN FUNGAL MOULD LIKE MUCOR/RHIZOPUS


Under suitable conditions (moisture / water, oxygen, neutral / mildly acidic pH, temperature
of about 25 °C) the saprotroph secretes different enzymes into the dead animal/plant body;
proteases, lipases, carbohydrases e.g. amylase which break down insoluble complex organic
substances into simple soluble substances as follows:
-Proteases break down proteins into amino acids
-Lipases break down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol
-Carbohydrases e.g. Amylases break down starch into maltose/simple disaccharides
The end products of extra-cellular digestion such as fatty acids and glycerol, glucose, amino
acids plus other nutrients like vitamins e.g. thiamine and ions e.g. potassium, phosphorus, and
magnesium are re-absorbed into the hypha through the cell wall by endocytosis / simple
diffusion / facilitated diffusion / active transport and passed on throughout the mycelium
complex to enable growth and repair.

COMPARISON OF SAPROPHYTES WITH PARASITES


Similarities
Both: (1) are heterotrophs (2) absorb soluble food (3) have simple digestive systems (4)
have sexual and asexual phases in their reproduction (5) produce large numbers of
offspring.

Differences
Parasites Saprophytes IMPORTANCE OF
SAPROPHYTES

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Energy derived from Energy derived from Recycling of materials e.g.
living organisms dead organisms carbon, nitrogen,
Many stages in lifecycle Usually a single adult phosphorus
stage, with spores Brewing and baking e.g.
Very specific to their inclusive yeast (Saccharomyces)
host Use a variety of food Making antibiotics e.g.
Nutritionally highly sources Penicillin
adapted Simple methods of Decomposition of wastes
Most plant and animal nutrition e.g. sewage
groups have Almost totally fungi Production of yoghurt and
representatives and bacteria cheese
Most are aerobic Food source e.g.
Anaerobic and aerobic mushrooms
Industrial applications e.g.
leather tanning, production
of vitamins, etc.

Relationship between organisms in the lichen


Lichen is a mutualistic association between a fungus and a green alga or blue-green
bacteria.
The fungus makes up most of the lichen body and cells of the green alga or blue-green
bacteria are distributed within it.
The fungus provides anchorage of the lichen on the substratum, shelters the alga/bacterial
cells in the mycelium, absorbs water and mineral salts, conserves water protects the
alga/bacteria from drying out, and provides the alga/bacteria with carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis from respiration.

The alga/bacteria contributes organic food from photosynthesis, provides the fungus with
oxygen for respiration from photosynthesis. And protects the fungus from high light
intensity.
(b) Comparisons of mutualism and parasitism similarities
Both are relationships between living organisms of different species
In both associations the organisms do not kill each other usually
In both associations the organisms tend to be highly specific to each other.
DIFFERENCES
MUTUALISM PARASITISM
Both partners benefit from the association. Only one partner/the parasite benefits from the
association
None of the partners suffers harm One of the organisms/the host suffers
harm/losses/may die
Partners depend on each other for many Benefits of parasite from host is mostly
other benefits other than nutrition nutritional

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None of the partners requires secondary Parasite may require another/a secondary host
host/partners.
c) How termites feed on wood
Termites have strong mandibles for biting and chewing wood, containing cellulose into
tiny fragments for swallowing.
In the gut, the tiny fragments are taken up phagocytically by mutualistic cellulase-
secreting flagellates/protoctists.
Following phagocytosis, cellulase is secreted/released into the formed food vacuoles to
catalyze the digestion of cellulose into simple soluble compounds.
The soluble products are absorbed into the surrounding cytoplasm of the flagellate while
some escape into the gut and are absorbed by the termite.
Question
(a) Outline the gut hormones and their effects towards digestion. (8marks)
(b) Describe chemical digestion of food in the duodenum (9marks)
(c) How are the herbivorous mammals adapted for their feeding
(3marks)
Role of gut hormones and their effects

Gastrin; stimulates gastric glands to secrete gastric juice rich in hydrochloric acid.

Enterogastrone/gastric inhibitory peptide;


 Inhibits oxyntic cells/parietal cells from secreting hydrochloric acid
 Reduces churning motion of the stomach
 Decrease flow of gastric juice

Secretin;
 Inhibits secretion of gastric juice
 Stimulates production of hydrogen carbonate ions in the pancreas and liver,
making pancreatic juice and bile more alkaline, neutralizing the acid from the
stomach.

Cholecystokinin /CCK /pancreozymin,


 Stimulates production of digestive enzymes by the pancreas.
 Stimulates contraction of walls of the gall bladder to release bile in to the
duodenum.
 Inhibits emptying of the stomach.
Enterocrinin; stimulates intestinal walls to secrete succus entericus

(b) Chemical digestion of food duodenum


The pancreases secrete pancreatic juice which contains;
Pancreatic amylase which catalyses the hydrolysis of starch/ amylose to maltase

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Pancreatic lipase which catalyses the hydrolysis of lipids to fatty acids and glycerol.

Trypsinogen which, when converted to trypsin under catalysis of enterokinase from the
microvilli catalyses the hydrolysis of proteins in to smaller polypeptides and more
trypsinogen into trypsin.

Chymotrypsinogen which is converted to chymotypsin, under catalysis of proteases, and


catalyses hydrolysis of proteins to amino acids.

Carboxypeptidase which catalyse the hydrolysis of peptides to amino acids


Nucleases which catalyse the hydrolysis of nucleic acids to nucleotides.

Elastase which catalyses the hydrolysis of protein to peptides.


The peptidases include exo-peptidases (carboxypeptidase) which catalyse splitting off of
terminal amino acids from proteins/polypeptides and endo-peptidase(trypsin,elastase and
chymotrypsin) which catalyse the breaking of bonds between amino acids within
proteins producing smaller peptides.

c) ADAPTATIONS OF HERBIVOROUS MAMMALS


 Long incisors for cutting/ pulling grass
 Four-chambered stomach in ruminants that allows regurgitating for thorough
chewing
 Enlarged caecum and appendix for harbouring cellulase-secreting microorganisms
 Coprophagy in rabbits improves digestive yield of proteins and carbohydrates.
 Rigded cheek teeth/ molars and premolars for effective crushing and grinding of
grass
 Relatively long alimentary canal for effective digestion and absorption of plant
matter.
 Continuous teeth growth to compensate for continuous wear and tear during
grinding
 Diastema allows plant material to be transferred by the tongue for grinding by the
cheek teeth.
 Articulation of the lower, jaw with the upper jaw that allows lateral movement of
jaws for grinding
 Absence of upper incisors permits cutting grass against a horny pad
 Presence of mutualistic cellulase- secreting microorganism that secrete cellulose
which catalyses hydrolysis of cellulose to sugars for further digestion
DIGESTION IN THE DUODENUM
The passage of food into the duodenum is controlled by ring of muscle called the pyloric
sphincter. The duodenum is the main site of digestion. The acidic chime from the
stomach stimulates the duoden walls to secrete the hormone called secretin and
cholecysto kinin pancreozyminin

Gastric by the epithelium, within the stomach walls, the surface epithelium is infolded to
give numerous cubulous glands called gastric pits.

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Inside the gastric pits are oxyntic cells also called the pariental cells. These secreted r/cl
acid and also produce the intrinsic gastric factors which aid in absorption of molecules of
vitamin B12 complex.

It also contains the chief cells also called the peptic cells which secrete pepsinate and
prorenin. It also contains the goblet called mucus secreting cells which secrete the
mucus.

THE GASTRIC GLAND.

Pepsin is released as an inactive pepsinogen


because it is proteolytic and can attack the
tissue. Pepsinogen is activated by HCl to
pepsin which is the active form of the
enzyme and it is prevented from attacking
the tissues by the mucus linning of the
stomach.

Pepnin is released as prorennin i.e. same


reason. Pepsin breaks down proteins
topeptides while rennin mainly coagulates
caseinogen which is a soluble protein in
milk to casein an insoluble protein in milk.
Renin is relased mainly in young mammals.

A casein formed can later on the broken by


pepsin to pepticles. The HCL gives the best
condition for the action of Pepsin. It also
kills the bacteria in the food. It activates
pepsinogen to pepsins and prevents further action of the enzyme salivary amylase.

The rhythmical contraction of the stomach pounds the food into a semi fluid state called
chume, water, vitamins, mineral salt.

Mucus sticks the food particles together turning into a bolus is swallowed. The mineral
salts in saliva provide an alkaline medium which provides a suitable pH of 7 for the
action salivary amylase.

The chloride ions act as activators for salivary amylase part form digestive functions,
saliva protects the delicate membranes in the mouth by keeping it moist, cleaning the
teeth and destroying bacteria in the mouth using the enzyme lysozyme and moistening
the tongue making speech pors and since the bolus is formed, the tongue forces it again.
Soft palate ans swallowing takes place. Swallowing is a co reflex activity which occurs
automatically.

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The food is propelled down in the osesophagus by a wave muscular contractions called
peristalisis. It enters the stomach when the muscles of the cardiac sphincter relax.
Therefore in the mouth all the food types are subjected to physical digestion but starch in
particular is subjected to physical and chemical digestion.

DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH


The stomach is a distanceable muscular bag whose function is to store and partially digest
food. Unlike other parts of the stomach consist of the main layers.

These serve to churn and mix food with digestive juice once food enters the stomach, its
churned by rhythmic of contraction which pass along the stomach thereby reduce it into
finer particles which increases the surface are and which enzymes act. This forms the
physical digestion to the stomach.

Chemical digestion within the stomach occurs by within the gastric juice produced by
gastric glands. The secretion of gastric juice is also a reflection stimulated by site, smell
taste and physical presence of in the stomach. These stimulate the secretion of the
hormone thicken into structures called sphincters. When these relax or contract e.g.
control the movement of food from one part of the elementary canal to another.

They are found at the junction of the oesophagus and the stomach forming the cardiac
sphincter and at the stomach and duodenum forming the pylonic sphincter, at the ileum
and cecarm and antion between the longitudinal and circular muscle layers is the over
bact is plexus which consts of nerves from autonomic nervous sub mucosa is another
nerve plexus called the meissners plexus. This control secretion from glands to the gut
walls. Alebachs plexus controls persistalisis.

THE SEROSA
This is the outermost layer which has connective tissue. It protects the rest of the gut
from friction which other parts of the abdomen its surrounded by an epithelium which
lines the abdominal cavity. Its function is to prevent friction when the gut wall slides
over the portions of itself on other organism. Muscin put particles together in the mouth.

DIGESTION IN THE MOUTH


In the mouth food is broken down physically. This increases the surface area for the
action of the enzyme onto the food.

Within the mouth, there is a tongue which has numerous muscles; this moves food
around the mouth, thereby mixing it properly by the saliva.

The tongue has taste buds which stimulate the production of saliva by the reflex action.
The flow to saliva is controlled by the taste of the food and sight of food.

Saliva contains mineral ions like potassium buscarbonate, Na+, chloride ions etc. It also
contains an enzyme called salivary amylase also called pylatin which hydrolyses the
polysaccharide like starch to disaccharides like maltose. Saliva also contains water.

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MUCOSA
Its the innermost layer of the gut and has 3 layers i.e. epiflamina, proprina and
muscalaries mucosa. It has a thin epithermal which produces mucus.

The mucara therefore serves the following functions.


i. It lubricates the walls of the intestines and also reduces on it.
ii. It secretes hormones and digestive juices.
iii. It has a layer of involuntary mucles which allow movement of materials through
the gut.
iv. It provides an area for the absorption of digested food materials in the ileum.
v. It has a subsmocosa which has a rich supply of blood on vessels which carry
absorbed nutrients away from the intestines.
vi. It is the major absorbing and secreting layer.
vii. Lamina propria has connective tissue both collagen and el has blood and lymp
vessels.

Functions: Basement up which epithelium rests.


Its infolded site: its a site of unfolding
Gives rise to the epithelium.
SUB MUCOSA
Its the layer containing nerves, blood and lymph vessel, collage elastic fibres etc. It may
contain some mucus secreting particles which deposit their content onto the surface via
ducts e.g. the branner gland in the duodenum

Carried nutrients due to presence of blood vessels.


Contains glands which pour their contents into ducts.

THE MUSCULAR LAYER (MUSCULARIS EXTERNA)


Its composed of an inner circular and outer layer of small muscle. The coordinated
movement of two layers provide the like pe-ristic activity of the gut wall which propels
food the gut.

A t a number of points along the gut, the circular muscles.

ALIMENARY CANAL
This is a continuous muscular tube that runs from the mouth to the anus. The gut begins
in the mouth and the buccal cavity followed by the pharynx, the esophagus, the stomach,
the small in testiness made up et the duodenum and ileum.

The large intestines consisting of caecum bearing the appendix, the colon and rectum,
terminating at the anus. While each different portion on the digestion track possesses its
own special characteristics all conform to a basic common structure which consists of 4
distinct layers in their walls and these include;
i. The mucosa.
ii. The sub mucosa.

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iii. The muscle layer (muscular externa)
iv. The serosa.

A DIAGRAM SHOWING A TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE GUT WALL.

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