General Physics (PHY 2130)

Lecture V
• Energy
¾ potential energy
¾ power
• Momentum
¾ Impulse
¾ Elastic collisions
¾ Inelastic collisions
¾ 2-dimensional collisions

http://www.physics.wayne.edu/~apetrov/PHY2130/
 Lightning Review

Last lecture:

1. Forces and applications

9 Inclined surfaces: use convenient coordinate frame
9 Connected objects: acceleration is the same everywhere
2. Energy
9 Kinetic energy – associated with motion.
 Last time: Kinetic Energy

► When work is done by a net force on an

object and the only change in the object
is its speed, the work done is equal to the
change in the object’s kinetic energy

► Wnet = KE f − KEi = ∆KE

1 2
► Energy associated with the motion of an object KE = mv
2
 Potential Energy
► Potentialenergy is associated with the
position of the object within some
system
ƒ Potential energy is a property of the
system, not the object
ƒ A system is a collection of objects or
particles interacting via forces or processes
that are internal to the system
► Unitsof Potential Energy are the same
as those of Work and Kinetic Energy [J]
 Example: Gravitational Potential
Energy
► GravitationalPotential Energy is the energy
associated with the relative position of an
object in space near the Earth’s surface

ƒ Objects interact with the earth through the

gravitational force
ƒ The potential energy of the earth-object system
Potential Energy: example
 Work and Gravitational Potential
Energy
► Consider block of mass m at initial height yi
► Work done by the gravitational force

Wgrav = (F cosθ ) s = (mg cosθ ) s, but :

s = yi − y f , cosθ = 1,
Thus : Wgrav = mg ( yi − y f ) = mgyi − mgy f .

This quantity is called potential energy:

PE = mgy

„ Note: Wgravity = PEi − PE f Important: work is related to the difference in PE’s!

Reference Levels for Gravitational
Potential Energy
►A location where the gravitational potential energy is
zero must be chosen for each problem

ƒ The choice is arbitrary since the change in the potential

energy is the important quantity
ƒ Choose a convenient location for the zero reference height
► oftenthe Earth’s surface
► may be some other point suggested by the problem
Reference Levels for
Gravitational Potential Energy
„ A location where the
gravitational potential energy is
zero must be chosen for each
problem
„ The choice is arbitrary since
the change in the potential
energy gives the work done

Wgrav1 = mgyi1 − mgy f1 ,

Wgrav 2 = mgyi2 − mgy f 2 ,
Wgrav 3 = mgyi3 − mgy f 3 .
Wgrav1 = Wgrav 2 = Wgrav 3 .
 Example problem

A 2.00-kg ball is attached to a ceiling by a 1.00-m-long string.

The height of the room is 3.00 m. What is the gravitational
potential energy associated with the ball relative to (a) the
ceiling? (b) the floor? (c) a point at the same elevation as the
ball?
 ConcepTest
At the bowling alley, the ball-feeder mechanism must exert
a force to push the bowling balls up a 1.0-m long ramp.
The ramp leads the balls to a chute 0.5 m above the base
of the ramp. Approximately how much force must be
exerted on a 5.0-kg bowling ball?

1. 200 N
2. 50 N
3. 25 N
4. 5.0 N
5. impossible to
determine
Please fill your answer as question 17 of
General Purpose Answer Sheet
 ConcepTest
At the bowling alley, the ball-feeder mechanism must exert
a force to push the bowling balls up a 1.0-m long ramp.
The ramp leads the balls to a chute 0.5 m above the base
of the ramp. Approximately how much force must be
exerted on a 5.0-kg bowling ball?

1. 200 N
2. 50 N
3. 25 N
4. 5.0 N
5. impossible to
determine
Please fill your answer as question 18 of
General Purpose Answer Sheet
 ConcepTest
At the bowling alley, the ball-feeder mechanism must exert
a force to push the bowling balls up a 1.0-m long ramp.
The ramp leads the balls to a chute 0.5 m above the base
of the ramp. Approximately how much force must be
exerted on a 5.0-kg bowling ball?

1. 200 N
2. 50 N
3. 25 N 9
4. 5.0 N
5. impossible to
determine
Note: The force exerted by the mechanism times the distance of 1.0
m over which the force is exerted must equal the change in
the potential energy of the ball divided by the distance.
 Conservative Forces
►A force is conservative if the work it does on
an object moving between two points is
independent of the path the objects take
between the points
ƒ The work depends only upon the initial and final
positions of the object
ƒ Any conservative force can have a potential
energy function associated with it
Note: a force is conservative if the work it does on an object moving
through any closed path is zero.
Examples of Conservative Forces:
► Examples of conservative forces include:
ƒ Gravity
ƒ Spring force
ƒ Electromagnetic forces
► Since work is independent of the path:
ƒ Wc = PEi − PE f : only initial and final points
 Nonconservative Forces
►A force is nonconservative if the work it
does on an object depends on the path
taken by the object between its final and
starting points.
► Examples of nonconservative forces
ƒ kinetic friction, air drag, propulsive forces
 Example: Friction as a
Nonconservative Force
► The friction force transforms kinetic energy
of the object into a type of energy
associated with temperature
ƒ the objects are warmer than they were before
the movement
ƒ Internal Energy is the term used for the energy
associated with an object’s temperature
 Friction Depends on the Path

► The blue path is

shorter than the red
path
► The work required is
less on the blue
path than on the red
path
► Friction depends on
the path and so is a
nonconservative
force
 Conservation of Mechanical
Energy
► Conservation in general
ƒ To say a physical quantity is conserved is to say that
the numerical value of the quantity remains constant
► InConservation of Energy, the total mechanical
energy remains constant
ƒ In any isolated system of objects that interact only
through conservative forces, the total mechanical
energy of the system remains constant.
 Conservation of Energy
► Totalmechanical energy is the sum of the
kinetic and potential energies in the system
Ei = E f
KEi + PEi = KE f + PE f
ƒ Other types of energy can be added to modify
this equation
 Problem Solving with
Conservation of Energy
► Define the system
► Select the location of zero gravitational potential
energy
ƒ Do not change this location while solving the problem
► Determine whether or not nonconservative forces
are present
► If only conservative forces are present, apply
conservation of energy and solve for the unknown
 Example problem
Tarzan swings on a 30.0-m-long vine initially inclined at an angle of 37.0°
with the vertical. What is his speed at the bottom of the swing (a) if he
starts from rest? (b) if he pushes off with a speed of 4.00 m/s?
 ConcepTest
A block initially at rest is allowed to slide down a frictionless
ramp and attains a speed v at the bottom.To achieve a speed
2v at the bottom, how many times as high must a new ramp
be?

1. 1
2. 2
3. 3
4. 4
5. 5
6. 6

Please fill your answer as question 19 of

General Purpose Answer Sheet
 ConcepTest
A block initially at rest is allowed to slide down a frictionless
ramp and attains a speed v at the bottom.To achieve a speed
2v at the bottom, how many times as high must a new ramp
be?

1. 1
2. 2
3. 3
4. 4
5. 5
6. 6

Please fill your answer as question 20 of

General Purpose Answer Sheet
 ConcepTest 3
A block initially at rest is allowed to slide down a frictionless
ramp and attains a speed v at the bottom.To achieve a speed
2v at the bottom, how many times as high must a new ramp
be?

1. 1
2. 2
3. 3
4. 4 9
5. 5
6. 6

Note: The gain in kinetic energy, proportional to the square

of the block’s speed at the bottom of the ramp, is equal
to the loss in potential energy. This, in turn, is
proportional to the height of the ramp.
 Potential Energy Stored in a
Spring
► Involves the spring constant (or
force constant), k
► Hooke’s Law gives the force
ƒF=-kx
►F is the restoring force
► F is in the opposite direction of x
► k depends on how the spring was formed, the
material it is made from, thickness of the wire,
etc.
 Potential Energy in a Spring
► Elastic Potential Energy
ƒ related to the work required to compress a spring from its
equilibrium position to some final, arbitrary, position x

Wspr = (F cosθ ) x, but :

F0 + Fx 0 + Fx − kx
cosθ = 1, F = = =
2 2 2
− kx 1
Thus : Wspr = 0− x = k x2.
2 2
1 2
This is called elastic potential energy: PEs = kx
2
Conservation of Energy including
a Spring
► The PE of the spring is added to both sides
of the conservation of energy equation

► ( KE + PE g + PEs ) i = ( KE + PE g + PEs ) f
 Nonconservative Forces with
Energy Considerations
► When nonconservative forces are present,
the total mechanical energy of the system is
not constant
► The work done by all nonconservative
forces acting on parts of a system equals
the change in the mechanical energy of the
system

ƒ Wnonconservative = ∆Energy
 Nonconservative Forces and
Energy
► In equation form:
Wnc = KE f − KEi − ( PEi − PE f ) or
Wnc = ( KE f + PE f ) − ( KEi + PEi )
► The energy can either cross a boundary or the
energy is transformed into a form not yet
accounted for
► Friction is an example of a nonconservative force
 Transferring Energy
► By Work
ƒ By applying a force
ƒ Produces a
displacement of the
system
 Transferring Energy
► Heat
ƒ The process of
transferring heat by
collisions between
molecules
 Transferring Energy
► Mechanical Waves
ƒ a disturbance
propagates through a
medium
ƒ Examples include
sound, water, seismic
 Transferring Energy
► Electrical transmission
ƒ transfer by means of
electrical current
 Transferring Energy
► Electromagnetic
radiation
ƒ any form of
electromagnetic waves
► Light, microwaves, radio
waves
Let’s watch the movie!
 Notes About Conservation of
Energy
► We can neither create nor destroy energy
ƒ Another way of saying energy is conserved
ƒ If the total energy of the system does not
remain constant, the energy must have
crossed the boundary by some mechanism
ƒ Applies to areas other than physics
 Problem Solving with
Nonconservative Forces
► Define the system
► Write expressions for the total initial and
final energies
► Set the Wnc equal to the difference between
the final and initial total energy
► Follow the general rules for solving
Conservation of Energy problems
 Power
► Oftenalso interested in the rate at which the
energy transfer takes place
► Power is defined as this rate of energy transfer
ƒ
W
P= = Fv
t
ƒ SI units are Watts (W)
J kg • m2
► W= =
s s2
 Power, cont.
► US Customary units are generally hp
(horsepower)
ƒ need a conversion factor

ft lb
1 hp = 550 = 746 W
s
ƒ Can define units of work or energy in terms of units of
power:
► kilowatt hours (kWh) are often used in electric bills
 Center of Mass
► The
point in the body at which all the mass
may be considered to be concentrated

ƒ When using mechanical energy, the change in

potential energy is related to the change in
height of the center of mass
 Work Done by Varying Forces
► The work done by a
variable force acting
on an object that
undergoes a
displacement is equal
to the area under the
graph of F versus x
 Spring Example

► Spring is slowly stretched

from 0 to xmax
► Fapplied = -Frestoring = kx
► W = {area under the curve} =
½(kx) x = ½kx²
Momentum and Collisions
 Momentum
► From Newton’s laws: force must be present to change an
object’s velocity (speed and/or direction)
¾ Wish to consider effects of collisions and corresponding
change in velocity
Golf ball initially at rest, so
some of the KE of club
transferred to provide motion
of golf ball and its change in
velocity

¾ Method to describe is to use concept of linear momentum

Linear momentum = product of mass × velocity

scalar vector
 Momentum

p = mv

► Vector quantity, the direction of the momentum is

the same as the velocity’s
► Applies to two-dimensional motion as well

p x = mv x and p y = mv y

Size of momentum: depends upon mass

depends upon velocity
 Impulse

► In order to change the momentum of an object

(say, golf ball), a force must be applied
► The time rate of change of momentum of an
object is equal to the net force acting on it

ƒ ∆ p m (v f − v i )
F net = = = ma or : ∆ p = F net ∆t
∆t ∆t
ƒ Gives an alternative statement of Newton’s second law
ƒ (F ∆t) is defined as the impulse
ƒ Impulse is a vector quantity, the direction is the same
as the direction of the force
 Graphical Interpretation of Impulse

► Usually force is not constant,

but time-dependent

impulse = ∑ Fi ∆ti = area under F (t ) curve

∆ti

► If the force is not constant,

use the average force
applied
► The average force can be If force is constant: impulse = F ∆t
thought of as the constant
force that would give the
same impulse to the object
in the time interval as the
actual time-varying force
gives in the interval
 Example: Impulse Applied to
Auto Collisions
► The most important factor is the collision time or
the time it takes the person to come to a rest
ƒ This will reduce the chance of dying in a car crash
► Ways to increase the time
ƒ Seat belts
ƒ Air bags

¾ The air bag increases the time of the collision and

absorbs some of the energy from the body
 ConcepTest
Suppose a ping-pong ball and a bowling ball are rolling toward
you. Both have the same momentum, and you exert the same
force to stop each. How do the time intervals to stop them
compare?

1. It takes less time to stop the ping-pong ball.

2. Both take the same time.
3. It takes more time to stop the ping-pong ball.

Please fill your answer as question 21 of

General Purpose Answer Sheet
 ConcepTest
Suppose a ping-pong ball and a bowling ball are rolling toward
you. Both have the same momentum, and you exert the same
force to stop each. How do the time intervals to stop them
compare?

1. It takes less time to stop the ping-pong ball.

2. Both take the same time.
3. It takes more time to stop the ping-pong ball.

Please fill your answer as question 22 of

General Purpose Answer Sheet
 ConcepTest
Suppose a ping-pong ball and a bowling ball are rolling toward
you. Both have the same momentum, and you exert the same
force to stop each. How do the time intervals to stop them
compare?

1. It takes less time to stop the ping-pong ball.

2. Both take the same time. 9
3. It takes more time to stop the ping-pong ball.

Note: Because force equals the time rate of change of

momentum, the two balls loose momentum at the same
rate. If both balls initially had the same momenta, it
takes the same amount of time to stop them.
 Problem: Teeing Off

A 50-g golf ball at rest is hit by “Big

Bertha” club with 500-g mass.
After the collision, golf leaves
with velocity of 50 m/s.

a) Find impulse imparted to ball

b) Assuming club in contact with
ball for 0.5 ms, find average force
acting on golf ball
 Problem: teeing off

1. Use impulse-momentum relation:

Given:
impulse = ∆p = mv f − mvi
mass: m=50 g = (0.050 kg )(50 m s ) − 0
= 0.050 kg = 2.50 kg ⋅ m s
velocity: v=50 m/s 9
2. Having found impulse, find the average
Find: force from the definition of impulse:

impulse=? ∆p 2.50 kg ⋅ m s
∆p = F ⋅ ∆t , thus F = =
Faverage=? ∆t 0.5 × 10 −3 s
= 5.00 × 103 N 9
Note: according to Newton’s 3rd law, that is also a reaction force to club hitting the ball:
of club
F ⋅ ∆t = − F R ⋅ ∆t , or
( )
mv f − mv i = − M V f − M V i , or
mv f + M V f = mv i + M V i CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
 Conservation of Momentum
► Definition:an isolated system is the one that has
no external forces acting on it

Momentum in an isolated system in which a

collision occurs is conserved (regardless of
the nature of the forces between the objects)
ƒ A collision may be the result of physical contact
between two objects
ƒ “Contact” may also arise from the electrostatic
interactions of the electrons in the surface atoms of the
bodies
 Conservation of Momentum
The principle of conservation of momentum
states when no external forces act on a
system consisting of two objects that collide
with each other, the total momentum of the
system before the collision is equal to the
total momentum of the system after the
collision
 Conservation of Momentum
► Mathematically: m1 v1i + m2 v 2i = m1 v1 f + m2 v 2 f

ƒ Momentum is conserved for the system of objects

ƒ The system includes all the objects interacting with each
other
ƒ Assumes only internal forces are acting during the collision
ƒ Can be generalized to any number of objects
 Problem: Teeing Off (cont.)
Let’s go back to our golf ball and club problem:

Ball : ∆p = 2.50 kg ⋅ m s , m = 50 gramm

∆v = 50 m s
( )
Club : m v f − v i = −2.50 kg ⋅ m s , so

(v f − v )=
i
− 2.50 kg ⋅ m s
0.5 kg
= −5m s

factor of 10 times smaller

 ConcepTest
Suppose a person jumps on the surface of Earth. The Earth

1. will not move at all

2. will recoil in the opposite direction with tiny velocity
3. might recoil, but there is not enough information
provided to see if that could happened

Please fill your answer as question 23 of

General Purpose Answer Sheet
 ConcepTest
Suppose a person jumps on the surface of Earth. The Earth

1. will not move at all

2. will recoil in the opposite direction with tiny velocity
3. might recoil, but there is not enough information
provided to see if that could happened

Please fill your answer as question 24 of

General Purpose Answer Sheet
 ConcepTest
Suppose a person jumps on the surface of Earth. The Earth

1. will not move at all

2. will recoil in the opposite direction with tiny velocity 9
3. might recoil, but there is not enough information
provided to see if that could happened

Note: momentum is conserved. Let’s estimate Earth’s velocity

after a jump by a 80-kg person. Suppose that initial speed of
the jump is 4 m/s, then:

Person : ∆ p = 320 kg ⋅ m s
Earth : ∆ p = M Earth V Earth = − 320 kg ⋅ m s , so
− 320 kg ⋅ m s
V Earth = = − 5 . 3 × 10 − 23 m s
6 × 10 kg
24

tiny negligible velocity, in opposite direction

 Types of Collisions

► Momentum is conserved in any collision

what about kinetic energy?

► Inelastic collisions
ƒ Kinetic energy is not conserved KE i = KE f + lost energy
► Some of the kinetic energy is converted into other types
of energy such as heat, sound, work to permanently
deform an object
ƒ Perfectly inelastic collisions occur when the objects
stick together
► Not all of the KE is necessarily lost
 Perfectly Inelastic Collisions:
► When two objects stick
together after the collision,
they have undergone a
perfectly inelastic collision
► Suppose, for example, v2i=0.
Conservation of momentum
becomes
m1v1i + m2 v2i = (m1 + m2 )v f
m1v1i + 0 = (m1 + m2 )v f
E.g., if m1 = 1000 kg , m2 = 1500 kg :
(1000kg )(50 m s ) + 0 = (2500kg )v f ,
5 ×10 4 kg ⋅ m s
vf = = 20 m s.
2.5 ×10 kg
3
 Perfectly Inelastic Collisions:
► What amount of KE lost during
collision?

1 1
KEbefore = m1v12i + m2 v22i
2 2
1
= (1000 kg )(50 m s ) 2 = 1.25 ×106 J
2
1
KEafter = (m1 + m2 )v 2f
2
1
= (2500 kg )(20 m s ) 2 = 0.50 ×106 J
2

∆KElost = 0.75 ×10 6 J

lost in heat/”gluing”/sound/…
 More Types of Collisions
► Elastic collisions
ƒ both momentum and kinetic energy are
conserved
► Actual collisions
ƒ Most collisions fall between elastic and perfectly
inelastic collisions
 More About Elastic Collisions

► Both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved

► Typically have two unknowns

m1v1i + m2 v2i = m1v1 f + m2 v2 f

1 1 1 1
m1v1i + m2 v2i = m1v1 f + m2 v22 f
2 2 2

2 2 2 2

► Solve the equations simultaneously

 Elastic Collisions:

► Using previous example (but

elastic collision is assumed)

P before = m1 v1i + m1 v 2i
= (1000 kg )(50 m s ) + (1500 kg )(−20 m s )
= 2.0 ×10 4 kg ⋅ m s
1 1
KEbefore = m1v12i + m2 v22i
2 2
= 1.25 ×106 J + 3 × 105 J
= 1.55 ×106 J
For perfectly elastic collision:
2.0 ×10 4 kg ⋅ m s = −m1v1 f + m2 v2 f
v1 f = −26.7 m s
1 1
1.55 ×10 6 J = m1v12f + m2 v22 f v2 f = +31.1 m s
2 2
 Problem Solving for One -
Dimensional Collisions
► Setup a coordinate axis and define the
velocities with respect to this axis
ƒ It is convenient to make your axis coincide with
one of the initial velocities
► Inyour sketch, draw all the velocity vectors
with labels including all the given
information
 Sketches for Collision Problems
► Draw “before” and
“after” sketches
► Label each object
ƒ include the direction of
velocity
ƒ keep track of subscripts
 Sketches for Perfectly Inelastic
Collisions
► The objects stick
together
► Include all the velocity
directions
► The “after” collision
combines the masses
 Problem Solving for One-
Dimensional Collisions, cont.
► Write the expressions for the
momentum of each object before and
after the collision
ƒ Remember to include the appropriate signs
► Write an expression for the total
momentum before and after the
collision
ƒ Remember the momentum of the system is
what is conserved
 Problem Solving for One-
Dimensional Collisions, final
► If
the collision is inelastic, solve the
momentum equation for the unknown
ƒ Remember, KE is not conserved
► Ifthe collision is elastic, you can use the KE
equation to solve for two unknowns
 Glancing Collisions
► Fora general collision of two objects in
three-dimensional space, the conservation
of momentum principle implies that the total
momentum of the system in each direction
is conserved
m1v1ix + m2 v2ix = m1v1 fx + m2 v2 fx and
ƒ
m1v1iy + m2 v2iy = m1v1 fy + m2 v2 fy

ƒ Use subscripts for identifying the object, initial

and final, and components
 Glancing Collisions

► The “after” velocities have x and y

components
► Momentum is conserved in the x direction
and in the y direction
► Apply separately to each direction
 Problem Solving for Two-
Dimensional Collisions
► Setup coordinate axes and define your
velocities with respect to these axes
ƒ It is convenient to choose the x axis to coincide
with one of the initial velocities
► Inyour sketch, draw and label all the
velocities and include all the given
information
 Problem Solving for Two-
Dimensional Collisions, cont
► Write expressions for the x and y
components of the momentum of each
object before and after the collision
► Write expressions for the total momentum
before and after the collision in the x-
direction
ƒ Repeat for the y-direction
 Problem Solving for Two-
Dimensional Collisions, final
► Solve for the unknown quantities
ƒ If the collision is inelastic, additional information
is probably required
ƒ If the collision is perfectly inelastic, the final
velocities of the two objects is the same
ƒ If the collision is elastic, use the KE equations to
help solve for the unknowns
 Rocket Propulsion
► The operation of a rocket depends on the
law of conservation of momentum as
applied to a system, where the system is
the rocket plus its ejected fuel
ƒ This is different than propulsion on the earth
where two objects exert forces on each other
►road on car
►train on track
 Rocket Propulsion, cont.
► The rocket is accelerated as a result of the
thrust of the exhaust gases
► This represents the inverse of an inelastic
collision
ƒ Momentum is conserved
ƒ Kinetic Energy is increased (at the expense of
the stored energy of the rocket fuel)
 Rocket Propulsion

► The initial mass of the rocket is M + ∆m

ƒ M is the mass of the rocket
ƒ m is the mass of the fuel
► The initial velocity of the rocket is v
 Rocket Propulsion

► The rocket’s mass is M

► The mass of the fuel, ∆m, has been ejected
► The rocket’s speed has increased to v + ∆v
 Rocket Propulsion, final
► The basic equation for rocket propulsion is:
 Mi 
v f − v i = v e ln 
 Mf 
ƒ Mi is the initial mass of the rocket plus fuel
ƒ Mf is the final mass of the rocket plus any remaining
fuel
ƒ The speed of the rocket is proportional to the exhaust
speed
 Thrust of a Rocket
► The thrust is the force exerted on the rocket
by the ejected exhaust gases
► The instantaneous thrust is given by
∆v ∆M
Ma = M = ve
∆t ∆t
ƒ The thrust increases as the exhaust speed
increases and as the burn rate (∆M/∆t)
increases