CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter presented the conceptual literature, research literature which was crucial
for the understanding of the present research study.

Conceptual Literature
This contains the literary section from different sources and their studies which gave
sufficient information related to the study.
I. Water
Water (H2O, HOH) is the most abundant molecule on Earth's surface, composing 70-75%
of the Earth's surface as liquid and solid state in addition to being found in the atmosphere as a
vapor. It is in dynamic equilibrium between the liquid and vapour states at standard
temperature and pressure. (Boundless, 2016)
Water is primarily a liquid under standard conditions, which is not predicted from its
relationship to other analogous hydrides of the oxygen family in the periodic table, which are
gases such as hydrogen sulphide.
The elements surrounding oxygen in the periodic table, nitrogen, fluorine, phosphorus and
chlorine, all combine with hydrogen to produce gases under standard conditions. The reason
that water forms a liquid is that oxygen is more electronegative than all of these elements with
the exception of fluorine.

Table 1 shows the properties of water.

Table 1
 Properties of Water

Properties of Water
Molecular Formula H2O
White solid, or almost colorless,
Appearance transparent, with a slight hint of blue,
crystalline solid or liquid
1000 kg/m3, liquid
Density and Phase
917 kg/m3, solid
Melting point 0 °C, 32 °F (273.15 K)
Boiling point 100 °C, 212 °F (373.15 K)
Triple point 273.16 K, 611.73 Pa
Specific heat cp= 1850 J/(kg·K)
capacity (gas) cv= 3724 J/(kg.K)
Specific heat
4186 J/(kg·K)
capacity (liquid)
Specific heat
2060 J/(kg·K)
capacity (solid)
Acidity (pKa) 15.74
Basicity (pKb) 15.74
Viscosity 0.001 Pa·s at 20 °C

Source: www.webpages.uidaho.edu

Table 1 shows the properties of water at standard reference state. At this circumstance,
it is a nearly colorless, tasteless, and an odorless liquid. Many substances dissolve in water and
it is commonly referred to as the universal solvent; because of this, water in nature and in use
is rarely clean, and may have some properties different than those in the laboratory.
II. Water Supply
Before water is supplied on households, it undergoes different processes to ensure the
quality of water is safe for consumption. In the Philippines, the main sources of water include
river, lakes, river basins and ground water reservoirs. Table 2 shows three levels used to
designate water systems in the Philippines.
 Access to clean and adequate water remains an acute seasonal problem in urban and
coastal areas in the Philippines. The National Capital Region (Metro Manila), Central Luzon,
Southern Tagalog, and Central Visayas are the four urban critical regions in terms of water
quality and quantity. The Government’s monitoring data indicates, just over a third or 36
percent of the country’s river systems are classified as sources of public water supply, up to 58
percent of groundwater sampled is contaminated with coliform and needs treatment,
approximately 31 percent of illness monitored for a five-year period were caused by water-
borne sources; and many areas are experiencing a shortage of water supply during the dry
season.

III. Classification of Water

In the Philippines classification is a very important component of water quality
management since the application of effluent standards are dependent on this classification.
Three activities are involved namely: establishments of water bodies beneficial use,
identification of water quality indicators (or criteria pollutants) and water quality suitable for
each use. (DENR Administrative Order No. 34 Series of 1990). The classification helps water
managers and planners to develop proper water quality management programs and provide the
standards to protect aquatic life and human use of specific water bodies. (DENR, 2014). Table
2 shows the water usage and classification in the Philippines. This administrative order classifies
water bodies into five (5) classes, i.e. AA, A, A, C.

Table 2
Water Usage and Classifications in the Philippines

Classification Beneficial Use

Public Water Supply Class 1. This class is intended primarily for
Class AA
waters having watersheds which are uninhabited and otherwise
 protected and which require only approved disinfection in order to
meet the National standards for Drinking Water (NSDW) of the
Philippines.
Public Water Supply Class 2. For sources of water supply that will
Class A require complete treatment (coagulation, sedimentation, filtration,
and disinfection) in order to meet the NSDW.
Recreational Water Class 1. For primarily contact recreation such as
Class B bathing, swimming, skin diving, etc. (particularly those designated
for tourism purpose.)
a. Fishery Water for the propagation and growth of fish and other
aquatic resources.
b. Recreational water class 2 (boating, etc)
Class C
c. Industrial Water supply class 1 (from manufacturing
processes after treatment.

1. For agriculture, irrigation, live stocks watering, etc.)

2. Industrial Water supply class 2 (e.g. cooling, etc.)Other
Class D
3. Inland waters by their quality belong to this classification.

Source: DENR Administrative Order No. 34 Series of 1990

Table 2 shows the classification of water in the Philippines. With this classification,
the government can determine the programs and activities to implement to optimize the use
of the water resources to make them beneficial to the welfare and health of the environment
and the consumers.

Raw Water
Raw water is water which has come straight from the environment and has not been
treated or purified in any way. This includes rainwater and water from streams, rivers and lakes.
It water is also known as natural water because it has had not been subjected to any treatment
to ready it suitable for human consumption, nor have any minerals, ions, particles or living
organisms been removed. Raw water includes rainwater, ground water, water from infiltration
wells, and water from bodies like lakes and rivers. The characteristics of raw water include
physical ones, such as taste, temperature, or turbidity, chemical ones, such as
hardness, acidity/alkalinity, and ion content, and biological ones, such as organism presences.
These characteristics can vary greatly depending on environmental conditions. Pollution can
also effect raw water content.

IV. Water Treatment Methods

The processes involved in removing the contaminants include physical processes such as
settling and filtration, chemical processes such as disinfection and coagulation and biological
processes such as slow sand filtration
Measures taken to ensure water quality not only relate to the treatment of the water, but to
its conveyance and distribution after treatment. It is therefore common practice to keep residual
disinfectants in the treated water to kill bacteriological contamination during distribution.

Water treatment methods include:

1. Chemical Disinfection
Chemical disinfection is the most widely-practiced means of treating water at the
community level; apart from boiling, it is also the method used most broadly in the home.
2. Filtration
Household filters potentially present certain advantages over other technologies.
They operate under a variety of conditions (temperature, pH, turbidity), introduce no chemicals
into the water that may affect use due to objections about taste and odour, are easy to use, and
improve the water aesthetically, thus potentially encouraging routine use without extensive
intervention to promote behavioral change. At the same time, they have a higher up-front cost.
3. Thermal and Solar Disinfection.
Boiling or heat treatment of water with fuel is effective against the full range of
microbial pathogens and can be employed regardless of the turbidity or dissolved constituents
of water. The Philippines National Standards for Drinking Water (AO 2007-12) recommends
bringing water to a rolling boil for 2 minutes, this is mainly intended as a visual indication that
a high temperature has been achieved; even heating to pasteurization temperatures (60º C) for
a few minutes will kill or deactivate most microbial pathogens.
 However, the cost and time used in procuring fuel, the potential aggravation of
indoor air quality and associated respiratory infections, the increased risk of burns, and
questions about the environmental sustainability of boiling have led to other alternatives.
4. Combination Flocculation and Disinfection
A particular challenge for most household-based water treatment technologies is
high turbidity (suspended solids). Such solids can use up free chlorine and other chemical
disinfectants, cause premature clogging of filters, and block UV radiation essential in solar
disinfection. Field studies have shown such flocculation-disinfection products to be effective
in preventing diarrheal diseases. While these products are relatively expensive on a per litre
treated basis, they may have application in certain emergency and other settings with high or
unpredictable turbidity.

A. Microbiologically
Drinking-water supplies should be free from contamination by human and animal
excreta, which can contain a variety of microbial contaminants. Microbiological parameters
are indices of potential waterborne diseases and, in general, are limited to bacteria, viruses and
pathogenic protozoa. The major interest in classifying and issuing standards is the
identification, quantification, and evaluation of organisms associated with waterborne diseases.
Practically, all pathogenic organisms that can be carried by water originate from the intestinal
tract of warm blooded animals. (Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water, 2007)
Total coliforms are a group of related bacteria that are (with few exceptions) not
harmful to humans. A variety of bacteria, parasites, and viruses, known as pathogens, can
potentially cause health problems if humans ingest them. EPA considers total coliforms a
useful indicator of other pathogens for drinking water. Total coliforms are used to determine
the adequacy of water treatment and the integrity of the distribution system. (Revised Total
Coliform Rule, September 2013) Potential health effects include assorted gastro enteric
infections and diseases. Symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and stomach cramps are
typically noticed. People with weakened immune symptoms are especially susceptible to
illnesses.
According to Jolley and English, 2007, fecal coliform bacteria are the most common
microbiological contaminants of natural waters. Fecal coliform live in the digestive tracks of
warm-blooded animals, including humans, and are excreted in the feces. Although most of
these bacteria are not harmful and are part of the normal digestive system, some are pathogenic
to humans. Those that are pathogenic can cause disease such as gastroenteritis, ear infections,
typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis A, and cholera. Some of the symptoms of illness associated
with fecal coliform pathogens are minor, such as upset stomach, diarrhea, ear infections, and
rashes. However, some pathogens, such as E coli, hepatitis, and Salmonella, can have very
severe health effects.
Heterotrophs are a group of microorganisms (bacteria, molds and yeasts) that use
organic carbon sources to grow and can be found in all types of water. In fact, the majority of
bacteria found in drinking water systems are considered heterotrophs. Heterotrophic plate
count (HPC) is a method that measures colony formation on culture media of heterotrophic
bacteria in drinking water. Thus the HPC test (also known as Standard Plate Count) can be
used to measure the overall bacteriological quality of drinking water in public, semi-public and
private water systems. (Gandham 2016). Table 11 shows the standard values for
microbiological quantity.

A.Water Sampling for Microbiological Analysis

Microbiological examination, i.e. determination of fecal contamination of water supply,
is conducted more frequently than the other tests because of the high probability of microbial
contamination and the extent of public health it might cause.
The sample should be representative of the water under examination. Contamination
during collection and before examination should be avoided. The volume of sample should be
sufficient to carry out all tests required, preferably not less than 100 ml.
Collect samples for microbiological examination in 120 ml clear bottles, see table 15
that have been cleansed and rinsed carefully, given a final rinse with distilled water and
sterilized as directed in the standard method of analysis for water and wastewater. Sampling
bottles should be provided with either ground glass stoppers or plastic screw caps. A paper or
a thin aluminum foil cover should protect both the stopper and neck of the bottle.
The sampling bottle should be kept unopened until it is ready for filling. Remove stopper
or cap as a unit; do not contaminate inner surface of stopper or cap and neck of bottle.
Water samples should be processed promptly or within six (6) hours after collection or if
not possible the use of ice coolers for storage of water samples during transport to the laboratory
is recommended. The time elapsed between collections and processing should in no case
exceed 24 hours.
Sampling bottles must be tagged with complete and accurate identification and
description. The information about the samples can be recorded in a request form for analysis
of water quality.
A. PH Water Test by electrometric method
Measurement of pH is one of the most important and frequently used test in water chemistry;
practically every phase of water supply and waste water treatment. pH is used in alkalinity and
CO2 measurement and many other acid-base equilibrium.

The basic principle of the electrometric pH measurement is determination of the activity of the
hydrogen ion by potentiometric measurement using a standard hydrogen electrode and a
reference electrode.

pH meter consisting of potentiometer, a glass electrode, a reference electrode and a

temperature-compensating device.
Glass electrode: The sensor electrode is bulb of special glass containing a fixed concentration
of HCl and a buffered chloride solution in contact with an internal reference electrode.

B. Charcoal as a Filtering Component

Charcoal is a highly porous and brittle material which properties are determined by the
condition of the carbonization process and used raw materials. Nowadays it plays an
important role in people’ lives, but nobody has fully understood the mechanism by which
charcoal works, from either a physical or chemical standpoint.

The most basic physical characteristic of charcoal, its particle size, has a great influence on
its adsorbtion properties. Thus, the ability of charcoal to retain soil water is widely attributed
to its porosity. This expanded surface is due to the fact that charcoal particles have thousands
of crevices, pits, grooves, and holes which, when opened out, make quite a large surface area.

In fact, the surface area per gram of material can range from 500 to 1400 square meters, and
values as high as 2500 m2/g have been reported. The complex internal surface area is usually
divided into three components. Channels and pores with diameters less than 2 nm
(micropores) generally contain the largest portion of the carbon's surface area; pores with
diameters between 2 and 50 nm are known as mesopores, and pores with diameters greater
than 50 nm are defined as macropores. Charcoal porosity varies primarily as a function of
feedstock and secondarily as a function of pyrolysis conditions.
C. Chlorine as a Disinfectant

Chlorine is one of the most widely used disinfectants. It is very applicable and very effective
for the deactivation of pathogenic microorganisms. Chlorine can be easily applied, measures
and controlled. Is is fairly persistent and relatively cheap.
Chlorine has been used for applications, such as the deactivation of pathogens in drinking
water, swimming pool water and wastewater, for the disinfection of household areas and for
textile bleaching, for more than two hundred years. When chlorine was discovered we did not
now that disease was caused by microorganisms. In the nineteenth century doctors and
scientists discovered that many diseases are contagious and that the spread of disease can be
prevented by the disinfection of hospital areas. Very soon afterward, we started
experimenting with chlorine as a disinfectant. In 1835 doctor and writer Oliver Wendel
Holmes advised midwifes to wash their hands in calcium hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2-4H2O) to
prevent a spread of midwifes fever.
However, we only started using disinfectants on a wider scale in the nineteenth century, after
Louis Pasteur discovered that microorganisms spread certain diseases.
Chlorine has played an important role in lenghthening the life-expectancy of humans.

Research Literature

Jay Rajapakse,Graeme Millar,Chandima Gunawardana conducted a study and

research about the applicability of pebbles in filtering dirty water. “It was our hypothesis that
pebble matrix filtration potentially offered a relatively cheap, simple and reliable means to
clarify such challenging water samples. Therefore, a laboratory scale pebble matrix filter
(PMF) column was used to evaluate the turbidity and NOM pre-treatment performance in
relation to 2013 Brisbane River flood water.

Since the high turbidity was only a seasonal and short-term problem, the general
applicability of PMFs for NOM removal was also investigated. A 1.0-m-deep bed of pebbles
(the matrix) partly infilled with either sand or crushed glass was tested, upon which was
situated a layer of granular activated carbon. Turbidity was measured as a surrogate for
suspended solids, whereas total organic carbon (TOC) and UV absorbance at 254 nm were
measured as surrogate parameters for NOM. Experiments using natural flood water showed
that without the addition of any chemical coagulants, PMF columns achieved at least 50%
turbidity reduction when the source water contained moderate hardness levels. For harder
water samples, above 85% turbidity reduction was obtained.

The ability to remove 50% turbidity without chemical coagulants may represent
significant cost savings to water treatment plants and added environmental benefits accrue
due to less sludge formation. A TOC reduction of 35–47% and UV-254 nm reduction of 24–
38% were also observed. In addition to turbidity removal during flood periods, the ability to
remove NOM using the PMF throughout the year may have the benefit of reducing
disinfection by-products formation potential and coagulant demand at water treatment
plants. Final head losses were remarkably low, reaching only 11 cm at a filtration velocity of
0.70 m/h.”

Andelman, J.B., and J.E. Snodgrass. And other researchers conducted a study about
chlorine as a disinfectant: Chlorine has been the principal disinfectant of community water
supplies for several decades. Until recently, its use had never been questioned seriously
because the health benefits derived from it were so obvious. Although an occasional taste-
and-odor problem in finished water was attributable to the reaction of chlorine with some
substance in the raw water, the events were usually intermittent, short-lived, and presumably
did not affect the public health. However, in 1974, Rook (1974) in the Netherlands and
Bellar et al. (1974) in the United States reported that chlorine reacts with organic precursors
that are found in many source waters to produce a potential carcinogen, chloroform (CHCl3).

In December 1974, Congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act (PL 93-523), and
in early 1975, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) began an 80-city water
supply survey—the National Organics Reconnaissance Survey (NORS)—to determine the
extent of the problem (Symons et al., 1975). As part of NORS, finished waters from five
cities (Miami, Florida; Seattle, Washington; Ottumwa, Iowa; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and
Cincinnati, Ohio), which represented the major types of water sources in the United States,
were analyzed as thoroughly as possible for all volatile organic compounds, i.e., those that
can be stripped from solution by purging with an inert gas (Coleman et al., 1976). Seventy-
two compounds were identified, 53% of them containing one or more halogens. A later study,
the EPA National Organic Monitoring Survey (NOMS), included analyses of samples
that had been taken from the water supplies of 113 cities (Brass et al., 1977) on four
occasions over an 18-month period during 1976 and 1977. The source waters of a few cities
were examined, but most of the effort was directed toward an analysis of finished waters for
chloroform and 20 other volatile organic compounds. In addition to the 21 compounds that
were originally selected, five others appeared frequently and were reported.

Since 1974, there have been numerous other surveys similar to NORS and NOMS,
but they have been more restricted in scope. In addition, research activity has been intensified
to isolate and identify the precursors, products, and mechanisms that are associated with the
presence of potentially toxic organic compounds in both water and wastewater. In December
1976, the EPA published a list of 1,259 compounds that had been identified in a variety of
waters (including industrial effluents) in Europe and in the United States (Shackelford and
Keith, 1976). The agency is currently compiling a comprehensive register of all data
concerning the identification of organic pollutants in water.

Synthesis

The review of related literature presented relevant that was utilized in this study.
Included were water supplies in the Philippines, water treatment methods for tap water and the
acceptable water quality in terms of physical, chemical, and microbiological properties.

The researcher came up to use commercially available filters such as; charcoal,
pebbles, and chlorine. These components needed for pre treatment filtration and disinfection,
can be bought in most sari-sari stores throughout the Philippines.

This study focused on producing Class A water for a cheaper treatment cost that
conformed to Philippines standard.