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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMOTIVE ANTENNAS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Automotive communication has witnessed a tremendous growth in

recent years due to modern communication technologies and the advent of
new radio frequency (RF) receivers. In addition to the traditional AM and
FM, the present day automobiles are equipped with multitude of information
and entertainment systems such as Navigation, Global System for Mobile
communication (GSM), Bluetooth, Satellite Radio, Remote Keyless Entry
Service (RKES) and Tyre-Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS). Apart from
these services, higher end cars are equipped with Digital Audio Broadcasting
(DAB), Satellite In-vehicle TV, Satellite Digital Audio Radio Service
(SDARS), Electronic Toll Collection (ETC), short range and long range radar
system for adaptive cruise control, parking assistance, collision detection and
avoidance. These value added services are included in automobiles with the
view to increase passenger comfort and safety. The next generation vehicles
will have Long Term Evolution (LTE) systems, WiFi and additional systems
for automated driver assistance. Also, the Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) and
Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) communication networks will receive special
attention for efficient vehicular information systems (Carmo & Riberio 2012).

The new sophisticated services offered in automobiles rely on

efficient wireless communication systems and the antennas form an integral
part of such systems. In the present scenario, premium cars are integrated with
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at least 10 – 30 dedicated antennas (Koch 2012). For satisfactory performance

of the antenna, researchers have identified only a few locations in the
vehicle’s body where the antennas can be integrated. Thus there is a
constraint in space to load the antenna in vehicle resulting in deployment of
antennas in close proximity leading to increased co-site interference. The
increase in number of antennas also affects the aesthetics of the vehicle and
increases the in-car SAR exposure (Martinez et al 2010). Hence, the design of
antennas for automotive application derives a special interest among the
antenna research community.

A more detailed discussion on antenna design requirements for

automotive applications, antenna placement in vehicle’s body and commonly
used automotive antennas are described in the following sections.

1.1.1 Automotive Antenna Design Requirements

Antennas are the necessary component in any wireless

communication system. Antennas transmit and receive radio signals in the
form of electromagnetic waves. Modern cars are equipped with more number
of information and entertainment systems involving satellite and terrestrial
communications. Therefore, the antennas for automotive communication
require a special attention in terms of application, aesthetics, engineering and
manufacturing cost.

The addition of more number of infotainment services in

automobiles require more number of dedicated antennas to be loaded onto the
vehicle’s body. Figure 1.1 shows a typical scenario depicting more number of
antennas projected from the vehicle’s body. These projections affect the
appearance of the vehicle making the car look more like a complex
telecommunication system rather than a comfort vehicle. The antennas for
modern automobiles are expected to have minimum projection from the
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surface of the vehicle’s body. The aesthetic value of the cars can be preserved
by exploiting hidden antenna concepts which would increase the engineering
cost. However, the engineering cost can be reduced through outdoor
placement of integrated multiband/wideband antennas that has minimum
projection and also complements the aesthetics of the vehicle (Koch 2012).

Figure 1.1 Car fitted with multiple radiators

The antennas used for automotive communication and its radiation

performance depend on the type of application. Table 1.1 gives the list of
services available in modern automobiles and the corresponding antenna
radiation requirements. The radiators used in vehicles are grouped in three
major categories, viz. omnidirectional, directional and isotropic (Pell et al
2011). A short description on these types of radiators is presented below.

The first type of radiator is the omnidirectional antenna

characterized by uniform radiation characteristics along the azimuth plane.
This type of antenna is used to receive signals transmitted from earth bound
base stations. Some of the services which require omnidirectional coverage
are AM/FM, GSM, 3G and 4G.

The second type of radiator is the directional antenna. The

directional antenna has highly directive radiation pattern along a particular
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direction. For example, the navigation antennas have directional patterns to

communicate with the satellite. Another interesting example is the automotive
radar antenna which has highly directive radiation pattern for efficient
detection of obstacles to prevent collision.

Table 1.1 Automotive applications and antenna requirements

Sl.
Application Frequency Type of radiation pattern
No.
1 AM 1 MHz
2 FM 88 – 110 MHz Omnidirectional
3 In-vehicle TV 50 – 400 MHz
4 DAB 100 – 400 MHz
800/900 MHz
GSM, 3G &
5 1800/1900 MHz
LTE
2100 MHz
2.4 GHz & 2.3,
WiFi &
6 2.5 & 2.7 GHz,
WiMAX
3.5 GHz
7 V2V 5.9 GHz
315 MHz / 413
8 RKES
MHz / 434 MHz
1.176 GHz Directional
Navigation
9 1.382 GHz
System
1.575 GHz
10 Satellite radio 1.472 GHz
11 SDARS 2.3 GHz
12 ETC 5.8 GHz
Automotive 24 GHz &
14
Radar 77 GHz
Isotropic
315 MHz / 413
15 TPMS
MHz / 434 MHz

16 Bluetooth 2.45 GHz

17 WiFi (Internal) 2.45 GHz

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The third category is the isotropic antenna which is a hypothetical,

lossless antenna characterized by uniform distribution of field along the
elevation and the azimuth plane. The isotropic radiator is used to
communicate with receiver systems placed at different locations inside the
vehicle. Bluetooth, WiFi are some of the applications which require isotropic
radiators.

1.1.2 Automotive Antenna Technology

The desired antenna radiation characteristics can be achieved by

exploiting the most popular antenna technologies. The choice of antenna
technology depends on the antenna’s performance with respect to the intended
application and the location where the antenna is to be placed in the vehicle.
Some of the technologies are rod antennas, printed antennas, on-glass
antennas and glued foil antennas (Koch 2012). A brief overview of these
antenna technologies is presented in this section to understand the selection of
technology based on services.

Figure 1.2 Rod antenna in Toyota Prius

Rod antennas are monopoles consisting of either a thick or flexible

metallic conductor, having length equal to or greater than quarter wavelength,
connected directly to a large ground plane. Figure 1.2 shows a car loaded with
rod antenna in the front side of the roof. The antenna radiation pattern is
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omnidirectional and these antennas are suitable for short and medium wave
terrestrial communications. The rod antennas have large external projection
and hence they are avoided by premium car manufacturers to preserve the
aesthetic value of the vehicle. The rod antennas often suffer from
aerodynamic drag and they are prone to damage and theft.

The on-glass antenna technology is more popular since 1980 for

VHF and UHF bands. This technology uses slot antenna principle where the
window glass is realized as a slot surrounded by thin metallic conductor
(Callaghan 1999). Resonant conditions are achieved by exciting the metallic
structure surrounding the slot (glass) using external feeding network. In some
designs, the conducting regions of the car are modeled as a part of the
antenna. The on-glass antennas are limited by complex manufacturing
processes and feeding techniques. However by careful selection of feed point,
many orthogonal modes can be excited using this technology. Figure 1.3
shows a rear defogger whose conducting parts are used as antennas for
medium wave communications.

Figure 1.3 Rear defogger antenna

Printed antennas are patch antennas printed on a flat dielectric

material and have a large metallic ground. Owing to its simple profile, printed
antennas have received more attention from manufacturers while designing
antenna systems for cars. The printed antennas can be easily integrated with
the vehicle’s body and making it hidden can improve the aesthetics of the
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vehicle. The choice of this antenna is made when the application frequency is
beyond 1 GHz. Both omnidirectional and unidirectional radiation patterns are
feasible using this technology. By carefully designing the feeding network,
this antenna technology can also be used to realize isotropic radiation pattern.

Another interesting automotive grade antenna used primarily for

terrestrial communications is the glued foil antenna in which a conductive foil
is glued to an insulator to produce low profile antennas (King & Forster
2007). Though the engineering and manufacturing costs are lesser in
comparison with other antenna technologies, the antenna developed using this
technique suffers from narrow bandwidth and performance degradation
during harsh environmental conditions.

In some cases, combination of these antenna technologies is used to

improve the link quality and spatial coverage during mobility. One such
technique is the diversity reception. Diversity techniques are exploited in
modern automobiles to overcome the effects of multipath signal propagation.
This technique employs distributed antenna system concepts where the
signals received from multiple antennas are used to improve the overall
Signal-to-Noise ratio (SNR). Whenever the signal received through one
antenna degrades, the receiver switches or selects another antenna placed at a
different location which receives better signal. For example, the rod antenna
used in the car roof is supported by rear defogger antenna for FM diversity
reception.

1.1.3 Antenna Placement in Automobiles

The performance of automotive antennas severely depends on the

location where the antennas are integrated. In this section, the ideal locations
where the antennas can be installed are dealt in brief. In literature, several
studies are made to identify the best practices to locate the antennas in
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vehicle’s body. According to Koch (2012), the following basic requirements

have to be satisfied for efficient signal transmission and reception in mobile
terminals.

1. The antennas should be located high above the ground to

achieve good spatial coverage along the horizontal plane.
2. The antennas should be sufficiently decoupled from conducting
parts and other radiators in the vehicle.
3. The distance between the antenna and the receiver system
should be minimized to overcome additional signal attenuation
due to cable induced losses.
4. Polarization losses at the antenna can be minimized by having
prior information about the polarization of the transmitted radio
signal.

With these requirements, there are a few locations identified in the

vehicle’s body for ideal operation of the antenna. Figure 1.4 depicts the
regions for placement of antennas in automobiles.

Figure 1.4 Location for antenna placement (Koch 2012)

It is the best practice to load antennas in the car’s roof since it is high
above the ground and remains unobstructed. Both omnidirectional and
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directional antennas can be mounted in the car’s roof. The rod antennas, shark
fin multi- antenna system and satellite terminal antennas are usually located in
this region.

The spoilers, if present in the vehicle, can be used to install antennas

for telemetry applications. The spoiler made of plastic provides abundant
space and it is the second most preferred location for antenna placement.

The side wing mirrors with plastic shells provide hollow space to
locate antennas for terrestrial applications such as V2V and FM diversity
reception. Certain manufacturers house a combination of several antennas in
this region to cater to the needs of modern automotive communication.

The FM diversity antennas and terrestrial TV antennas are commonly

printed on the rear screen and windows. A thin metallic conductor printed
along the edges of the mirror will give flexibility in integrating the antennas
in the vehicle’s chassis. In some cases, the antennas are printed directly on the
glass using conductive inks and copper tapes.

The sedan type cars have trunk on the rear side that is also sufficiently
high above the ground and remains unobstructed. Therefore, antennas can
also be placed in the trunk. For this purpose, either the trunk should be made
of plastic or at least it should have a plastic top to support antenna
transmission and reception. Satellite terminal antennas are located at this
region.

The plastic fenders and bumpers help to overcome the space

limitations to load supporting antennas for diversity reception (Martinez et al
2010). The automotive radar antennas and the associated sensor circuitry are
placed in the front and rear bumpers respectively for collision avoidance and
parking assistance. This region is least preferred as it is close to ground and
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the performance is affected due to ground reflections and engine noise.

Further the antennas at this region are prone to damage during collision.

Apart from these external locations, antennas can also be installed

inside the vehicle. Figure 1.5 shows the interior view of an intelligent car. The
dashboard (1) provides abundant space to load antennas along with its
circuitry. Since the dashboard is just beneath the front screen, antennas can
communicate with external infrastructure without any signal obstruction. The
pillars (2) connecting the front screen and side mirrors can support antennas
for vehicle to in-vehicle communications. Antennas for in-vehicle
communication can also be placed within the side doors (3) made of
fiber/plastic. Some antennas are also placed behind the rear mirrors, beneath
the driver and passenger seats.

Figure 1.5 Interior of Acura ILX (2014)

1.2 AUTOMOTIVE ANTENNA - TRENDS & DEVELOPMENTS

This section analyzes the various types of antennas used in

automobiles for information and entertainment systems; and their
developments in recent times. This section is broadly classified into three
parts. Initially, narrow band antenna systems using aforementioned antenna
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technology are dealt. In the second part, multi-service antenna systems used
in modern automobiles are discussed and the last part of this section gives an
overview of antenna array technology used in constructing the automotive
radar antennas.

1.2.1 Single Frequency Automotive Antennas

The single frequency antennas are dedicated antennas intended for

a specific application. Each single frequency antenna is connected to its own
receiver system. Some of the commonly used single frequency antennas are
presented in the following subsections.

1.2.1.1 Rod antennas

The oldest form of entertainment in automobiles is the AM and

FM. As discussed in section 1.1.2, rod antennas are predominantly used for
this communication. The rod antenna is an omnidirectional radiator that is
often limited by its large projection, narrow bandwidth, aerodynamic drag and
vulnerability to wind noise. Antenna height reduction is achieved through
helical antennas. However, the retractable antennas received much attention
than the fixed height whip antennas and helical antennas. The retractable car
antennas are invented to overcome the problem of large projection from the
vehicle’s body. The length of the antenna is adjustable and is hidden when not
in use (Hillman 1993). The retraction mechanism can be either powered or
manual. Figure 1.6 (a) shows a retractable mast antenna used for
450 – 470 MHz automotive communication.

The Bee Sting antennas replaced the standard mast antenna and it is
in use for many years. The Bee Sting antenna has a small height in
comparison with the mast antenna and is described in Figure 1.6 (b). These
antennas theoretically aid in achieving a low drag coefficient and hence less
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prone to wind noise. The performance degradation due to reduced length is

compensated by an amplifier module following the aerial section. Apart from
AM/FM communication, this type of antenna is suitable for DAB and cellular
applications. Though this antenna is visually appealing, it is limited by its
narrow band operation.

Figure 1.6 (a) Retractable mast antenna (b) Bee sting antenna (BMW)

1.2.1.2 On-glass antennas

Low profile on-glass antennas have received wide attention in

automotive industry as these antennas offer mounting flexibility. Installation
of this antenna doesn’t require drilling of holes. The antenna base is directly
attached to the window with special glue and can be easily removed.
Conductive inks are used to print antennas in the window. But this technique
involves manufacturing complexity since conductive ink requires curing at
high temperature to avoid peeling off of the antenna.

Low et al (2007) proposed an on-glass antenna for FM reception.

The antenna geometry consists of four elements and is fed from the top using
an unscreened flying lead from a matched amplifier circuit. Conductive inks
are used to print antenna on the inside face of the glass. The window aperture
size is approximately quarter wavelength and the lengths of the vertical
elements are much shorter than required for quarter wavelength monopole
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antennas for FM. The presented design though provides broad bandwidth; the
design is often limited by the complex feed network that affects both
impedance matching and operating bandwidth.

On-glass antennas for WiFi, GSM, UMTS/3G antennas are

commercially available in the automotive market.

1.2.1.3 Patch antennas

An edge truncated square patch radiator is the most popular

automotive antenna for GPS receivers developed using patch antenna
technology. Figure 1.7 shows the classical GPS antenna. High dielectric
constant substrate materials are used for antenna construction to achieve size
reduction. This antenna is protected with radome and has a magnetic base to
fix the antenna to the vehicle. This antenna is usually located in the roof top
or underside of the dashboard. Though the presented antenna is simple and
compact, the manufacturing cost is high due to high dielectric constant
substrate material.

Figure 1.7 Edge truncated square patch GPS antenna

1.2.2 Multi-service Automotive Antennas

Multi-service automotive antenna systems derive surge of research

interest due to limited amount of space to locate antennas in vehicle. This
section presents some of the popular multi-service antennas used in
automotive communication.
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1.2.2.1 Integrated antennas

Oh et al (2005) proposed a novel integrated automotive antenna for

GPS, RKES and PCS. Figure 1.8 shows the integrated antenna system where
the edge truncated square patch GPS antenna and a combined monopole and
normal mode helix share a common substrate. This integrated system requires
two independent feeds and occupies a large area in the car roof. Thus the
aesthetic value of the car is compromised to achieve multiple services.

Figure 1.8 Integrated multi-antenna system (Oh et al 2005)

The patented work by Grant et al (2007) described a compact

vehicle mounted antenna. Two independent planar inverted ‘F’ antennas
(PIFA) supported by dedicated feed and a common ground plane is proposed
for multi-service application. The PIFA antennas are designed for cellular
bands and the presented work suggests that a GPS antenna can be located
between the PIFAs. Therefore a three element antenna system as shown in
Figure 1.9 (a) is developed for vehicular communication and is suitable for
positioning in the car roof and spoiler. Though the presented design achieves
desired multi-service capability, the number of services offered is limited to
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two and separate feed networks for each antenna element increases cable
routing complexity.

An integrated multi-service antenna system for cars is patented by

Puente-Baliarda et al (2009). This multi-service antenna system has multiple
antenna elements housed within a physical component of the car as depicted
in Figure 1.9 (b) and (c). Each antenna is defined by an independent radiating
arm and a feed point. As too many antennas are to be packed, the radiating
arms are convoluted using space filling curves and are packed within a small
volume. Therefore, the number of service offered by this antenna system
depends on the number of antennas integrated into the physical component of
the car. This technique also requires independent feeding and the field
interactions are strong since too many radiators are placed in close proximity.
Further the housing should be sufficiently large to house many such radiators.

Figure 1.9 Technical diagrams of integrated antenna systems proposed

by (a) Grant et al (2007) (b) & (c) Puente-Baliarda et al (2009)

Mariottini et al (2010) used the GPS antenna in Figure 1.7 to

construct an integrated antenna system for GPS and SDARS applications. The
GPS antenna is developed on a ceramic substrate with high dielectric constant
(εr = 45) and the SDARS antenna is constructed using square loop printed on
a standard FR4 material. Because of the choice of material, the SDARS
antenna is larger in size in comparison with the GPS antenna. Therefore, GPS
antenna is placed above the SDARS antenna to achieve integrated antenna
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system with two separate feed. After the integration, a capacitive matching
patch is added to the feed of SDARS antenna to compromise any loss due to
impedance mismatch. The developed dual-band integrated antenna is shown
in Figure 1.10. The presented design occupies small space and does not
require complex feeding and matching network.

Figure 1.10 Integrated GPS and SDARS antenna (Mariottini et al 2010)

1.2.2.2 Shark fin antenna

The most popular and stylish antenna system used in modern

automobiles is the shark fin antenna and is shown in Figure 1.11. Shark fin
antenna consists of a hollow painted outer cover (shell) and a plastic base
screwed directly to the car’s roof. This shell houses one or more antenna
systems for automotive communications. A conventional shark fin antenna
houses antennas for at least three services such as GSM, GPS, SDARS printed
either on the same printed circuit board (PCB) or different boards assembled
inside the housing. The limitation of this multi-antenna system is the use of
dedicated antennas for each application. Thus only a few antennas can be
accommodated inside the shark fin housing due to space limitations. Further
additional filtering networks are used to increase the isolation between the
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antenna elements to overcome performance degradation due to strong field

interactions.

Figure 1.11 Shark fin multi-antenna system

Figure 1.12 Technical diagram of highly integrated shark fin antenna

(Chakam et al 2012)

Chakam et al (2012) patented a highly integrated multiband shark

fin antenna for automotive communication. The technical diagram of the
patented automotive antenna is shown in Figure 1.12. The entire configuration
consists of an antenna circuit board having a top and bottom layer. The
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multiband antenna system consists of at least one transmitting and one

receiving antenna arranged on the top layer. The presented design consists of
a GPS antenna, SDARS antenna and an antenna for GSM. The module
consisting of electronic circuits comprising matching or amplifier circuits that
include at least one of the transceivers, tuners and receivers is located in the
underside of the antenna circuit board. Shielding plates are used to shield the
electronic circuits from the transmitting and the receiving antenna elements
arranged on the top side of the circuit board. The shark fin housing is used to
protect the antenna system from harsh environmental conditions and to
preserve the aesthetics of the vehicle.

1.2.2.3 Other multi-service antennas

Filipovic & Volakis (2004) presented a cavity-backed spiral

antenna capable of integrating with the trunk lid of the car. The developed
antenna is shown in Figure 1.13. The proposed spiral antenna exhibits a wide
impedance bandwidth. This specific antenna configuration can be operated in
two modes. Under coplanar waveguide (CPW) mode, the antenna exhibits
omnidirectional characteristics and in coupled slot-line (CSL) mode
directional pattern is achieved. A metallic cavity is used to prevent back
radiations into the vehicle’s body. The presented antenna does not protrude
from the vehicle’s body and hence it is the most elegant solution. The only
limitation with this design is the wideband noise coupling.

Figure 1.13 Wideband cavity backed spiral automotive antenna

(Filipovic &Volakis 2004)
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Low et al (2006) presented a printed antenna system mounted in the

aperture of car roof. The presented design is shown in Figure 1.14. Radiating
arms of unequal lengths are deployed to achieve broadband signal reception
from 88 – 108 MHz. The developed antenna is suitable for AM, FM, TV and
DAB reception. The average gain of the developed antenna is better than
-3 dBi for vertical polarization and -10 dBi for horizontal polarization. The
return loss is approximately 2 dB before the inclusion of matching sections.
From the presented results, it is understood that the presented design suffers
from low gain and poor impedance matching throughout the operational
bandwidth.

Figure 1.14 Multi-function automotive antenna (Low et al 2006)

Arianos et al (2012) proposed two designs of multiband antennas

for automotive communication. Both the designs are suitable for GSM, DCS
and PCS application. These antennas can be easily integrated with the existing
PCB and positioned inside the dashboard of the car. Therefore this antenna
does not require a dedicated space for mounting the antenna. Though the
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antenna reduces manufacturing cost and provides high mounting flexibility,

the design provides low gain and poor impedance matching across the
realized frequency bands.

Thus from the study of the literature, several multi-service antenna

systems are developed either as an integration of multiple antenna elements or
single feed antenna with wide impedance bandwidth. In case of wide band
antennas, the impedance matching realized throughout the frequency bands is
not satisfactory and hence they suffer from low gain. Therefore it is evident
that, a single feed antenna for multi-frequency application with good
impedance matching across the operational bandwidth will overcome a
number of problems such as minimizing the number of antennas required,
co-site interference and flexibility in antenna placement. The problem of
noise coupling from adjacent frequency bands can be eliminated by designing
a multiband antenna with sufficient inter-band spacing. Further the antenna
with such characteristics will also reduce the filter overhead that follows the
antenna system.

1.2.3 Automotive Radar Antennas

In recent years, the number of roadside accidents has increased

drastically and in most situations, the accidents are due to human errors. To
overcome this problem, modern automobiles deploy radar systems. The
dedicated Short Range Radar (SRR) and Long Range Radar (LRR) systems
provide safety functions such as Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC), collision
detection and avoidance, rear traffic crossing alert and blind spot detection
(Menzel & Moebius 2012). The Table 1.2 presents the application frequency
and bandwidth requirement of automotive radar systems.

The radar sensor system is expected to provide information about

the vehicles and obstacles on the roadside based on the distance between the
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source vehicle and the target, the relative speed and angle. The source vehicle
calculates the range by measuring the time taken for the transmitted radar
pulse to reach the source after reflecting from the target.

Table 1.2 Automotive radar services

Centre
Sl. No. Band Application Bandwidth
frequency
24 GHz
1 ACC & Lane Change 24.2 GHz 0.2 GHz
(NB)
24 GHz
2 SRR 24.5 GHz < 5 GHz
(UWB)
3 26 GHz SRR 26.5 GHz < 4 GHz
4 77 GHz ACC & LRR 76.5 GHz 1 GHz
Medium Range Radar &
5 79 GHz 79 GHz 4 GHz
SRR

Figure 1.15 shows the scanning regions of the automotive radar and
ultrasonic sensors for driver assistance. The ultrasonic sensors are used for
parking aids and it has a minimum range close to 2 m. The LRR can range up
to 150 – 250 m with velocity above 30 to 250 kmph and the SRR can range
up to 30 m with speed of the vehicle ranging between 5 – 150 kmph. On an
average, the premium vehicles are fitted with at least 4 such radar systems and
at most 10 radar systems are expected to be deployed in the near future. For
efficient performance, the antenna and the associated sensor systems are
usually loaded behind the front and rear bumper. Certain systems are also
deployed on the fender region to avoid the impact along the sides of the
vehicle. Care should be taken to provide sufficient transparency between the
radar antenna and the target, since the bumper region can cause signal
blockage resulting in erroneous target detection.

The following subsections are attributed to the study of antenna

technology used for the development of automotive radar antennas. The
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antennas for radar applications attract additional attention in terms of its

radiation properties such as high gain and narrow beam width. This property
of the antenna is realized using low cost planar microstrip array antenna
technology. In this section, microstrip based series fed array and grid arrays
are presented for automotive radar sensor applications.

Figure 1.15 Automotive radar and ultrasonic sensor systems for driver
assistance (Courtesy: Planet Analog)

1.2.3.1 Series fed microstrip array antenna

Figure 1.16 Automotive radar sensor system with transmit and receive
antenna arrays (Menzel & Moebius 2012)
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The automotive radar antenna constructed using planar series-fed

microstrip array technology is shown in Figure 1.16. The proposed antenna
array consists of three transmit and three receive sub-arrays. The antenna
array consists of series fed half-wavelength dipole antennas. The radiating
elements in the array are titled 45o to eliminate interference due to vehicles
equipped with similar radar sensors and moving in the opposite direction. The
six sub-arrays are oriented parallel to one another. All sub-arrays provide
relatively wide beam width along the azimuth plane.

1.2.3.2 Grid array antenna

The Grid Array Antenna (GAA) has received considerable attention

in recent times for automotive sensor antenna development. The GAAs are
planar array antennas consisting of many grid cells formed by radiating
elements and transmission lines. The transmission lines provide required
phase delay for in-phase excitation of the radiating elements. The GAAs
provide numerous advantages such as high gain, narrow beam, simple probe
feed and easy construction. Since its inception, numerous designs of GAAs
are reported in literature.

The GAA for automotive radar sensors was first proposed by

Zhang et al (2011). The design consists of multiple grid cells formed using
long and short transmission lines. The long side of each grid acts as
transmission lines and the short side functions as the transmission lines and
radiating element. The amplitude tapering technique is exploited to achieve
low side lobe levels. The number of cells along the horizontal axis is
increased to achieve a narrow beam along the x direction. The number of grid
rows is restricted to two to achieve a broad beam width along the vertical
axis. The design achieves a high gain of 19.85 dBi with 1.6% impedance
bandwidth calculated at 24 GHz.
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Another version of GAA is proposed by Zhang et al (2012) for

automotive sensor. The developed antenna is shown in Figure 1.17. This
GAA consists of 32 meshes etched on the top surface of the substrate. In the
proposed design, 41 radiating elements are arranged for operation in the 24
GHz band. This GAA offers 2% impedance bandwidth with gain 20.6 dBi at
24.2 GHz.

Figure 1.17 A 24 GHz microstrip GAA (Zhang et al 2012)

Both the presented designs are suitable for narrow band

applications such as ACC and lane change. The only limitation with the
narrow band radar system is the interference with passive sensors operating in
the same 23.4 – 24 GHz band. This interference cannot be neglected due to
the increased number of cars and the number of radar systems deployed per
car. Therefore UWB radar systems derive much interest and antennas for this
UWB system gains importance.

1.2.4 Important Conclusions from Literature

Based on the study of the literature, the following important

conclusions are made using which the objectives of this thesis are framed.

1. There is a need for compact multi-service antennas

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a. To increase the number of information and entertainment

systems in automobiles without increasing the number of
antennas required.
b. To minimize the co-site interference
c. To preserve the aesthetic value of the vehicle
d. To reduce the engineering and manufacturing cost
2. UWB automotive antennas derives additional interest since,
a. It performs well in the multipath environment
b. It consumes minimum power
c. It can handle large data with multimedia content
d. Most suitable for vehicle to in-vehicle communication
3. Diversity techniques provide
a. Good spatial coverage
b. Enhanced link quality and data rate
4. UWB radar systems provide lesser interference than
conventional narrow band radars. Hence, there is a challenge to
design wideband antennas for radar application with minimum
cost and easy fabrication techniques.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE THESIS

This thesis presents the antenna design techniques for use in

vehicular environment. The outline of the thesis is presented in Figure 1.18.

The objectives of the research are:

(i) To design a multi-frequency antenna with small frequency

ratio for satellite services in the L-band.

A slot loaded penta-band microstrip patch antenna is

presented in this thesis. The presented design achieves
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smallest frequency ratio with sufficient inter band spacing.

The antenna can be located in the roof of the vehicle.

Figure 1.18 Outline of the thesis

(ii) To design compact multi-service antennas for Intelligent

Transport System (ITS).

The antennas used in automobiles should complement the

aesthetics of the vehicle. Therefore, compact antenna
structures are designed for ITS using PIFA and quad-band
monopole technology. This antenna can be easily located
inside the vehicle and merely making it hidden can improve
the aesthetic value of the vehicle.

(iii) To design an ultra-wideband (UWB) antenna for in-vehicle

communications.

The UWB technology provides large multipath immunity and

it is capable of handling multimedia content with low power
consumption. A simple compact UWB antenna is presented in
this thesis for in-vehicle communications.
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(iv) To evaluate the diversity performance of the compact antenna

configurations

The effects of multipath propagation are significant in

automotive environment. Therefore diversity techniques are
employed in modern automobiles to achieve good spatial
coverage and link quality. The compact antennas developed
are used for constructing spatial, polarization and pattern
diverse antennas.

(v) To construct bandwidth enhanced high gain antennas for

automotive radar applications

Dedicated short range UWB radar utilizing 24 GHz frequency

spectrum is used for collision detection and avoidance. This
technology requires a more directional antennas. GAA is
found to be a promising technology which can be adopted to
construct antennas having fan beam radiation pattern. This
thesis demonstrates two GAAs that provide high gain and
large bandwidth in comparison with the narrow band GAA
constructed using line radiators.

1.4 SYNOPSIS OF THE THESIS

The key aim of this thesis is the design and development of

antennas for use in automotive environment. The antenna designs are carried
out with a view to
1) Increase the number of services offered in the modern
automobiles without increasing the number of antennas.
2) Develop compact antennas that gives high mounting flexibility
3) Achieve good spatial coverage
4) Reduce manufacturing cost and engineering cost
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The thesis comprises of 6 Chapters as listed below:

Chapter 1: Introduction to Automotive Antennas

Chapter 2: Multi-Frequency Antenna for Satellite Services
Chapter 3: Compact Multi-Service Antennas for Intelligent
Transport Systems (ITS)
Chapter 4: Diversity Analysis of Compact Antenna
Configurations
Chapter 5: Wideband Grid Array Antennas for Automotive
Radar Systems
Chapter 6: Conclusions and Future Scope

Chapter 1 provides the broad overview of automotive antennas. The

trends and developments of modern automotive communication are dealt in
brief. The antenna requirements for these new services are discussed and
explained. The objectives of the research work and the organization of thesis
are described in this chapter. As an outcome of this chapter, the reader will
understand the aim of the present research work and the contributions made in
this thesis.

Chapter 2 describes the conventional multi-frequency antenna

design techniques. Based on the merits of slot-loaded antennas, a penta-band
microstrip patch antenna (MSPA) is designed and demonstrated in this
chapter for satellite based vehicular communications. The antenna reflection
coefficient characteristics and radiation pattern are presented in this chapter.
The salient features of this antenna have also been described. The proposed
antenna can be loaded in the roof-top of the vehicle and hence the effect of
car roof on the antenna’s performance is evaluated and presented in this
chapter.
 29

Chapter 3 presents three compact antenna solutions for multi-

service utility in automotive environment. The compact modified PIFA is
designed and the development of shared aperture multiservice antenna for
integration with PCB electronics is demonstrated. Further size reduced
antenna is achieved using folded monopole antenna employing asymmetric
coplanar strip-line (ACS) configuration. The proposed compact antennas are
light weight, simple and cost effective. Both the antennas provide multi-
frequency operation within a small volume. Furthermore, a bandwidth
enhanced antenna with hybrid geometry is presented in this chapter for
automotive UWB communications. The performances of all the presented
antennas are validated using free-space experimental measurements. The
antenna housing effects such as antenna-to-antenna coupling and far-field
radiation characteristics are estimated and the results are presented.

Chapter 4 describes the diversity analysis of co-located compact

antennas. The multipath signal propagation in automotive environment causes
deep fading and depolarization of transmitted radio signal. Further the
vehicle’s body and other vehicles on-road create shadowing effects.
Therefore, diversity techniques are adopted in automobiles to overcome these
effects. Multiple identical antennas with same or different orientations are
deployed in the vehicle’s body to achieve spatial, polarization and pattern
diversity. The construction and performance evaluation of diversity antennas
is presented in this chapter. The diversity metrics such as envelope correlation
coefficient (ECC), diversity gain (DG), mean effective gain (MEG) and Total
Active Reflection Coefficient (TARC) are evaluated and presented.

The conventional narrow-band radar systems suffer from severe

interference effects due to passive sensors operating in the same frequency
band and the co-existence of many vehicles fitted with similar radar systems.
Chapter 5 demonstrates the design of two bandwidth enhanced GAAs for
 30

application to wideband automotive radar systems. At first, bandwidth

enhancement is demonstrated by reactance loading in the radiating lines of the
GAA. The bandwidth of the GAA can also be increased by replacing the
narrow band radiating lines with novel astroid radiating elements providing
large impedance bandwidth. The design and discussion of this GAA
constructed using astroid radiating elements is presented in the second part of
the chapter.

Chapter 6 presents the conclusions and future scope of the research

work presented in this thesis.