Easa Dgca Module Handbook

Basic Maintenance Module 1 Mathematics
Training Manual Contents
1.1 Arithmetic
Terms and Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Methods of Multiplication and Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Fraction and Decimals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Factors and Multiples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Ratio and Proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Weights, Measures and Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Averages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Percentages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Areas and Volumes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Square, Cubes and Cube Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.2 Algebra
Notations in Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Polynomial, Variables, Coefficients and Constant Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Some Rules in Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Use of Bracket in Algebraic Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Addition and Subtraction of Polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Linear Equations and their Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Simultaneous Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Indices and Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Various Numbering Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.3 Geometry
Simple Geometrical Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Graphical Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Simple Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A B1 B2 1. Contents - I
Training Manual Contents

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A B1 B2 1. Contents - II
Training Manual 1.1 Arithmetic
1.1 Arithmetic

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A B1 B2 1.1 - 1
Terms and Signs Methods of Multiplication and Division

There are various terms and signs in basic mathematics. They are:
Multiplication
Signs Description The following table gives you general guidelines on how to multiply various com-
+ Plus mon numbers.
- Minus
X Multiply
÷ Divide 1x1=1 2x1=2 3x1=3
1x2=2 2x2=4 3x2=6
1x3=3 2x3=6 3x3=9
1x4=4 2x4=8 3 x 4 = 12
1x5=5 2 x 5 = 10 3 x 5 = 15
1x6=6 2 x 6 = 12 3 x 6 = 18
1x7=7 2 x 7 = 14 3 x 7 = 21
1x8=8 2 x 8 = 16 3 x 8 = 24
1x9=9 2 x 9 = 18 3 x 9 = 27
1 x 10 = 10 2 x 10 = 20 3 x 10 = 30
1 x 11 = 11 2 x 11 = 22 3 x 11 = 33
1 x 12 = 12 2 x 12 = 24 3 x 12 = 36
4x1=4 5x1=5 6x1=6

4x2=8 5 x 2 = 10 6 x 2 = 12
4 x 3 = 12 5 x 3 = 15 6 x 3 = 18
4 x 4 = 16 5 x 4 = 20 6 x 4 = 24
4 x 5 = 20 5 x 5 = 25 6 x 5 = 30
4 x 6 = 24 5 x 6 = 30 6 x 6 = 36
4 x 7 = 28 5 x 7 = 35 6 x 7 = 42
4 x 8 = 32 5 x 8 = 40 6 x 8 = 48
4 x 9 = 36 5 x 9 = 45 6 x 9 = 54
4 x 10 = 40 5 x 10 = 50 6 x 10 = 60
4 x 11 = 44 5 x 11 = 55 6 x 11 = 66
4 x 12 = 48 5 x 12 = 60 6 x 12 = 72

Examples
7x1=7 8x1=8 9x1=9
7 x 2 = 14 8 x 2 = 16 9 x 2 = 18 Calculate 46 x 15
7 x 3 = 21 8 x 3 = 24 9 x 3 = 27
7 x 4 = 28 8 x 4 = 32 9 x 4 = 36 46 x 15 ( 15 = 10 + 5 )
7 x 5 = 35 8 x 5 = 40 9 x 5 = 45 230 ( 5 x 46 )
7 x 6 = 42 8 x 6 = 48 9 x 6 = 54 + 460 ( 10 x 46 )
7 x 7 = 49 8 x 7 = 56 9 x 7 = 63 690 Product
7 x 8 = 56 8 x 8 = 64 9 x 8 = 72
7 x 9 = 63 8 x 9 = 72 9 x 9 = 81
7 x 10 = 70 8 x 10 = 80 9 x 10 = 90
7 x 11 = 77 8 x 11 = 88 9 x 11 = 99 Calculate 318 x 509
7 x 12 = 84 8 x 12 = 96 9 x 12 = 108
318 x 509 ( 509 = 500 + 0 + 9 )
2862 ( 9 x 318 )
10 x 1 = 10 11 x 1 = 11 12 x 1 = 12 00000 ( 0 x 318 )
10 x 2 = 20 11 x 2 = 22 12 x 2 = 24 + 159000 ( 500 x 318)
10 x 3 = 30 11 x 3 = 33 12 x 3 = 36 161862
Product
10 x 4 = 40 11 x 4 = 44 12 x 4 = 48
10 x 5 = 50 11 x 5 = 55 12 x 5 = 60
10 x 6 = 60 11 x 6 = 66 12 x 6 = 72
Exercise
10 x 7 = 70 11 x 7 = 77 12 x 7 = 84
10 x 8 = 80 11 x 8 = 88 12 x 8 = 96
a. 327 x 19
10 x 9 = 90 11 x 9 = 99 12 x 9 = 108
10 x 10 = 100 11 x 10 = 110 12 x 10 = 120 b. 530 x 160
10 x 11 = 110 11 x 11 = 121 12 x 11 = 132
10 x 12 = 120 11 x 12 = 132 12 x 12 = 144 c. 671 x 407
d. 346 x 237
e. 3785 x 765

Division Fraction and Decimals

Example Divide 64 by 4 Simplifying Fractions
We often simplify a fraction by reducing it to its lowest terms. A fraction in its lowest
64 : 14 = 16 terms has a numerator and denominator that have no common factor except 1.
-4 Bring 4 down
24 Figure 1:
- 24 The remainder 2 tens is added to 4
0 For example
Divide 6239 by 27 120 24 x 5 24
Quotien * = =
375 175 x 5 75
6239 : 27 = 231 24 8 x 3 8
-54 = =
75 25 x 3 25
83
-81
29
-27 When the answer to a mathematical problem is in the form of a
2 Remainder *
fraction, the result is usually expressed in its lowest terms for simplicity.
* Quotient is the number obtained by division 70

* Remainder is the number that is “left over” from the result of division. Reduce to its lowest terms.
245
Exercise
Do the following exercise Using prime factorisation*,
a. 326 x 19
b. 537 x 160 70 2 x 5 x 7 2
= =
c. 671 x 407 245 5 x 7 x 7 7
d. 992 ÷ 8 * Prime factorisation is the decomposition of a composite number into indivisible numbers.
e. 6445 ÷ 8
f. 34685 ÷ 7
g. 704 ÷ 22
h. 4445 ÷ 13
i. 6918 ÷ 11

Exercises
Reduce the following fractions to their lowest terms. 3523(5)5$&7,216,03523(5)5$&7,216$1'0,;('
180%(56
29 3 7 123
a. In each of the fractions, , and , the numerator is less than
58 4 9 125
denominator. They are examples of proper fractions. The fractions we
have looked at so far are all proper fractions.
64
b. 7
88 is an example of an improper fraction, which has the numerator
4
greater than the denominator.
66
c. 7
143 is also an improper fraction because its numerator is the same as the
7
denominator.
75
d. 3
90 1 is an example of a mixed number, which contains an integral part
4
and a fractional part.
625
e. A mixed number can be expressed in fraction form as an improper
1000 fraction. The process of converting a mixed number into an improper
fraction is illustrated by the following examples
3528
f. Multiply integral part and denominator
6552
Add product to numerator of mixed numbers
35
g.
50
3 2u 4 3 2u 4 3 11
2
4 4 4 4 4
26
h.
39
5 7u9 5 7u9 5 68
7
9 9 9 9 9
66
i.
143 To express an improper fraction as a mixed number, we divide the
numerator by the denominator. The quotient obtained is the integral
part and the remainder is the numerator of the fractional part.
29
j.
58
2
37 9
2 14 37
28 14 14
k. -28
42 9 Remainder

3UREOHPV
7
1) Peter who holds the centre position of the basketball team is 1 m
17 10
123 4 5
17 7 123 tall. His team member Johnny is 1 m tall. Who will more likely be
7 7 8
-7 selected for the position if they are equal in all aspect except in height?
53 (Who is taller)?
-49
4 Remainder
2) Mary, Susan and Joan went fishing. Mary caught a sea bass that
2 7
([HUFLVHV weighed 2 kg; Susan caught one that weighed 2 kg and Joan
3 8
3
Simplify and solve caught one that weighed 2 kg. Who caught the heaviest sea bass?
4
296
1. 216
7 $'',7,21$1'68%75$&7,212))5$&7,216:,7+7+(6$0(
165 '(120,1$725
2. 113
3
144 2 3 23 5
3.
7 7 7 7 7

(;$03/(&203$5,1*)5$&7,216 7 4 74 5

9 9 9 9
3 5 7
Arrange the fractions , and in ascending order
4 9 12
$'',7,21$1'68%75$&7,212))5$&7,216:,7+$
3 5 7 ',))(5(17'(120,1$725
The fractions , and have different denominators. To compare the
4 9 12

fractions, we convert them to equivalent fractions with the same
,IWZRIUDFWLRQVKDYHGLIIHUHQWGHQRPLQDWRU
denominator.
ZHPXVWILUVWFKDQJHWKHPWR HTXLYDOHQWIUDFWLRQVWKDWKDYHD
FRPPRQGHQRPLQDWRUXVLQJWKH/RZHVW&RPPRQ0XOWLSOH/&0
The LCM (Lowest Common Factor) of 4, 9 and 12 is 36.
Change all the denominators to 36, the LCM.
Worked Examples
3 3u 9 27 5 5u 4 20 7 7u3 21 4 5 4u 2 5u3
; ; .
4 4u9 36 9 9u 4 36 12 12 u 3 36 9 6 9u 2 6u3
LCM for denominators is 18
8 15
Rearranging the fractions give,
18 18
5 7 3 8 15
, , 18
9 12 4
23 5
1
18 8

1 3 1 3
6 1 (5 1) (1 )
4 4 6 4
7 2 7u5 2u8 7 3
LCM for denominators is 40
4( )
8 5 8u5 5u8 6 4
35 16 14 9
4
40 40 12
35 16 5
40 4
12
19
40
7 7 5 7 7 5
4 2 (4 2) ( )
10 15 6 10 15 6
21 14 25
,QDGGLQJRUVXEWUDFWLQJIUDFWLRQVZLWKGLIIHUHQWGHQRPLQDWRUV 2
ZHPXVWILUVWH[SUHVVWKHIUDFWL RQVLQWKHVDPHGHQRPLQDWRU:H 30
DOZD\VXVHWKH /RZHVW&RPPRQ)DFWRU DVWKHFRPPRQ 10
2
GHQRPLQDWRU 30
1
2
3
$'',7,21$1'68%75$&7,212)0,;('180%(56$1' For improper fractions, convert to mixed numbers before adding or

,03523(5)5$&7,216 subtracting
:RUNHG([DPSOH
Evaluate ([DPSOH
8 5 1 3 7 7 5 9 21 1 5
(3 1 ), (6 1 ), (4 2 ) 2 1
15 8 6 4 10 15 6 4 16 4 16
1 5
8 5 8 5 (2 1) ( )
3 1 (3 1) ( ) 4 16
15 8 15 8
45
3
16
64 75 9
4 3
120 16
139
4
120
19
4 1
120
19
5
120

Evaluate the following 08/7,3/,&$7,212))5$&7,216
4 5 11
a.
7 21 42 7KHUXOHRI0XOWLSOLFDWLRQRI)UDFWLRQVLV
5 21 17 a c a uc
b. u ZKHUHDEFGDUHZKROHQXPEHUDQGEDQGGz
8 10 20 b d bud
27 3 13
c. 5 2
28 7 14
2 3 1
d. 4 1 1
3 5 4
([DPSOH
3 5 8 7
e. 5 2 1 4
4 6 15 20 Mr Lee has two bookstores. In October, his book distributor sent him
1 5 9 1 5
f. 2 4 3 1 of an order for a school textbook, which he had expected to distribute
7 8 14 4 6
3 2 7 2 equally between his two stores. What fraction of his original order will
g. 4 1 2
5 15 9 45 each store receive?
19 1 61 1
h. 2 6ROXWLRQ
24 18 72 36
1
Each store will get of the books received, but the books received
2
3 1 5 1 5
i. Mary has 6 cups of flour. She used 2 cups of flour in one make up of only of the original order. Each store will receive of
4 2 6 2 6
1 1 5 1u 5 5
receptacle and 2 cups of flour in another. u
4 2 6 2 u 6 12
1. How much flour did she use altogether?
2. How much flour has she left?
([DPSOH
j. The police conduct regular anti-secret society operations among 3 5 2 5 5 8 14 1 3 3

Evaluate u , 2 u , u u and 2 u 3 u
3 1 8 7 3 14 7 15 3 3 7 4
youths. On Friday night, the officers spent hours ,1 hours and
4 2
1 3 5 3u 5 15
2 hours checking on 3 youth hangouts respectively. Find the total a) u
4 8 7 8u 7 56
time the officers spent on their operation.
2 5 8 5 8u 5 40 20
b) 2 u u
3 14 3 14 3 u14 42 21
5 8 14 1u 8 u 2 16 7
c) u u 1
7 15 3 1u 3 u 3 9 9
1 3 3 7 u 24 u 3
d) 2 u 3 u 6
3 7 4 3u 7 u 4

',9,6,212)$)5$&7,21%<$127+(5)5$&7,21 a)
1 3
3 y
([DPSOH 2 4
3 7 3
On an occasion, Mr. Lee’s distributor delivered only of his original y
4 2 4
order. He satisfies one of his two stores first by giving the expected 7 4
quantities, which make up of half what he ordered. What fraction of the u
books delivered will this store receive? 2 3
14
6ROXWLRQ 3
1 3 2
y 4
2 4 3
1 4
u
2 3
1u 4
2u3 b)
4 24 8
6 y
55 11
2 24 11
3 u
55 8
2 3
Therefore, the store will receive of the books delivered.
3 5
c)
4 4 1
7KHUXOHIRUGLYLGLQJDIUDFWLRQE\DQRWKHUIUDFWLRQ 1 u 7 y 11
a c a d aud 13 5 3
y u , ZKHUHDEFGDUHZKROHQXPEHUDQGEz 17 39 34
b d b c buc u y
FzGz 13 5 3
17 39 3
u u
13 5 34
([DPSOH 9
10
Evaluate
1 3
A)3 y ,
2 4
24 8
B) y ,
55 11
4 4 1
C )1 u 7 y 11
13 5 3

([HUFLVH $5,7+0(7,&$/23(5$7,2121)5$&7,216
Calculate the following Keep in mind the following rules when doing arithmetic operations on
4 fractions
a) 20u
5
1. When an expression contains brackets, simplify the expression
5
b) u 8 within the bracket first.
6
2 5 2. When an expression contains brackets with brackets, simplify
c) u
3 7 the expression within the innermost pair of bracket first.
4 1
d) u 3 3. When an expression contains only additions and subtractions,
13 4
work from left to right.
9 6
f) y
28 7 4. When an expression contains only multiplications and divisions,
5 4 work from left to right.
g) 1 y
7 21
2 9 5. When an expression contains addition, subtraction,
h) 8 y 3 multiplication and division, do multiplication and division before
7 27
addition and subtraction.
Evaluate the following, expressing your answer in the simplest form
1 4 5
a) 3 u 4 u ([DPSOH
2 5 14
1 3 5 5 Evaluate the following
b) 2 u1 u1 u
7 46 18 7 § 1 1· 1
1 4 7 a) ¨ ¸ u
c) 5 y 2 y 1 © 2 3¹ 4
4 5 9 § 3 2· 1
1 3 1 ¨ ¸u
d) 3 u 3 y 2 © 6 ¹ 4
9 5 10
8 15 24 42 5 1
e) u y u u Calculate the expression within the bracket first
18 20 15 35 6 4
5
24
§3 1 1 · 1
¨ u ¸y
© 4 3 12 ¹ 2
§1 1 · 1
¨ ¸y
© 4 12 ¹ 2
§ 3 1· 2
b ¨ ¸u Within the brackets do multiplication before subtraction.
© 12 ¹ 1
2
u2
12
1
3

1 1 1 8 '(&,0$/6
5 u4 3 u
3 2 4 13
In the decimal system, a number like 4269 can be expressed as
16 9 13 8 4269 4 u1000 2 u 100 6 u10 9 u 1
c u u Do multiplication before subtraction.
3 2 4 13 39
24 2 Can we express a fraction like 4269 in the same manner?
100
22 We know that
39 39
([HUFLVHV 4269 4269
100 100
30 9
1. Evaluate the following 4269
100 100
1 §1 1· 1 1
a. u¨ ¸ 4 u 1000 2 u 100 6 u 10 9 u 1 3 u 9u
3 ©3 4¹ 10 100
§3 1· 2 39
b. ¨ ¸u 4269 means 4 thousands, 2 hundreds, 6 tens, 9 ones, 3 tenths and
© 4 2¹ 3 100
§ 4 1· 2 9 hundredths.
c. ¨ ¸y
© 5 3¹ 3
§ 3 1· 1 This can be written as 4269.39. The dot (called the decimal point)
d. ¨1 ¸ y separates the integral part from the fractional part.
© 4 2¹ 3
3 § 1 5·
e. 3 u¨4 2 ¸
4 © 5 9¹ Similarly,
3 § 1 1· 456 1 1 1
f. 3 y¨2 ¸ 123 1 u 100 2 u 10 3 u 1 4 u 5 u 6u =123.456
4 © 3 4¹ 1000 10 100 1000
7891 1 1 1 1
and 7 u 8u 9u 1u =0.7891
10000 10 100 1000 10000
2. Find the values of the following, expressing your answer in the 39
4269 can be written as 4269.39
simplest form. 100
1 §1 3· 5 The dot is called the decimal point
a. u¨ ¸ y
3 ©3 4¹ 2
1 §1 1 1·
b. u¨ ¸
3 © 4 12 2 ¹
§ 1 1· § 2 1·
c. ¨ ¸ y ¨ u ¸
© 2 3¹ © 3 8¹
3 § 4 2· § 1 1·
d. 1 u ¨ ¸ u ¨1 ¸
4 ©9 3¹ © 5 2¹
2 1 1 1
e. u y
3 4 12 2

([DPSOH For a fraction whose denominator cannot be changed to 10 or a power

of 10 easily, the decimal form is obtained by dividing the numerator of
Express each of the following as a decimal: the fraction by its denominator.
a) For example,
87
0.87
100 5 0.62500
5 y8
8 8 5.000
2 zeros 2 decimal places 0.625 48
b) 20
11 16
0.0011
10000 40
40
4 zeros 4 decimals places
c)
97 &219(56,212)'(&,0$/6,172)5$&7,216
34 34.097
1000
([DPSOHV
3 zeros 3 decimals
Express 0.95 as a fraction in their lowest terms
95 19
a) 0.95
100 20
Express each of the following as a decimal:.

2 decimals places 2 zeros in the denominator
3 6
a) 0.6 Multiply both the numerator and the denominator by 2 mentally. Ensuring that the
15 3
5 10 b) 0.015
denominator is in the powers of ten. 1000 200
3 75
b) 0.75 Multiply both the numerator and the denominator by 25
4 100
27 108
c) 1.08 3 decimal places 3 zeros in the denominator
25 100
c) 11.25 11 0.25
21 1 1 25
d) 5 5 =5+ 25
4 4 4 100 11
100
5 0.25
1
5.25 11
4
1
11
4

d) 31.75 31 0.75 $'',7,21$1'68%75$&7,212)'(&,0$/6
75 When two decimals are added together or subtracted from each other,
31 the decimal points must be placed directly one below the other.
100
3
31 Decimals are added and subtracted in the same way as whole
4 numbers. It is simplest to work in columns when adding decimals. Keep
3 the decimals points under each other and write the digits in the correct
31
4 place value columns.
([HUFLVH :RUNHGH[DPSOHV
Express the following fractions as decimals a) 137.45 + 145.25 + 12.106

43 137.450
a.
100 145.250
12.106
57
b. 294.806
1000
b) 733.25 – 123.98
733.75
8
c. - 123.98
10000
609.77
27
d.
20 c) 123.14 + 52.76 – 152.75
123.14
52.76
33
e. 175.90
4
- 152.75
2 23.15
f. 2
3
([HUFLVH
96
g. 15
1000 1. Do the following additions and subtractions:
1. 3.45 + 15.52
2. 0.872 + 56.43 + 239.8
3. 83.72 + 16.43 + 1.4 + 25.63
4. 11.42 + 9.865 + 3.1 + 7.98
5. 7.02 + 4.55
6. 20 – 6.72
7. 9.6 – 4.751
8. 10 – 0.366
9. 610.57 - 602.57
10. 325.5 – 18.674

*(1(5$/08/7,3/,&$7,212)'(&,0$/6 ',9,6,212)$'(&,0$/%<$'(&,0$/
To find the product of decimals, multiply the numbers in the same way Multiply the divisor and the dividend by the same power of 10 so that
as for whole number first before putting in the decimal point. The the divisor becomes a whole number, and then perform a division,
number of decimal places in the answer is the total number of decimals remembering to line up the decimal points.
places in the decimals being multiplied.
:RUNHGH[DPSOH :RUNHG([DPSOH

a) 46.75 x 2.12 2.345 2.345 100
u
4675 0.05 0.05 100
u 212 46.75 u 2.12 99.1100 46.9
234.5
5 234.5
9350 5
20
4675 46.9
34
9350
30
991100
45
45
2 decimal places 2 decimal places 4 decimals places
b) 256.7 x 0.0056 = 1.43752 ([HUFLVHV

Evaluate the following
2657
u 56 a. 120 x 0.2 x 3.2
15402 256.7 u 0.0056 1.43752 b. 3.418 x 0.45
12835
c. 3.94 x 0.023
143752
d. 0.5 x 0.4 x 0.07
1 decimal place 4 decimal places 5 decimal places
e. 753.8 y 10
c) 7.06 x 72.675 f. 0.0066 y 10
72675 g. 10000 x 0.0124

u 706 h. 63.6 y 6
436050 i. 7.647 y 0.25
7.06 u 72.675 513.08550
00000
j. 0.444 y 0.04
508725
51308550 k. 624 y 100
l. (0.01 y 0.005)2
2 decimal places 3 decimal places 5 decimal places
m. 0.83 y 0.2 2

Factors and Multiples

35,0(180%(5$1'&20326,7(180%(5
([DPSOH

1) List all the factors of 60
$QDWXUDOQXPEHUZ KLFKKDVRQO\ WZ RGLIIHUHQWIDFWRUVDQGWKH
QXPEHULWVHOILVDSULPHQXPEHU
We have 60 = 1 x 60 = 2 x 30 = 3x 20 = 4 x 15 = 5 x 12 = 6 x 10
Thus, the factors of 60 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, and 60.
:KLFKPHDQVWKDWDSULPHQXPEHUFDQRQO\ EHGLYLGHGE\RUWKH
QXPEHULWVHOI
We call each of these numbers a factor of 60. Conversely, we call 60 a

multiple of each of the number 1,2,3,4,5,6,10,12,15,20,30,60.
2) List the multiples of 5

By multiplying 5 with 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on, we obtain the multiples of 5. $QDWXUDOQXPEHUZ KLFKKDVPRUHWK DQWZ RGLIIHUHQWIDFWRUVLVD
The multiples of 5 are FRPSRVLWHQXPEHU

Examples of the prime numbers are

5x1=5
5 x 2 = 10
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, ………..
5 x 3 = 15
5 x 4 = 20
Examples of composite numbers are
5 x 5 = 25
5 x 6 = 30
4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25
5 x 7 = 35
5 x 8 = 40
5 x 9 = 45
([HUFLVH
5 x 10 = 50
5 x 11 = 55
1. Write down all the factors of each of the following.
5 x 12 = 60
a. 16
b. 28
c. 96
d. 100
e. 120
f. 210
2. Write down the first six multiples of the following numbers
a. 4
b. 7
c. 9
d. 12
e. 17
f. 21
g. 54
h. 198
i. 320

3. Determine whether each of the following is a prime number or a 3. Express 252 in prime factors
composite number 252 = 126 x 2
a. 2 = 63 x 2 x 2
b. 21 = 21 x 3 x 2 x 2
c. 15 =7x3x3x2x2
d. 17 = 7 x 32 x 22
e. 27
f. 29
4. Name the next five prime numbers after 30

Using index notation
5. Find two prime numbers whose sum is an odd number. Must one of
the number be 2?
([HUFLVHV
Index notation
2 x 2 = 22 1. Express the following using index notation:
2 x 2 x 2 = 23 a. 7 x 7
2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 24 b. 2 x 2 x 5 x 5
2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 25 c. 3 x 7 x 7 x 7
2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 26 d. 5 x 5 x 11 x 11 x 11
e. 2 x 2 x 13 x 13 x 31 x 2
The index notation is used to denote the power of the number or the f. 5 x 5 x 5 x 19 x 29 x 19 x 23 x 29
number of times the number will multiply itself.
For example 22 shows that the number will multiply itself by 2 times and 2. Express each of the following as a product of prime factors using
23 shows that the number will multiply itself by 3 times. index notation:
a. 28
b. 108
35,0()$&725,6$7,21 c. 48
d. 144
Every natural number (Except 1) is either a prime number or a e. 54
composite number. A composite number can be expressed as the f. 192
product of two or more prime numbers, which are called prime factors. g. 88
The process of decomposition of a composite number into prime h. 256
factors is known as prime factorisation.
3. Factorise each of the following numbers into prime factors
a. 100
([DPSOH b. 225
c. 125
1. 30 = 2 x 15 = 2 x 3 x 5 d. 360
2, 3, 5 are all prime numbers e. 147
f. 567
2. 60 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 g. 216
h. 648

+,*+(67&20021)$&725 LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE
The factors of 30 are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30 Consider the possible multiples of 9 and 12
And the factors of 36 is 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36 The multiples of 9 and 12 are;
The common factors between these two numbers are 1, 2, 3, and 6. 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108
36 is the highest common factor. (HCF) 12 24 ---- 36 48 60 ---- 72 84 96 ---- 108
([DPSOH The first three common multiples common to 9 and 12 are 36, 72 and
108.
Find the highest common factor of 60, 180 and 210 The smallest of all common multiple of 9 and 12 is 36. We call 36 the
60 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 = 22 x 3 x 5 x 1 lowest common multiple. (LCM of 9 and 12. We can find LCM using
180 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 5 = 22 x 32 x 5 x 1 prime factorisation as shown in the example below.
210 = 2 x 3 x 5 x 7 x 1
The HCF of 60, 180 and 210 is 2 x 3 x 5 x 1 = 30 Example
([HUFLVH 1) Find the LCM of 30 and 36
1. Find all the common factors of Solution

a. 6 and 9
b. 15 and 18 Using prime factorisation, we have
c. 27 and 36 30 = 2 x 3 x 5 Choose the biggest power of each prime factor.
d. 36 and 60 36 = 22 x 32 x 1
e. 12 and 16
f. 21 and 28
g. 30 and 45
h. 45 and 75
22 x 32 x 5 = 180
Therefore the LCM of 30 and 36 is 180

2. Find the HCF of the following
a. 24 and 64
b. 28 and 56
2) Find the LCM of 18, 24, and 36
c. 45 and 42
d. 99 and 165 Solution
e. 12 and 42 Using prime factorisation, we have
f. 90 and 108 18 = 2 x 32
g. 324 and 128 24 = 23 x 3 Choose the biggest power of each prime factor.
h. 27, 63 and 208 36 = 22 x 32
i. 30, 75, 90 and 135
j. 84, 63 and 126
k. 48, 72 and 132
l. 36, 168, 144 and 252
23 x 32 = 72

([HUFLVHV
1. Find the LCM of each of the following pairs of numbers

a. 24 and 18
b. 30 and 25
c. 81 and 54
d. 100 and 75
e. 120 and 135
f. 144 and 36
g. 255 and 105
h. 250 and 125
i. 400 and 160
j. 63 and 490
k. 6,9 and 15
l. 14,18 and 21
m. 28, 44 and 68
n. 65, 175 and 135
2. Find the HCF and LCM of each of the following:

a. 18 and 42
b. 21 and 28
c. 26 and 39
d. 140 and 210
e. 150 and 45
f. 336 and 224

Ratio and Proportion

2) 700g to 1 kg
In 2004, SIA have 29 B747-400 and 52 B777. We can compare the
number of B747-400 and the number of B777 in the class using two
700g and 1 kg are of different units and thus we have to express them
different ways:
in the same units first.
1. There are 23 more B777 than B747-400. Here, we are
It is easier to express 1 kg as 1000g
comparing the number of B777 and B747-400 in SIA by finding
their difference.
Therefore the ratio of 700g to 1 kg is 700: 1000 or 7:10
2. If we compare to the number of B747-400 to B777, we will give
Ratios can be used to compare more than two quantities. For example,
the ratio of 29:52
three men A, B and C share the profits of a business. They receive
$4,000, $3,000 and $1,000 respectively. The ratio of their share of the
profit is then 4000:3000:1000 or 4:3:1
(48,9$/(175$7,2
30 2
We know that , thus 30 : 15 = 2 : 1. We say that 30 : 15 and 2 : ([HUFLVHV
15 1
1 are equivalent ratios. 1. Express each of the following ratios in its simplest form:
A ratio has no units. It is merely a number, which indicates how many a. 6 : 10

times one quantity is as great as the other or what fraction one quantity b. 44 : 8
is of another. For example, the boy-girl ratio of 2 : 1 indicates that the c. 3.6 : 4.5
number of boys is twice that of girls, and the girl-boy ratio of 1 : 2 or d. 0.4 : 20
1 1
indicates that there are half as many girls as there are boys. e. 1 : 2
2 2
f. 32 : 40 : 24
1 2 1
([DPSOH g. 1 : :
3 3 6
h. 1.2 : 2 : 2.8
1) Find the ratio of 50g to 200 g
2
i. 6 : 9.6 : 16
5
The ratio of 50g to 200g can be found using two different methods. 2. Express each of the following as a ratio of the first quantity to the
second, in its lowest term
50 1
Method 1 50 : 200 1: 4 (Treat original ratio as a fraction and reduce it a. 25 cents, 80 cents
200 4
b. 210º degrees, 360º degrees
to lowest terms)
c. 250cm, 1m
d. 80 cents, $1.20
50 200
Method 2 50 : 200 : 1: 4 (Divide each item of ratio be the HCF of all e. 1kg 250g, 3 kg
50 50 f. 3 min 30 s, 1 h
terms of the ratio)
Therefore the ratio of 50g to 200 g is 1:4.

,1&5($6($1''(&5($6(,15$7,2 ([HUFLVHV
If the number of teachers in a school has increased from 45 to 55, then 1. Increase 96 in the ratio of 7:4, what is the result?
the ratio of increased staff = 55 : 45 = 11 : 9
2. Decrease $288 in the ratio of 2:9, what is the result?
number of present staff 55 11
3. Find the result of increasing or decreasing the quantities in the
number of previous staff 45 9
given ratios:
We say that the number of teachers has been increased in the ratio a. 40kg, 5 : 8
11 11
11:9 or . In other words, the number of present staff is times that
9 9 b. 35 hectares, 2.5 : 1
11
of previous staff. Hence, we have no of present staff = x no. of c. 56m, 8 : 7
9
previous staff. d. 25cm, 2 : 5
4. The price of petrol drops from $1.20 per litre to 95 cents per litre.
([DPSOH Find the ratio in which the price decreases.
1. Increase $20 in the ratio of 6 : 5; what is the result? 5. Two sums of money are in the ratio 5 : 8. The smaller amount is
6 $65. Find the larger amount.
The new value is $20 x = $24.
5
6. A proud prospective owner of a car was disappointed with a
price increase ratio of 11 : 8. If the original price was $25,600,
2. A newspaper agent orders 84 copies of newspaper everyday. During what is the new car price?
the holidays, he decreases his order to 63 copies. The ratio (no. of
copies ordered during the holidays): (usual no. copies ordered) = 63:84
3
= 3:4 or .
4
We say that the number of copies ordered per day has been decreased
3
in the ratio of 3 : 4 or , during the holidays. In the other words, the
4
3
number of copies ordered per day during the holidays is of the usual
4
number of copies ordered.

',5(&73523257,21
If A and B are in direct proportion,
$ .%

Where the number K is known as the proportionality factor.
([DPSOH
I suppose that you all have hand-phones. Simple common sense tells
us that greater utilization of hand-phones will incur greater losses. If the
rate for the hand-phone charges is 15 cents per minute, how much will
it cost us to use the hand-phone for 3 minutes?
It will cost us 15¢ x 3 mins = 45 cents to use for 3 minutes.
The table below shows the cost of the hand-phone usage on a minute
basis.
No. of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Minutes
Cost
15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
(cents)
The proportionality factor in this case is 15.

Weights, Measures and Conversion Factors

92/80(
There are various types of measurement systems in the world. The
Chinese have their own systems of weights and measures, the Metric Imperial
Europeans have their metric systems, and the Americans have their
1 cu (cm3) 0.0610 in3
Imperial systems. The world is trying to move towards a standardized
1 cu decimetre (dm3) 1,000cm 3
0.0353 ft3
system, namely the metric system, as it will facilitate trade, science and
1 cu metre (m3) 1,000dm3 1.3080 yd3
technology.
1 litre (l) 1 dm3 1.76 pt
There were many instances when different systems have caused 1 hectolitre 100l 21.997 gal
scientists and engineers to make mistakes. Sometimes, these mistakes
have catastrophic effects, such the lost of a multi-million dollar satellite Imperial Metric
in a mission to MARS. 1 cu (in3) 16.387 cm3
1 cu (ft3) 1.728 in3 0.0283 m3
We are going to learn the imperial system and the metric system 1 fluid once (fl oz) 27.413 ml
measurement because these are the most common systems used in 1 pint (pt) 20 fl oz 0.5683 l
the world today. We need to know about the process of conversion 1 gallon (gal) 8 pt 4.5461 l
from one system to another. For example, the equivalent of one
kilogram is 2.2 pounds.
/(1*7+ USA measure Metric
1 fluid ounce 1.0408 UK fl oz 29.574 ml
Metric Imperial 1 pint (16 fl oz) 0.8327 UK pt 0.4731 l
1 millimetre (mm) 0.0394 1 gallon 0.8327 UK gal 3.7854 l
1 centimetre (cm) 10mm 0.3937 in
1 metre (m) 100cm 1.0936 yd 0$66
1 kilometre (km) 1000m 0.6214 mile
Metric Imperial
Imperial Metric
1 milligram (mg) 0.0154 grain
1 inch (in) 2.54 cm
1 gram (g) 1,000 mg 0.0353 oz
1 foot(ft) 12 in 0.3048 m
1 kilogram (kg) 1,000 g 2.2046 lb
1 yard (yd) 3 ft 0.9144 m
1 tonne (t) 1,000 kg 0.9842 long tons (UK)
1 mile 1760 yd 1.6093 km
1 nautical mile (nm) 1.15 mile 1.852 km
Imperial Metric
$5($ 1 ounce (oz) 437.5 grain 28.35 gm
1 pound (lb) 16 oz 0.4536 kg
1 stone 14 lb 6.3503 kg
Imperial Metric
1 hundredweight (cwt) 112 lb 50.802 kg
1 sq inch (in2) 6.4516 cm2
1 long ton (UK) 20 cwt 1.016 t
1 sq foot (ft2) 144 in2
0.0929 m2
1 short ton (US) 2,000 lb 0.907 t
1 sq yard (yd2) 9 ft2 0.8361 m2
1 acre 4840 yd2 4046.9m2
1 sq mile (mile)2 640 acres 2.59km2 In conversion from one measurement system to another, we will use
ratio system to find its equivalence.
Metric Imperial
1 sq (cm2) 100 mm2 0.1550 in2
1 sq (m2) 10,000cm2 1.1960 yd2
1 hectare (ha) 10,000m2 2.4711 acres
1 sq (km2) 100 ha 0.3861 miles2

([DPSOH b) The cost of the flat per square feet.
1) A passenger wanted to check in 30kgs of baggage. Will he be The cost of the flat divided by the size of the flat in square feet:
penalised if the weight limit is set at 60 pounds?
$200,000
6ROXWLRQ 958 ft 2
1kg: 2.2046 lb $208.77 / ft 2
30 kg: 2.2046 x 30 lb
30 kg: 66.138 lb ?The cost of the flat per square feet is $208.77/ft2.
1. Find the ratio of the kg: lb from the table given above. 3) An aircraft on en-route requires 45,000 gallons (imperial) of aviation
2. Write the ratio fuel. The cost of the fuel is approximately $0.60 per litre. How much
3. Multiply both sides by 30 does it cost to re-fuel the aircraft?
4. Obtain the equivalent of 30kgs.
6ROXWLRQ
The equivalent of 30kg is 66.138 lb, which exceeds the weight limits.
This means that the passenger will be penalized for exceeding the 1 gallon: 4.5461 litres
weight limit. 45,000 x 1 gallon: 45,000 x 4.5461litres
45,000 gallons: 204574.5 litres
2) A man bought a flat for $200,000. The size of the flat is 89 square
metres. One day an agent asked the flat owner about the size of the ? The 45,000 gallons is equivalent to 204574.5 litres.
flat in square feet.
The cost of re-fuelling the aircraft is 204574.5 x $0.60 = $122744.7
a. Find the size of the flat in square feet. dollars.
b. Find the cost of the flat per square feet.
6ROXWLRQ
a) The size of the flat in square feet:
1 ft 2 : 0.0929m2
1 ft 2 0.0929m2
:
0.0929 0.0929
10.764 ft 2 : 1m2
10.764 u 89 ft 2 : 1m2 u 89
958 ft 2 : 89m2
1. Find the ratio from the table given in the preceding pages.
2
2. Find the equivalent of 1 m .
2
3. Find the area of 89m .
?The size of the flat in square feet is 958 ft2

([HUFLVHV
1. David Beckham gained 1 stone weight after a long holiday. Sir Alex
was angry upon the news, ordered a strict diet and exercise regime for
him, preparing him for the physically arduous league ahead. Suppose,
he can only lose 250 grams of weight per day, how many days are
required before he can be ready for the league?
2. The SIA A345-500 plane travels 9,000 nautical miles to New York.
Suppose the flight takes 18 hours, what is the average distance (km)
travelled per hour?
3. Suppose the area of a Boeing 747’s wing is 5400 ft2. If a cleaner

takes 1 hour to clean 1m2 , how long will he/she take to clean the whole
wing?
4. If a motor vehicle travels at 45 miles per hour on a road with a speed

limit of 60km/h, is the vehicle exceeding the speed limit?
5. The cabin door’s width of a Lear-Jet model 24 is 3.00ft. There is a

new type of electronics equipment with a width of 1.4m needing to be
retrofitted in the aircraft. Will the equipment be able to pass the cabin
door?
6. An investor needed some investment information of a palm oil

estate. From past data, 1 hectare of land produces about 20 short ton
(US) of palm oil. If 1 lb of oil will sell for about 3 SGD in the market,
how much can the investor sell its palm oil for if the land size is about
200 acres?

Averages
$9(5$*(63(('
Suppose we have a group of 5 children with the following ages:
([DPSOH
Child Age (yrs)
1 7 Two cyclists, A and B travelled 90km in a race and finished in 5 hours
2 9 1
3 6 and 4 respectively. Which cyclist travels faster?
2
4 4
5 10
6ROXWLRQ
Sum of ages for whole group = 7 + 9 + 6 + 4 + 10 Cyclist B travels faster since he takes less time to complete the race.
= 36
The average age of the group of children We can also find the speed at which each cyclist travels to find out who
travels faster.
Sum of ages for the whole group 36
= 7.2 years
Total number of children in the group 5 90km
Cyclist A’s speed = 18km / h
5h
Similarly, for any given group of values, the average is the value of
each group member as if the sum of all the values were equally divided 90km
out among the group members (i.e. each member has the same value) Cyclist B’s speed = 20km / h
1
4 h
Sum of all values 2
Averages is given by
Group Size Cyclist B travels faster since he travels at a greater speed.
Averages can be used on continuous quantities such as speed.

When calculating the speed of each cyclist, we assume that one travels
([DPSOH at the same speed all the time. In reality, each cyclist will have difficulty
cycling at the speed all the time. For example, he may slow down when
David, Mikes and Sam each has $15, $20 and $x respectively. If they he is cycling up a slope or he speed up when he is going down a slope.
have an average of $18 each, how much money does Sam has? Therefore, the speed calculated for each cyclist is not his exact speed
at a particular instant. Instead, it is his average speed.
Total amount of money = $18 x 3
= $54 For example, the average speed of cyclist A is 18km/h. This means
that on the average, he travels 18km every hour. The average speed
x = $54 - $15 - $20 can be obtained by the formula:
= $19
Total Distance Travelled
Therefore Sam has $19. Average Speed
Total Time Taken
It is the same for an aircraft. The take-off speed of an aircraft may be

different as compared to the cruising speed of the aircraft.

([DPSOH ([HUFLVHV
1) A car travelled 510 km in 6 hours. Find the average speed of the car 1. Complete the following table
for the whole journey
Distance Travelled Time Taken Average Speed
Distance Travelled = 510Km 1
(a) 180 km 1 h 120 km/h
2
Time Taken = 6 hours (b) 200m 25 s
(c) 400m 1 min
Distance Travelled 510 1
Average speed = 85km / h 5 h
Time Taken 6h (d) 80km/h
2
1
(e) min 25m/s
3
2) A cyclist is travelling at an average speed of 18km/h. (f) 100m 20m/s
a. Express his average speed in m/s.

b. Find the distance he travels in 3 hours 2. Express the following in m/s
c. Find how far he travels in 25 seconds.
a) 18 km/h
b) 90 km/h
c) 72 km/h
A. 18km = 18 x 1000m, 1h = (60 x 60) s 3. Express the following in km/h
a) 10 m/s
6ROXWLRQ b) 35 m/s
Therefore 18km/h =
18km 18 u 1000m =5m/s c) 0.5 km/s
1h 60 u 60s 4. How long will a man take to run, once, round a circular track of
radius 28m at an average speed of 8m/s? (S = 3.142)
B. In 3 hours, the cyclist travels (18 x 3) km = 54 km
5. A cyclist begins on a 24-km journey at 0923hrs. When will he
complete his journey if he travels at an average speed of 16km/h?
Average speed in km./h Time taken in hours
6. A car travelled on a normal road for 20 minutes at an average speed
of 57km/h. Then travelled a distance of 55 km in 30 minutes on an
C. In 25 sec, the cyclist travels D = 5 m/s x 25 = 125m
expressway. Find
a) The distance the car travelled on the normal road
In general,
b) The average speed, in km/h, of the car when it travelled on
the expressway.

'LVWDQFHWUDYHOOHG $YHUDJH6SHHG[7LPH7DNHQ 7. A train travels 68km at an average speed of 51 km/h. It then travels
another 20km at an average speed of 40km/h before reaching its
destination. Calculate the average speed for the whole journey.

Percentages
75$16)250$7,21%(7:((13(5&(17$*(6$1''(&,0$/6

7KHH[SUHVVLRQ³SHUFHQW´PHDQV IRUHYHU\ KXQGUHGRURXWRI To convert percentages to decimals, divide percentages by 100
HYHU\KXQGUHG7KXVSHUFHQWDJHLVDIUDFWLRQZ KRVHGHQRPLQDWRU
LV:HXVHWKHV\PEROWRUHSUHVHQWSHUFHQW ([DPSOHV

Change each percentage to a fraction and then to a decimal
So, if a shop offers a customer 75% off an item, which originally cost 25
$600, then for every $100 of the original price, the customer will pay 1. 25% = 0.25
100
$75 less.
65
2. 65% 0.65
Similarly, if a bank provides 90% housing loan to a customer who is 100
buying a house, then the customer will get a loan of $90 for every $100
of the price of the house he is buying.
125
3. 125% 1.25
A mathematics examination paper is marked out of 50. If William 100
obtains 35 marks, Charles 43 marks and Johnny 32 marks, then we
say that 4
4. 4% 0.04
100
35 70
William gets of the marks or , ie, 70% of the marks
50 100
To change a percentage to a decimal, express it as a fraction with a
43 86 denominator of 100. Then convert it to a decimal.
Charles gets of the marks or i.e. 86% of the marks
50 100
32 64 52
Johnny gets of the marks or i.e. 64% of the marks 1. 52% 0.52
50 100 100
36
2. 36% 0.36
100
125
3. 125% 1.25
100
4.8
4. 4.8% 0.048
100
0.75
5. 0.75% 0.0075
100
100
6. 100% 1
100

&+$1*,1*'(&,0$/6723(5&(17$*(6 ([HUFLVHV
To change a decimal to a percentage, multiply it by 100. 1. Express the following percentages as decimals
([DPSOHV a. 6%
b. 11%
Express each decimal as a percentage c. 22%
24 d. 63%
1. 0.24 24% e. 179%
100
72 f. 0.27%
2. 0.72 72% g. 28.7%
100
h. 54.27%
9
3. 0.09 9% i. 0.0063%
100 3
13.6 j. 50 %
4. 0.136 13.6% 4
100
112 2. Write each decimal as a percentage
5. 1.12 112%
100 a. 0.17
300 b. 0.575
6. 3 300%
100 c. 0.83
d. 2.36
75$16)250$7,21%(7:((1)5$&7,216$1'3(5&(17$*(6 e. 0.09
f. 0.025
To change a fraction to a percentage, multiply it by 100. It is common g. 0.0005
practise to write percentages in decimal places instead of fractions. h. 1.2
i. 4
7 7 1 j. 6.25
1. u 100% 17 % 17.3% k. 2.564
40 40 3
l. 1.664
5 5 1
2. u 100% 62 % 62.5%
8 8 2 3. Change each fraction to a percentage
2 5 2 3
3. 1 u 100% 166 % # 166.7% a.
3 3 3 4
9
b.
10
To change a percentage to a fraction, write it as fraction with
17
denominator 100 and reduce it to lowest terms. c.
20
15 3 6
1. 15% d. 1
100 20 25
37.5 375 3 2
2. 37.5% e. 2
100 1000 8 5
215 43 2 6
3. 215% 2 f.
100 20 3 125

Areas and Volumes

:RUNHGH[DPSOH
81,762)$5($
The width of a rectangular is 5 cm less than its length and its perimeter
Square centimetres (cm2): We usually used unit squares to compare is 46 cm. Find its width and its area.
areas. A square of side 1 cm is used as a standard unit. We call this
unit 1 square centimetre (1 cm2) Solution
2 Let the width of the rectangle be F cm.
Square millimetre (mm ): 1cm = 10mm
Therefore, 1 cm2 = 10mm x 10mm = 100mm2
Then the length is (F+ 5) cm
Square millimetre is used to measure the areas of very small shapes.
Perimeter = 2[ F + (F+5)]cm = 46cm
Square metre m2: The square metre is used to measure the area of
large surfaces such as the floor area of a flat. 4F + 10 = 46 cm
4F = 36 cm
Hectare (ha): The hectare is used to measure large land area such as F = 9cm
farms.
Therefore its width is 9cm and its length is 14cm.
1 ha = 10,000m2
Therefore its area
Square kilometres: The square kilometre is used to measure the area
of a very large surface such as the area of a country. = ( 9 x 14 ) cm2
1 km = 1,000m = 126cm2
1 km2 = 1,000m x 1,000m
= 1,000,000 m2 = 100ha A square is a special case of rectangles where L=W and the above
formulae still applies.
$5($$1'3(5,0(7(52)$5(&7$1*/(
A rectangle is a quadrilateral with all internal angles of 90q

$UHDRIDUHFWDQJXODULV /HQJWK[:LGWK /[:
3HULPHWHURIDUHFWDQJOH [/HQJWK:LGWK /:

:LGWK:

$5($2)75,$1*/( $5($2)$3$5$//(/2*5$0
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral in which the opposite pairs of sides

are parallel.
We see that a triangle of base b and height h occupies half of rectangle

ABCD.
?Area of triangle = ½ x base x height

=½xbxh
We can see that there are two similar triangles in the parallelogram.
Base and height of a triangle can be also be defined in another way. These two triangles can form together with the rectangle DEBG to form
a large rectangle, DEFC.
Area of 'EFH = Area of 'EFH – Area of 'FGH
= ½ EG x h – ½ X FG X h This rectangle is the equivalent area of the parallelogram, which is
= ½ x (EG –FG) x h given by
= ½ x b x h (since EG – FG = b)

Either method of defining the base and height gives the same result for $UHDRI3DUDOOHORJUDP %DVH[+HLJKW E[K
area.
([HUFLVH
a. Find the number of 15 centimetre square tiles required to cover

a rectangular floor 5.4m long, 4.05 m wide.
b. Find the area, in square centimetres; of a rectangular strip of

board 3.28m long and 75mm wide.
c. A square cardboard of sides 20m has 4m wide border round

three sides. Find the area of the border.
d. A paper box without a lid is 25 cm long, 16 cm wide and 5 cm

deep. How many square centimetres of paper have been used
to make the box?
e. A swimming pool 25m by 10m has a concrete border all round.

Find the area of the concrete border if it is 2.5m wide at the
sides and 5m at the ends.

$5($2)$75$3(=,80 :RUNHGH[DPSOHV
A trapezium, like a rectangle, has four sides. The difference between a

rectangle and the trapezium is that the rectangle has all the opposite 1) Find the areas of the following figures.
sides parallel to each other and they are also at right angles to one
another.
The trapezium is a quadrilateral with only one pair of parallel sides.
Area of the parallelogram = base x height

= (12 x 7)cm2 = 84 cm2
1
Area of the trapezium = x height x sum of parallel side
2
Area of Trapezium ABCD = area of ƩABC + area of ǻACD ª1 º
«¬ 2 u 5 u 7 11»¼ cm = 45cm
2 2
=
1 1
= ( x BC x AH) + ( x AD x AH)
2 2
2) In the figure below, the sides AB and DC of the quadrilateral ABCD
1
= AH(BC+AD) are both perpendicular to the diagonal AC. Given AB = 2 cm, DC = 8
2 cm and the area of ƩABC = 6 cm2, calculate
1
= x height x sum of parallel sides
2 1. The length of AC
2. The area of the quadrilateral ABCD
In general,

1
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1. Area of ǻABC = x AB x AC
2 1. Find the area of the triangle in the following cases
1 a. b. c.
u ABu AC 6cm
2
1
u 2 u AC 6cm
2
? AC 6cm
2. Area of ǻACD =
1
u AC u CD
2
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¨ u 6 u 8 ¸cm
©2 ¹ 2. Calculate and complete the following table for each trapezium (a),
24cm2 (b) and (c).
3. The area of the quadrilateral ABCD = ǻACD + ǻABC D E F

6cm2 24cm2 6 14 8
= +HLJKWFP
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3. Find the unknown, marked x in the following figures

a.

b. Area of Trapezium = 124 cm2 3(5,0(7(52)$&,5&/(
A circle consists of points that are all equidistant* from a particular

point called the centre. The perimeter of a circle or the length of its
boundary is called the circumference. The distance from the centre of a
circle to any point on its circumference is called the radius. The
diameter of the circle is twice the length of its radius.
* same distance apart from every point
c. Area of Trapezium = 280 cm2

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1) A circle has a radius of 7m. Find its area and circumference. 1) Complete the following table below for each circle
22 (a) (b) (c) (d)

Take S =
7 Radius 10m
Diameter 3.6m
6ROXWLRQ Circumference 176mm
2
§ 22 · Area 616cm
Area of circle = Sr2 = ¨ u 7 u 7 ¸m2 154m2
© 7 ¹
2) Calculate the circumference and area of each circle, given its
diameter
Circumference of circle = 2Sr = 2(3.14)(7) Cm
=43.96cm
1. 70mm
2. 28cm
3. 35cm
2) The area of a circle is 78.5 cm2. Calculate the circumference of the
14
circle. (Take S = 3.14) 4. cm
3
6ROXWLRQ
3) Calculate the circumference and area of each circle, given its radius
Area of circle = Sr 2 (take (S = 3.14), giving your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
1. 3.5 cm
78.5 2. 13.8m
78.5 = 3.14r2 r2 = =25 r = 25 = 5 3. 0.37m
3.14 4. 5.25m
Therefore circumference of circle = 2Sr 4) Two wires making circles of diameter 12 cm and 8 cm are cut and
then joined to make one larger circle. Find the diameter of this larger
= 2(3.14)(5) cm = 31.4 cm circle.
5) As many 8-cm diameter disc are cut from a sheet of rectangular
3) The diameter of the wheel of a car is 0.35m. Find the number of cardboard measuring 170cm by 90cm. Find the area of the sheet that
revolutions made by the wheel per minute when the car is travelling at is left.
22
33km/h. (Take S = )
7 6) If the minute hand of a big clock is 1.12m long, find the rate at which
its tip is moving in centimetres per minutes.
6ROXWLRQ
In 60 minutes (1h), the car travels (33 x 1,000m)
33 u 1000
In 1 minute, the car travels m
60
Number of revolutions made per minute =
dis tan ce travelled in 1 min 33 u 1000 1 33 u 1000 7 100

u u u 500rpm
Circumference of wheel 60 dS 60 22 35

5,*+735,60 :RUNHGH[DPSOH
Find the volume of the right pentagonal prism shown.
6ROXWLRQ
Area of the base = the area of the triangle and the area of the
rectangle.
ª §1 ·º
Area of the base = «6 u 5 ¨ u 3 u 4 ¸» cm2 36cm2
¬ © 2 ¹¼
A right prism has a uniform cross-section; the cross section of the Therefore the volume of the prism is = 36 u 4.5cm3 162cm3
prism is identical to the two parallel ends and the height of the base is
at right angles to the height. This enables us to calculate the volume of
the prism by finding the area of the base and multiply it by the height of
the right prism.
For example,
The volume of the cylinder, which is a right prism, can be found by

finding the area of the circular base and multiplying it by the height of
the cylinder.
Therefore, the volume of the prisms are

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([HUFLVHV 3) Find the volume of the right prism shown.
1) Find the volume and the surface area of the solid, which is the
shape of the right prism, as shown.
2) The height of right prism is 9cm and the width of the right angle
triangle is 12 cm. The length is 26 cm. Find the volume of the right
prism shown.

4) Complete the table shown below: 5) Find the volume of the prisms shown below.
Area of Volume of
AB BC CD
ǻABC Prism
(a) 3 cm 4 cm 7 cm
(b) 9 cm 11 cm 63 cm2
(c) 15 cm 300 cm 72000 cm3
(d) 24.6 cm 7.8 cm 38376 cm3

6) Find the volume of the prism shown below.
7) A fuel storage tank, 100m long 30 m wide, 3 m deep at the shallow

end and 10 m deep at the other end, find the volume of water in the
tank when it is full.

Volumes
Exercises
The volume of an object is the amount of space it occupies. The object
that occupies more space is said to have greater volume. 1) Complete the following table for each cubiod:
Length Width Height Volume

a) 24mm 18mm 5mm
b) 5cm 3cm 120cm3
c) 6cm 3.5cm 52.5cm3
d) 12m 6m 576m3
e) 2.25cm 8cm 58.5cm3
2) Find the capacity of the following rectangular tanks, giving your

answer in litres:
In the standard case of the cube, the volume of the cube is given by a. Height = 3.6m, length = 5.5m, width = 3.5m
length x width x height, which is 1 cm3. b. Height = 2.7m, length = 4.75 m, width = 2.6m
c. Height = 0.15m, length = 0.24m, width = 0.19m
d. Height = 38 cm, length = 52cm, Width = 18 cm
The volume of any cuboids is given by length x width x height
3) A rectangular oil tank measures 4m long, 2m wide and 4.8m high.
Initially, it is half filled with oil. Find the depth of oil in the tank after
4000 litres of oil are added to it.
Worked example
4) It took two and a half years and 2.85 million m3 of earth to filled a
A container is in the form of a cuboid 20cm long, 3 cm wide and 14cm empty reservoir.
high. Find the volume of the liquid, in litres, that the container can hold If each truck can carry a maximum load of 6.25m3 of earth per trip, how
(i.e. the capacity of the container) many trips are needed to fill the entire reservoir?
The cost of transport, material and administration for each truck is $55,
how much would it cost to fill the reservoir?
Solution
The volume of the container = (20 x 3 x 14) cm3 = 840 cm3
1000 cm3 = 1 litre
840
Therefore the volume of the liquid = litre= 0.84 litres
1000

CYLINDERS Worked example
We can form a cylindrical solid by vertically stacking up a pile of 50 1) Find the mass, in kg, of a cylindrical metal bar 1.2m long and 1.4cm
cents coins. This solid is called a right circular prism or simply a right in radius. (The density of the metal is 6.5 g/cm3)
cylinder. Its cross-sectional area is a circle. Steel pipes, oil drums and
many tin containers for liquids and preserved food are all common Solution
examples of cylinders.
Radius = 1.4cm, h = 1.2m = 120cm
Volume of Sr2
22
= u 1.4 u 1.4 u 120 cm3 = 739.2 cm3
7
Mass = Density x volume
= (7.5 x 739.2) g
= 5544g
Volume of cylinder = 5.544kg
Since a cylinder is a right prism with uniform cross-section, we can find Therefore the mass of the bar = 5.544kg
its volume by applying the same method used in finding the volume of
a right prism.
2) If water flows through a 56-mm diameter pipe at the rate of 3m/s,

The volume of a cylinder = base area x height what is the volume of water, in litres, is discharged per minute? ( Take
22
Volume = Sr2h S= )
7
Solution
22
Where S = , r = radius of the cylinder and h = height.
7 Radius = 28mm = 2.8cm
H = 3m = 300cm
Volume of water discharged per second = Sr2h
§ 22 ·
= ¨ u 2.8 u 2.8 u 300 ¸cm3
© 7 ¹
= 7392cm3
Volume of water discharged per minute = (7392 x 60) cm3
= 443520cm3
=443.5 litres

([HUFLVH
1) Find the diameter of the cylinders given in the following.
a. Volume 704 cm3, height 14cm;
b. Volume 12320 cm3, height = 20 cm
2) Find the height of the cylinders given in the following
a. Volume 528 cm3, diameter 4 cm
b. Volume 1056 m3, radius 4m
3) A cylindrical can radius 5cm and height 8cm is used to pour water
into a larger cylinder of radius 20cm and height 2m. How many times
must this be done to fill the larger cylinder?
4) A railway tunnel 147m long is to be bored with a circular cross-

section of radius 5m. What volume of soil has to be excavated? If the
soil is to be taken away in wagons of capacity 75m3 each, how many
wagons are needed?
5) A cylindrical solid, whose base radius and height are 10cm and 14
cm respectively, has a density of 8.6g/cm3.
Find its volume and its mass.
6) A cylindrical solid with a base radius of 7cm and a height of 20 cm

has a mass of 2.6kg.
Find its volume.

Square, Cubes and Cube Roots

([DPSOH
The area of a square of side 6 cm is given by
6 x 6 = 36 cm2 1) Find the positive square root of 784

6ROXWLRQ
2
36 cm 6 cm Using prime factorisation
784 = (2 x 2) x (2 x 2) x (7 x 7)
6 cm = (2 x 2 x 7)2
Therefore 36 is said to be the square of 6. For short, we write 62 = 36 784 = 2 x 2 x 7

And we read “the square of 6 is 36” or simply “6 squared is 36” = 28
Clearly, to find the side of a square whose area is 36 cm2, we find a
positive number F such that 36 = F x F = F2 2) Find the positive square root of 2025
Now, F= 6 and we say that 6 is a positive square root of 36 and we 6ROXWLRQ
write 36 6
Using prime factorisation
Similarly,
2025 = 5 x 5 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3
2 x 2 = 22 = 4 and 4 2 = (5 x 3 x 3) 2
2025 = 5 x 3 x 3
3 x 3 = 32 = 9 and 9 3 = 45
4 x 4 = 42 = 16 and 16 4
5 x 5 = 52 = 25 and 25 5
7 x 7 = 72 = 49 and 49 7

The volume of the cube of side 6 cm is given by: ([DPSOH
1) Find the cube root of 512
Solution
Volume Using prime factorisation,
3
of 216 cm
512 = (2 x 2 x 2) x (2 x 2 x 2) x (2 x 2 x 2)
= (2 x 2 x 2) 3
3
512 = (2 x 2 x 2)
3
=8
6 x 6 x 6 = 216 cm
2) Find the cube root of 5832
Therefore 216 is said to be the cube of 6. In short, we write 63 = 216
and we read “the cube of 6 is 216” or simply “6 cubed is 216” Solution
Using prime factorisation
2 x 2 x 2 = 23 = 8 and 3
8 2 5832 = (2 x 3 x 3) x (2 x 3 x 3) x (2 x 3 x 3)
= (2 x 3 x 3)3
3 x 3 x 3 = 33 = 27 and 3
27 3
3
5832 = (2 x 3 x 3)
4 x 4 x 4 = 43 = 64 and 3
64 4 = 18
5 x 5 x 5 = 53 = 125 and 3
125 5
7 x 7 x 7 = 73 = 343 and 3
343 7

([HUFLVHV
1. Find the square root of each of the following numbers
a. 1156
b. 1296
c. 1764
d. 9801
e. 11025
f. 34596
2. Find the cube root of the following numbers
a. 3375
b. 4096
c. 13,824
d. 21,952
e. 46,656
f. 91,125
g. 262,144
h. 373,248

Training Manual 1.2 Algebra
1.2 Algebra

Notations in Algebra
Example
In arithmetic expressions, numerical values are used.
Write an algebraic expression for each of the following:
E.g. 5+4 = 9
1. Subtract 2x from y and multiply the difference by z.
In algebraic expressions, numbers are represented by alphabets or
symbols or a mixture of these with numerical values:
Solution
Algebra allows us to write mathematical equations or formulae in a
When 2x is subtracted from y, we have y – 2x. Multiplying the
convenient way.
difference by z gives the result (y-2x)z.
Algebraic expressions are written in the same way as arithmetic
expressions
2. Divide the sum of x and y by the difference when x is subtracted
from y.
Arithmetic Algebra
Addition 5+4=9 x+y=z Solution
Subtraction 5–4=1 x–y=z
Multiplication 5 x 4 = 20 xxy=z The sum of x and y is (x + y). When x is subtracted from y, the
Division 36 y 9 = 4 xy y = z x y
Power 23 = 2 x 2 x 2 A3= Ax Ax A difference is (y – x). The final result is .
y x
However, in algebra, another method is commonly used to write
multiplication and division expressions:
x [ y = z written as xy = z (omit multiplication sign)
x y y = z written as x/y = z ( in fractional form)

Polynomial, Variables, Coefficients and Constant Terms

An algebraic expression involves numbers and operational signs such For example, in 8x3 – 7x2 + 5x + 3, the highest power of the variable x
as +, -, x and y. The + and – signs in an algebraic expression separate is 3. Therefore, the degree of the polynomial 8x3 – 7x2 + 5x +3 is 3.
it into terms.
What is the degree of the polynomial of 5x2 – 3x3 + 5x4 – 7x +2?
For example, 8y + 7z consists of 2 terms.
7x2 – 2xy and 7y2 consists of 3 terms Usually, a polynomial is expressed such that the degrees of the terms
while ab consists of only 1 term appear in descending order, for example, 3x3 + 2x2 – 4x + 7.
Sometimes it is expressed with the degrees of the terms appearing in
A polynomial is an algebraic expression consisting of one or more ascending order, for example, 3 + 5x – 7x2 + 8x3.
terms, For example, the expressions x+5, x+3y, 5x+7y and x2 + 4x –3
are polynomials. Example

Example
(a) Add 2x to 3y
Consider the algebraic expressions a) 4x and b) 5x + 7.
Solution: 2x + 3y
The polynomial in a) will take on different values for different values of
x given. (b) Subtract 5x from 12.
For example, when x=2, 4x = 4 x 2 = 8. Solution: 12 - 5x

x=3, 4x =4 x 3 = 12
x=5, 4x = 4 x 5 = 20 and so on. (c) Multiply u by 3v
Since the value of 4x varies according to the value given to x, x is Solution: u x 3v = 3uv
called a variable.
(d) Divide 3k by 7x
In the term 4x, the constant factor 4 is called the coefficient of the term.
Thus, the coefficient of x in 5x is 5, the coefficient of xy in 7xy is 7, the 3k
Solution: 3k y 7 x
coefficient of abc in 23 abc is 23, and so on. 7x
What is the coefficient of x2 in 25x2? (e) Subtract the product of x and 3y from the sum of p and q.
The polynomial in b) will take on different values of x given. Solution: p q xu 3y p q 3xy
For example, when x=2, 5x + 7 = 5 x 2 + 7 = 17

x=3, 5x+7 = 5 x 3 + 7 = 22
x=5, 5x+7 = 5 x 5 + 7= 32 and so on.
Notice that the value of the polynomial depends on x; the numeral 7

always remains unchanged. We call this numeral a constant term or
simply a constant.
Each polynomial has a degree, which is given by the highest power of

the variable.

Example Solution
Ali is three times as old as Beng and Beng is five years older than (a) The integer after x is (x + 1) and the one before x is (x-1). The
Chandra. If Beng is x years old, write algebraic expressions for each of sum of the three consecutive integers is (x-1) + x + (x + 1) = 3x.
the following: (b) The greater of the two consecutive odd integers is (x+2). The
product of the two integers is x u x 2 or xx 2 .
(a) Ali’s age today. (c) The cost of x 10¢ stamps = x u 10 ¢ = 10x¢.
(b) Chandra’s age today.
The cost of 25 y¢ stamps = (25 x y)¢ = 25y¢
(c) Ali’s age in 5 years’ time.
The total cost = (10x + 25y)¢
(d) The sum of Ali’s age and Beng’s ages in 2 years time.
(e) The sum of Beng’s and Chandra’s ages 4 years ago.
Example
Solution
Evaluate 2x + 5y when
(a) Ali’s age is 3x years old.
(a) X=3 and y=5
(b) Chandra’s age is (x-5) years old.
(b) X=2 and y=-1
(c) Ali will be (3x+5) years old.
(c) X=-2 and y=3
(d) In 2 year’s time, Ali will be (3x+2) years old and Beng will be
(x+2) years old. The sum of their ages is (3x+2) + (x+2) = (4x+4)
Solution
(e) Four years ago, Beng was (x – 4) years old and Chandra was (x
– 5 – 4), i.e. (x - 9) years old. The sum of their ages then was (x
(a) When x = 3 and y = 5, 2x + 5y = 2(3) + 5(5) = 6 + 25 = 31.
– 4) + (x – 9) = (2x –13) years old.
(b) When x = 2 and y = -1, 2x + 5y = 2(2) + 5(-1) = 4 – 5 = -1.
(c) When x = -2 and y = 3, 2x +5y = 2(-2) + 5(3) = -4 +15 = 11.
Example
(a) The sum of three consecutive integers, of which x is the middle

integer.
(b) The product of two consecutive odd integers, of which, x is the
smaller integer.
(c) The total cost of x 10¢ stamps and 25y ¢ stamps

Exercises 4. If a = 2, b = -3, c = 4, d = 5 and e = -6, find the value of each of the

following:
1. Express the following polynomials so that the degrees of the terms
are in descending order: (a) 3a – 3(2c - e)
(b) 4(a - 3b) - 5c
2 3
(a) 3x + 7x + 4 – 5x (c) 4c – (a – 2b – e)
(b) 7x4 – 4x + 7x3 – 5x2 (d) 9c – 3(2d + c)
(c) 4x2 + 5x3 – 7x + 4 (e) 7e – 5b2 + 4ac
(d) 7x2 + 5x5 – 6x3 + 7 (f) 5abe – 4(e + c)2
2. Write an algebraic expression for each of the following: 5. Write an algebraic expression for each of the following:
(a) Add 2x to 14. (a) The cost of x litres of petrol at $1.10 per litre.
(b) Subtract 14 from 5a. (b) Three times the variable x divided by the sum of 3 and k
(c) Multiply 4 by 2k. (c) Five times the number, which is 3 more than h.
(d) Divide 8x by 24y. (d) One quarter of the number which is 4 less than m.
(e) Add 2x to twice 3y. (e) The total number of eggs in k cartons where each carton
(f) Subtract 5x from half of y. contains n eggs.
(f) The total distance travelled by a car for x hours at a constant
3. Translate each of the following word expression into algebraic speed of z km/h
expressions:
6. If a = 2, b = -3 and c = 4, evaluate each of the following:
(a) The sum of a number 2x and a number y.
(b) The product of 7 and a number k. 5ac 2b 2 2c 4b 5ab
(c) Fifteen subtracted from twice the number t. (a) e.
2ab c a c a
(d) Three times the number u decreased by four.
(e) Eight more than half a number v. § a ·§ c ·
¨ ¸¨ ¸
3a 3 2b 2 4c b b
(f) The total value of h 50¢ coins and k $2 notes in dollars. (b) f. © ¹© ¹
(g) The total cost of buying x sets of stamps to commemorate the 2a 4b a a

50th Anniversary of the inter-religious organisation (IRO) at bc
$1.82 per set and y sets of the Rabbit Zodiac series at $2.22 per 2c
set.
5a 3bc c 2
(c) g. b d
2ac 4b c a

b c
1 2

7a 8b 2c
(d) h. a b
3c 2b 4a b 1
y
a c

Some Rules in Algebra

Exercises
Rules of arithmetic also apply in algebra. However, there are also
some additional rules in algebra. Simplify the following expression:
In algebra, terms of the same kind can be added to or subtracted from (a) 5n x 12
one another to form a single term.
(b) –2 x 6a
For example
(c) –4 x (-2k)
(a) 3a + 5a = 8a
(b) 7b – 3b = 4b 1
(c) 2a + 5b + 4a + 8b = (2a + 4a) + (5b + 8b) = 6a + 13b (d) x 15a
3
(d) 9c + 7d – 4c – 5d = (9c - 4c) + (7d – 5d) = 5c +2d
(e) 7a + 9b – 5a – 4b + 2a - b = (7a – 5a + 2a) + (9b – 4b – b) = 4a
3m
+4b (e) 2 u
4
In multiplication and division, the term coefficients and the variables are
multiplied or divided. 1
(f) –16b x
4
For example
2
(a) 3 x 6a = 3 x 6 x a = 18a (g) u 20n
5
(b) 2a x 5a = 2 x a x 5 x a = 10a2
(c) 12m x 3n = 12 x m x 3 x n = 36mn (h) (-24m) y (18n) where nz0
(d) 3(a – b) = 3 x a – 3 x b = 3a - 3b
(e) – a x ( -2ab) = (-1) x a x (-2) x a x b
(i) 2a x 7a x (-5b)
=(-1) x (-2) x a x a x b = 2a2b
14m
(f) 14m y 7 2m (j) d 4e2
7
18a 9a
(g) 18a y 10b ,b z 0 (k) 2 xy y 3 y 2 u 5 x 2 , where (yz0)
10b 5b
(h) 9a 4 3u 3u a u a u a u a 3a 2
c2 cd
(l) y , where c,d z 0
2
The terms 3a and 2a are unlike terms. Therefore they cannot be 5 25
combined into a single term by adding or subtracting.
(m) 3d x 2de x def
(n) 25c 6 d 4

Use of Bracket in Algebraic Expression

When bracket occurs in an algebraic expression, the rules by which Example
operations are performed apply exactly as in arithmetic:
Simplify
(a) Simplify the expression within the bracket first
(a) 3a + 5b – 3c –2b +7c – a + 4c – 6b + 8a
(b) When an expression contains more than one pair of brackets, = (3 – 1 + 8)a + (5 – 2 – 6)b + (-3 + 7 + 4)c = 10a – 3b +8c
simplify the expression within the innermost pair of brackets
first, For example, [2c – 4(c – 1)] = [2c – 4c + 4] = 4 - 2c (b) 3x + 2(x + 4) – (2x – 3) + 5x – 7
= 3x + 2x + 8 – 2x + 3 + 5x – 7
(c) If an expression in brackets is multiplied by a number, each = (3 + 2 – 2 + 5)x + (8 + 3 – 7)
term within the brackets must be multiplied by that number = 8x + 4
when the brackets are removed, for example
4(a – 2b + 3c) = 4a – 8b + 12c (c) 2[4p –3(m + p)]
=2(4p - 3m - 3p)
=2(p – 3m)
x
(d) The expression ( y z 0) is called an algebraic fraction. =2p – 6m
y
2x 3 5x 7 2x 3 x 3
In the fractions can be written as , the numerators (d)
4 6 5 3
2x 3 3(2 x 3) 5( x 3)
can be placed within the brackets. Thus, can be written
4 15 15
(2 x 3) 1 5x 7 3(2 x 3) 5( x 3)
as or (2 x 3) and can be written as
4 4 6 15
(5 x 7) 1 L.C.M of 5 and 3 is 15
or (5 x 7) 6 x 9 5 x 15
6 6 15
11x 24
15
x y 3 x y 7(2 x 4)
(e)
2 5 6
15( x y) 6(3x y) 35(2 x 4)
30
15 x 15 y 18 x 6 y 70 x 140
L.C.M of 2,5 and 6 is 30
30
37 x 9 y 140
30

Exercises
Simplify the following expressions:
(a) 5(a + 2b) – 3b

(b) 4u – 3(2u – 5v)
(c) –2a – 3(a – b)
(d) 6x – 2(4y + x)
(e) 7m – 2n – 2(3n – 2m)
(f) –3(2h – k) + 4(k – 3h)
(g) a + 3(2a –3b +c) + 7c
(h) (x + y) – 2(3x – 4y +3)
(i) 3(p – 2q) – 4(2p – 3q – 5)
1ª 1 º
(j) 2 x (4 x 12)»
2 «¬ 2 ¼
2
(k) >12 p 5 2 p @
5
(l) a b (c d )
(m) 2>3a 4a 2 a @
1 2
(n) (4 x 2 y) 9 x 3 y 2 x y
2 3
(o) 8>34 x 5 y 26 x 5 y@
(p) 2> y 32 y x@ 3 x
x 2x 4
(q)
5 7
2x 7 6x 3
(r)
3 5
2( x 3) 1 3 x 4
(s)
5 2 4

Addition and Subtraction of Polynomial

Exercises
Example
(c) Find the sum of the following expressions:
1. Find the sum of 4x2 – 9x + 3 and x2 – 2x – 8
(a) x2 - 3x - 1, 3x2 + 2x + 9
Solution (b) –2a3 – 3a2 + 4a + 6, 2a3 + 5a2 +7
(c) p + 2q – 4r, 2p – 3q + 5r, 3q – q + 2r
The expressions are arranged so that the like terms are grouped (d) 2x3 + 3x2 + 1, 2x3 – 2x2 + 6x, 4x2 –2x + 9, -3x3 + 5
together. (e) 9p + 12q – 3r – 4s, -8q +4s, -7p +q + 2r, p + 4r – 5s
(f) 5xy – 6yz + 7zx, xy + 5yz –6zx, -6xy + yz + zx
= 4x2 + x2 –9x –2x +3 –8 (g) x3 – 5x2 + 4x – 7,x4 + 2x3 + x2 –7x + 4, x4 –7x + 8
= 5x2 –11x –5 (h) x5 – 3x4 + 5x2 –2x + 3, 2x5 + 7x2 – 8, -3x5 + 7x4 – 4x2 + 5x – 9
(i) 3x2y + xy – xy2, 5x2y + 2xy – 7xy2, 2x2y + 7xy + 9xy2
2. Find the sum of 2a + 3b –4c, 3a –2b, -4a +5c and a –2b + c
(d) Subtract
Solution
23. 3x2 – x – 1 from 4x2 + 3x –3
Grouping all the like terms together would give, 24. 3x2 –5x from 2x2 – 4x – 5
25. a – 2b + 6c from 3a + 3b – 4c
= 2a + 3a - 4a + a + 3b - 2b - 2b - 4c + 5c + c 26. 2q – 3r – s from p – 4q – 6r
=2a – b + 2c 27. 3x2 + 2x – 4 from x3 – 3x2 – 5x +6
28. 2a5 + 3a4 –7a3 + 4a2 + 8 from 2a6 – 3a5 – 7a4 + 4a3 – 8a2 + 3a
3. Subtract x3 –5x2 + 6x –7 from 2x3 – 7x2 + 11x + 6 29. 2a5 – 3a4 + 7a3 – 6 from 7a5 + 4a4 – 2a3 + 3a + 2
Solution (e) Simplify the following expression
= 2x3 – x3 –7x2 + 5x2 +11x – 6x + 6 +7 (i) (3a2 + 7a) + (2a2 – 9a)
= x3 – 2x2 + 5x +13 (ii) (-2a + 7b) – (a + 4b)
(iii) 6(2a + 3b – 7ab) – 4(5a – 2b + 5ab)
(iv) (3a + 4b – 5c) + (2a – 7b – 6c) + (8a – 5b + 9c)
(v) 2(a + c- 3c) – 4(a – b + c) + 5a
(vi) 5(b +a – 6c) – 7(c – b + 6a)
(vii) 8(3a – 4b + c) + 5(2a – 3b + c) –3(2c + 9a + 7b)
(viii) 6(a – 3b + 5c) – 4(5b – c + 2a) – 5(2a – 4c + 3b)

Linear Equations and their Solutions

A linear equation is an equation involving only the sum of constants or Standard Form:
products of constants and the first power of a variable. This type of
equation is equivalent to equating a first-degree polynomial to zero. Ax + By = D
They are called "linear" because they represent straight lines in
Cartesian coordinates. Again, A and B are not both equal to zero and A is usually 0. The
standard form can be converted to the general form by setting C = íD.
A common form of a linear equation in two variables is y = mx + c, (e.g.
y = 2x + 7). In this form, the value m will determine the slope or Intercept Form
gradient of the line; and the value c will determine the point at which
the line crosses the y-axis. Equations involving terms such as x2, y1/3, x y
1
and xy are "non-linear". E F
The following are some examples of linear equations. E and F must be nonzero. The graph of the equation has x-intercept E
and y-intercept F. The intercept form can be converted to the standard
3x + 2y = 10 form by setting A = 1/E, B = 1/F and D = 1.
4a + 74b = 213b + 7
3x + 4y – 5 = 4x + 3y – 7 Slope-Intercept Form
y = Mx + F
FORMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
where M is the slope of the line and F is the y-intercept.
Complicated linear equations can be rewritten using the laws of
elementary algebra into several simpler forms. In the following section, Point-Slope Form
we use capital letters to represent constants (unspecified but fixed
numbers), while x and y are the variables. y – K = M (x – H)
General Form The graph passes through the point (H,K) and has slope M.
Ax + By +C =0 Two-Point Form
In this equation, A and B are not both equal to zero. The equation is QK
usually written so that A 0, by convention. The graph of the equation y K x H
PH
is a straight line, and every straight line can be represented by an
equation in the above form.
Here P H and the graph passes through the points (H,K) and (P,Q),
and has slope M = (QíK) / (PíH).
If A is nonzero, then the x-intercept, that is the x-coordinate of the point
where the graph crosses the x-axis (y is zero), is íC/A. If B is nonzero,
Parametric Form
then the y-intercept, that is the y-coordinate of the point where the
graph crosses the y-axis (x is zero), is íC/B, and the slope of the line is
The following shows a linear equation in its parametric form.
íA/B.
x = Tt + U and y = Vt + W
It is written in the form of two simultaneous equations in terms of a

variable parameter t, with slope M = V / T, x intercept (VUíWT) / V and
y intercept (WTíVU) / T.

This can also be related to the two-point form with T = PíH, U = H, V =

QíK, and W = K:
x = (P - H) t + H and y = (Q – K) t + K
In this case t varies from 0 at point (H,K) to 1 at point (P,Q), with values
of t between 0 and 1 providing interpolation and other values of t
providing extrapolation.
Special Cases
y= F
This is a special case of the standard form where A = 0 and B = 1, or of

the slope-intercept form where the slope M = 0. The graph is a
horizontal line with y-intercept equal to F. There is no x-intercept,
unless F = 0, in which case the graph of the line is the x-axis, and so
every real number is an x-intercept.
x= E
This is a special case of the standard form where A = 1 and B = 0. The

graph is a vertical line with x-intercept equal to E. The slope is
undefined. There is no y-intercept, unless E = 0, in which case the
graph of the line is the y-axis, and so every real number is a y-
intercept.
0=0
In this case all variables and constants are canceled out, leaving a
trivially true statement. The original equation, therefore, would be
called an identity and one would not consider the graph (it would be the
entire xy-plane). An example is 2x + 4y = 2(x + 2y). The two
expressions on either side of the equal sign are always equal, no
matter what values are used for x and y.
Note that if algebraic manipulation leads to a statement such as 1 = 0,

then the original equation is called inconsistent, meaning it is untrue for
any values of x and y. An example would be 3x + 2 = 3x í 5.
In addition, there may be more than two variables in the equation or

several simultaneous equations.

Simultaneous Equations
Please solve. Exercise
1. Solve the following simultaneous equations.

Mr Tan bought a calculator, 3 rulers, 4 files, 5 pens, and 6 assesment (a)2x + 3y = 7 (b) 3x + 4y = 7
books for $56.85. 7x - y = 13 5x - 7y = 39
Mrs Ong bought a calculator, 5 rulers, 7 files, 9 pens and 11 assessmen (c) 5x + 3y = 15 (d) 4x + 5y = 8
books for $73.95. 3y - x = 3 5x + 4y = 12
How much will it cost altogether to buy a calculator, a ruler, a file, a pen (e) 2x + 3y - 3 = 3x + y - 8 = x + 3y
an assessment book?
(f) 3x - 5y – 7 = 4x + 3 = 2x + y + 16
Solve the following simultaneous equations
3 4 5 9
1 2
Example 1 2x + 3y = 7 ------------ (1) x y 2x y
(g) (h)
3x + 5y = 11 ------------ (2) 7 2 11 15 12
1
x y 12 x y
Solution
By elimination:
2. If x = 2 and y = 3 is the solution to the set of simultaneous
equations
(1) x 3: 6x + 9y =21 ------------ (3)
(2) x 2: 6x + 10y = 22 ------------ (4)
2ax + 3by = 10
(4) -(3): y =1
3ax - 7by = -54,
Substitute y = 1 into (1): 2x+3=7
Find the possible values of a and b.
x=2
3. If (3, -2) is the solution to the set of simultaneous equations
.˙. the solution is x = 2 and y = 1.
px - qy = 4
By substitution: 3px + 2qy = 22,
7 3y Find the values of p and q.
From (1), we have x= ------------ (5)
2
7 3y
Substitute (5) into (2): 3( ) + 5y = 11 ------------ (4)
2
(6) x 2: 21 - 9y + 10y = 22
.˙. Y = 1
7 3(1)
Substitute y = 1 into (5): x=
2
.˙. x = 2 and y = 1

SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR AND SECOND DEGREE EQUATIONS Example
A pair of linear and non-linear simultaneous equations are normally Calculate the coordinates of the points of intersection of the line 5x - 3y
solved by using the method of substitution. We start with the linear 3x 2 y
equation by expressing one variable in terms of the other. This, in turn, = 12 and the curve 1
y x
is substituted into the non-linear equation to obtain an equation with
only one variable. Solution
Solve the following simultaneous equations: 5x - 3y = 12 ----------- (1)
3x 2 y
Example 1 ----------- (2)
y x
2x² + y² - 5xy = 8 -------------(1)
y = x+2 ------------ (2) 5 x 12
From (1): y ----------- (3)
3
Solution
Substitute (2) into (1): 2x² + (x + 2) ² - 5x(x + 2) = 8 3(3 x) 2(5 x 12)

2x² + x² + 4x + 4 - 5x²- 10x = 8 Substitute (3) into (2): =1
(5 x 12) 3x
x² + 3x + 2 = 0
(x + 2)(x + 1) = 0 Multiply both sides by (5x - 12) 3x :
x= -2 or -1
3x(9x) - 2(5x - 12) ² = (5x - 12)3x
Substitute x = -2 into (2): y = -2 + 2 = 0 27x² - 2(25x² - 120x + 144) = 15x² - 36x
27x² - 50X² + 240x - 288 - 15x² + 36x = 0
Substitute x = -1 into (2): y = -1 + 2 = 1 38x² - 276x + 288 = 0
19x² - 138x + 144 = 0
.˙. the solution is x = -1 and y = 1 or x = -2 and y = 0. (19x - 24)(x - 6) = 0
5
.˙. x=1 or x= 6.
19
§ 5·
5¨1 ¸ 12
5 © 19 ¹ 17
Substitute x = 1 into (3): y 1
19 3 19
5(6) 12
Substitute x = 6 into (3): =6
3
5 17
? The coordinates of the points of intersection are (1 , -1 ) and
19 19
(6,6) .

Example Exercise
1 1 1. Solve the following sets of simultaneous equations:

If (3 , ) is a solution to the set of simultaneous equations:
2 2
(a) 2x + y = 5 (b) x + y = 2
ax + by = 9 x+y=5 x(x - y) = 12
bx² + 8ay² +19 = 20x + 2ay,
(c) y = 2 – x (d) 2x = I - 3y
Find the values of a and b and then find the other solution to the x(x + y) = 5 - 3y² 3y² - x² = 2
simultaneous equations.
(e) x² + y² = 34 (f) x -y = 3
Solution y + 3x = 14 3y ²= x²+ 2xy + I
1 1 1 1 (g) x-y=7 (h) x - 2y = 7

Since (3 , ) is a solution, x = 3 and y = satisfy the x² - y² = 21 x² + 4y² = 37
2 2 2 2
simultaneous equations
(i) 4x + y = 7 (j) 2x + 3y = 13
4x² - 4xy + y² = 1 2xy + 5y² - 4x² = 41
1
i.e. a (3 ) + b (½) = 9 ----------- (1)
2 (k) x - 7y = 2 (I) 5x - y = 2
1 1 1 1 x² = 34y² + 7xy – 16 4y² + 4xy - 4x² - 1 =0
b (3 )² + 8a( )² + 19 = 20 (3 ) + 2a ( ) ----------- (2)
2 2 2 2
(m) x²+ 3x + 5y = 20 (n) 3x² + 2x = y² - Y + 50
From (1) 7a + b = 18 ----------- (3) x + 3y = 1 2x = y + 5
From (2) 4a + 49b = 204 ----------- (4)
(o) 2x + 3y = 5 (p) 3x + y = 5
Solving (3) and (4) simultaneously, we have a=2 and b=4 x² + y² = 6x - 4y x² + 2y² = 3x - 2y – 2
Thus we have
2x +4y = 9 ----------- (5) (q) 2 + 3 = 13 (r) 2x + 3y = 8
4x² + 16y² + 19 = 20x + 4y ----------- (6) x y
From (5) 2x = 9 – 4y ----------- (7) 2x + 3y = 2 2x² = 110 - 3y²
Substitute (7) into (6) (s) x(1 + 2y) = 6 (t) 2x - 3y = 3

y(1 + 3x) = 5 4x² - 9y² = 3
(9 - 4y)² + 16y² + 19 = 10(9 - 4y) + 4y
81 - 72y + 16y² + 16y² + 19 = 90 - 40y + 4y (u) 3x = 1 + 5y (v) 3x + y = 1
32y² - 36y + 10 = 0 x² + 2y² = 3xy x² + 2xy + 2y² = 25
16y² - 18y + 5 = 0
(2y - 1)(8y - 5) = 0 2. If x = 1 and y = 2 is the solution to the simultaneous equations ax +
by = 2 and bx + a²y = 10, find the possible values of a and b.
1 5
.˙. y = or y =
2 8 3. The expression ax² + bx + 1 takes the values 1 and 4 when x takes
the values 2 and 3 respectively. Find the value of the expression
5 5 1 when x takes the value 4.
When y =, 2x = 9 – 4( ), x = 3
8 8 4
4. The sum of the circumference of two circles is 38 cm and the sum
1 5
.˙. The other solution is (3 , ) of their areas is 193 cm². Calculate the radii of the circles.
4 8

5. The sum and product of two numbers x and y are 3 and 1.25 SUMMARY
respectively. Form two separate equations involving x and y and
solve them to obtain the possible values of x and y. 1. To solve a pair of simultaneous equations involving a linear and a
non-linear equation, the steps to take are normally:
4x 9y
6. Solve the simultaneous equations 2y = 3x – 1, 15 . a. Express one unknown in terms of another, normally
y x
beginning with the linear equation.
7. Two positive numbers differ by 1½ and the sum of their squares is b. Substitute the result of step 1 into the non-linear equation
9ǩ. Find the numbers. and solve for the unknown.
8. Solve the simultaneous equations 2. When the polynomial f(x) is divided by x r a , the remainder R is
given by R= f(±a).
y + 4 = x, y² + 17 = 2x²
3. When the polynomial f(x) is divided by ax r b where a 0, the
9. Solve the simultaneous equations remainder R is given by R = f(± a).
x + y = xy, 2y = x + 2 4. If x r a is a factor of the polynomial f(x), then f(± a) = 0, the

§ b·
remainder R is given by R = f ¨ r ¸ .
© a¹
§ b·
5. If x r a , where a 0, is a factor of the polynomial f(x), then f ¨ r ¸
© a¹
§ b·
= 0. Conversely, if f ¨ r ¸ = 0, ax r b is a factor of f(x).
© a¹

Review Problems 8. Find the values of k for which

(a) (x + 2) is a factor of 2x² - 3x² + kx + 18
1. Solve the following simultaneous equations. (b) (2x - 1) is a factor of 2x³ + x² - kx + 30
(c) (x - 2) is a factor of 2x³ + kx² + 11x - 2
(a) 3x - 4y = 7(2x-y) , 5x-3y+3=0 (d) (x + 3) is a factor of (2x + 5)9 + (3x + k)³
7(3 x 2 y) 4 x 5y (e) (3xk – 7x2+ 15) ÷ (x - 2) has remainder of 11
(b) = x + 2 , 10x + 8 y = + + (f) 2kx² - k²x - 11 ÷ (x - 3) has remainder of 4
2 3 3 6
2 5 4 7
(c) + = -3Ҁ , - = 5Ҁ 9. Factorize each of the following:
x y y x (a) 2x³ – 7x² + 9 (b) x³ - 2x² - 15x + 36
(c) 6x³ 19x² - 24x – 16 (d) 6x³ + 5x² - 17x - 6
2. Solve the following simultaneous equations: (e) 6x³ + 31x² + 3x – 10 (f) 12x³ + 28x² - 7x - 5
(a) x + 2y = 4, x² - xy + 2y² = 8 (b) 3x + 2y = 7, x(3x - 4y) = 8 10. Solve the following equations by factorization:
2x 6y 3x y (a) 2x³ - 3x² - 17x + 30 = 0 (b) 6x³ + 11x² - 4x - 4 = 0
(c) 4x - y = 14 , + =7 (d) + = 3½, 2x + y = 7
y x y x (c) 2x³ – 7x² -10x + 24 = 0 (d) 8x4 - 42x³ + 29x² + 42x + 8 = 0
(e) x + 2y = 5, 5x² + 4y² + 12x = 29 (f) x + y + 8 = 0, x² + y² = 82
3x 2y 11. Solve the following equations, giving solutions to 2 decimal places
(g) 5x = 3y + 12 , – =1 (h) x - y = 2, 15x² - 16xy = 15y² where necessary:
y x
(a) x³ - 6x² + 2x + 12=0 (b) 2x³ - 31x² + 29x - 7=0
1 1 1
(i)xy = 20 , 2x - 11 = 2y (j)x – y + =0, – –2=0 (c) 4x³ - 37x² + 37x - 7 = 0 (d) 6x³ + 5x² - 26x + 11 = 0
12 x y
12. When the expression 7x21 – 5x15 + ax6 is divided by x + 1, the
3. The line 3y = 4x – 15 intersects the curve at 8x² = 45 + 27y² at the remainder is 2. Find the numerical value of a. Hence find the
points A and B. Find the coordinates of A and B. remainder when the expression is divided by x - 1.
4. The line 2x + 3y = 2 intersects the curve 6x² + 9xy - 9y² = 2 at the 13. Given that y = 2x³ + 17x² - 48x + 29 and that y has the same
points P and Q. Find the coordinates of P and Q. remainder when divided by x - a or x + a, find the possible values
of a.
x y
5. Solve the simultaneous equations. + = 4, 2xy = 45
2 3 14. Find the values of p and q for which the expression 12x4 + 16x³ +
px² + qx - 1 is divisible by 4x² - 1. Hence, find the other factors of
6. Find the values of A, B and C in each of the following identities: the expression.
(a) 4x² - 13x + 5 Ł A(x - 2)(x - 3) + B(x - 2) + C 15. The expression (px+q)(x-1) + r(x² + 2) is equal to 12 for all values of
(b) 7x² - 14x + 13 Ł A(x - 1)(x + 3) + B(x - 1) + C x. By substituting suitable values of x, or otherwise, find the value of
(c) 2x³+3x²-14x-5 Ł (Ax+B)(x+ 3)(x+ 1) + C p, of q and of r.
(d) 12x³ - 61x² + 4x + 16 Ł (Ax - 1)(Bx + 1)(x - C) + 11
(e) 3x4 + 9x³ + 11x² + 10x + 15 Ł Ax² (x + 1 )(x + 2) + Bx(x + 2) + C 16. Find the values of p and q if 4x² - 4x - 3 is a factor of the expression
(f) x - 10² - 13x + 1 Ł (x² + Ax + 3)(x - 1)(x - 3) + Bx + C 8x4 + px + qx² + x³ + 3. Hence, factorize the expression completely.
7. Find the remainder of each of the following: 17. Given that f(x) = xQ - (p + 1)x² + p where n and p are positive
(a) (x² + 3x - 4) ÷ (x + 3) (b) (x³ + 4x² + 3x - 7) ÷ (x - 2) integers, show that x-1 is a factor of f(x) for all values of p. When p
(c) (2x4 + 3x² + 7x - 2) ÷ (x - 1) (d) (3x³ - 4x² + 7) ÷ (x + 1) = 4, find the value of n for which x + 2 is a factor of f(x) and then
(e) (2x³ – 4x² + 7x - 5) ÷ (2x - 1) (f) (4x³ + 3x² - 5) ÷ (2x + 1) factorize f (x) completely.
(g) (5x² - 7x + 5) ÷ (2x + 3) (h) (3x³ + 2x² - 4x + 9) ÷ (2x - 5)
(i) (5x56 – 6x47 + 7x4 + 3) ÷ (x - 1)
(j) 4X32 - 5x28 + 6x17 + 5x³ ÷ (x + 1)

18. (a) Solve the equation 2x³ – 7x² - 7x + 30 = 0. 21. Given that (x² - 4x + 3) is a factor of x4 + hx² + kx - 15, find the
(b) When the expression x² + bx + c is divided by x - 2, the values of hand k. With these values of h and k factorise x4 + hx² +
remainder is R. When the expression is divided by x + 1, the kx - 15 completely.
remainder is also R.
(i) Find the value of b. 22. Solve the simultaneous equations
(ii) When the expression is divided by x - 4, the remainder is
2R. Find the value of c and R. x + y = 5, xy = 4
(iii) When the expression is divided by x - t, the remainder is
5R. Find the two possible values of t. 23. Solve the simultaneous equations
6x + 5y = 15, x² + 5xy + 50y² = 400
24. Given that (x+ 5) is a common factor of x³ + kx² - Ax+ 15 and x³ - x²

- (A + 5)x + 40. Find the values of k and A and hence factorise x³ +
kx² - Ax + 15 completely.
25. Solve the simultaneous equations
(c) The sketch shows part of the graph of 4x + y = 7, 3x² + 4x - 2xy = y² - 7y + 13
y = x³ + px² + qx + r,where p, q and r are constants. 26. *The expression x2n - k has (x + 3) as a factor and leaves a
remainder of -80 when divided by (x + 1). Calculate the values of n
The points A, Band C have coordinates (-2, 0), (2, 0) and (4, 0) and k where both are integers. With these values of n and k
respectively. The curve crosses the y-axis at D. Evaluate p, q and r, factorise x2n - k completely.
and state the coordinates of D.
19. (a) Find the value of k for which x² + (k - 1)x + k² - 16 is exactly
divisible by x - 3, but not divisible by x + 4. 2x - 3y=14, x² + 5y + 15 = 0
(b) Given that 4x4 - 9a²x² + 2(a² - 7)x - 18 is exactly divisible by 2x 28. The expression 3x³ - px²- 2x - q leaves a remainder of 44 and 40
- 3a, show that a³ - 7 a - 6 = 0 and, hence, find the possible when divided by (x - 2) and (x - 4) respectively. Find the values of p
values of a. and q.
(c) The expression 2x³ + bx² - cx + d leaves the same remainder 29. The expression px³ + 5x² - qx + 15 leaves a remainder of 10¼ and
when divided by x + 1 or x - 2 or 2x - 1. Evaluate b and c. Given, 20¼ when divided by (2x - 1) and (2x - 3) respectively. Find the
also, that the expression is exactly divisible by x + 2, evaluate d. values of p and q.
20. (a) The expressions x³ - ax + a² and ax³ + x² - 17 have the same 30. The expression ax4 - 2x³ + 5x² + 4x - b leaves a remainder of 72
remainder when divided by x - 2. Find the possible values of and -27 when divided by (x - 2) and (x + 1) respectively. Find the
(i) a, (ii) the remainder. values of a and b.
(b) Find the x-coordinate of each of the three points of intersection 31. Factorise the following expressions completely.
of the curves, (a) 6x³ - 5x² - 17x + 6
(b) 6x4 + 31x³ + 57x² + 44x + 12
6
y = 6x² - 5 and y = 17 x -
x 32. Given that 81x4 - 6x³ - 9a2x² - 11x – 3(8/9) is divisible by (3x + a),
show that 2a³ + 33a - 35 = 0 and hence solve the equation for real
(c) Find the value of k for which x² - 3x + k is a factor of x³ - 5x² +
values of a.
12.

33. Given that f(x) = 2x4 - hx³ + kx² + 8x - 4 and f(x) is divisible by (2x -
1) and (x + 2), find the values of h and k. Hence solve the equation
f(x) = 0 for real values of x.
34. Given that the cubic polynomial 6x³ + hx² - x - k is divisible by (2x -
1), and leaves a remainder of 72 when it is divided by (x - 2). Find
the values of h and of k. Hence solve the equation 6x³ + hx² - x - k =
0 for values of h and k found earlier.
35.
(a) The expression a x³ - 4x² + bx - 5 has a factor of x + 1 and

leaves a remainder of 4 when divided by x - 3. Calculate the
remainder when the expression is divided by x - 2.
(b) Solve the equation x² = 5 + (2/x), giving solutions to two decimal

places where necessary.
(c) The remainder when x² - 6x - 9 is divided by x - p is the same as

when it is divided by x + q , where p q. Find the value of p – q.

Indices and Logarithms

In this section, you will learn how to:
The following photograph shows the destructive effects of earthquake
in Taiwan in 1999. The magnitude of an earthquake is normally 1. Simplify surds;
measured using the Richter scale, a logarithmic scale devised by 2. Simplify expressions involving indices;
Charles F. Richter, an American seismologist, in 1935. 3. Solve simple exponential equations;
4. Simplify logarithmic expressions and solve simple logarithmic
equations; change the base of a logarithm and use it to solve
related problems.
INDICES AND SURDS
If a is a positive integer, we have a x a x a = a³. Here, a is called the

base, and 3 is the index or exponent or power. Thus, a4 means the
4th power of a. In general, an means the nth power of a, where n is any
positive index of the positive integer a.
There are several important rules to remember when dealing with

indices.
Every increase of one unit on the Richter scale corresponds to a ten- If a and b are positive and m and n, any rational indices then
time increase in intensity. In other words, an earthquake that registers
7 on the Richter scale is ten times as intense as the one registering 6. 1. am x an = a m+n
2. am y an = a m-n
Richter scale 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3. (am)n = amn
Intensity 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 4. am x bm = (a x b) m
5. am y bm = (a/b) m
6. a0 = 1
In theory, the magnitude of an earthquake can be any real number.
7. a-n = 1/an
However, a standard seismograph can only record earthquakes with n
magnitudes exceeding 3. So far, no earthquakes have registered 8. a1/n = a
magnitudes of more than 9.0 and very few earthquakes have
registered 8.5 or above. Do you know of any recent earthquakes that 9. a m/n
=
n
am a
n
m
registered 8 and above?

Note: a means the positive square root of a, while a means the
The table below gives the effects of earthquakes of various intensities: negative square root of a.
Richter scale 4 5 6 7 8 A number that cannot be expresses as a fraction of two integers is

called an irrational number. Some examples of irrational numbers are
Effects buildings furniture wooden houses buildings catastrophic 2 , 3 7 , S, etc. An irrational number involving a root called a surd.
shake topple damaged collapse destruction

General rules involving surds Example

½ ½ ½
From rule (4) above, we have a x b = (ab) 48 147 75
Simplify : (a)
(b) 50 72 160 y 5
Therefore au b ab
Solution:
For example:
(a)
1 1
6u 1 6 u1 9 3
(a) 2 2 48 147 75
16 u 3 49 u 3 25 u 3
(b) 2 u 12.5 2 u 12.5 25 5
16 u 3 49 u 3 25 u 3
½ ½
From rule (5) above, we have a ÷ b = (a b) 2 4 3 7 3 5 3
a 6 3
ay b
Therefore b
(b)
For example:
50 72 160 y 5
72 160
72 y 2 36 6 25 u 2 36 u 2
(a) 2 5
25 2 36 2 32
40
40 y 2.5 16 4 5 2 6 2 16 u 2
(b) 2.5
11 2 4 2
We can use the above rules to simplify two or more surds, or for 15 2
combining them into single surd.

Rationalization of the Denominator Example
If we are given that 2 = 1.4142, and that we have to find the 4 3 2

(a) Rationalize the denominator of .
1 3 32 2
numerical values of 2 and 5 + 2 without the aid of using a
3 2 3 2
calculator, we substitute 2 into the denominator and then 2 - 2 (b) Express + in the form a + b¥c, where a, b and c
proceed with the calculation, which is tedious. However, we shall now 5 2 5 2
employ the method of rationalization of the denominator to simplify our are integers.
work, as illustrated below.
Solution
1 1 2 2 1.4142
u 0.7071 4 3 2 4 3 2 3 32 2
2 2 2 2 2 (a) = x
3 32 2 3 32 2 3 32 2
5 2 5 2
u
2 2 10 5 2 2 2 22
12 7 2
36 8 3 2 3 3 2 4
2 2 2 2 2 2 22 2
2
42 =
(3 3 ) 2 (2 2 ) 2
12 71.4142
6 70.7071 6 4.9497 10.9497 40 11 6
2 =
27 8
The above demonstrates the process of removing a surd from the 40 11 6
=
denominator. The surds (2 - 2 ) and (2 - 2 ) are called conjugate 19
surds. The general form of conjugate surds are ( ¥m + ¥n) and ( ¥m +
¥n). The product of a pair of conjugate surds is always a rational 3 2 3 2 (3 2 )( 5 2 ) (3 2 )( 5 2 )
(b) + =
number. 5 2 5 2 ( 5 )2 ( 2 )2
For example,
(3 5 3 2 10 2) (3 5 3 2 10 2)
=
(3 + ¥5) (3 - ¥5 ) = 32 – (¥5) 2 = 9 – 5 = 4 52
6 5 4
(¥7 + ¥3)(¥7 - ¥3) = (¥7)2 - (¥3)2 = 7 – 3 = 4 =
3
1
(¥m + ¥n)( ¥m - ¥n) = ( ¥m) 2 - ( ¥n) 2 = m – n = -1 + 2¥5
3

Exercise 1 1 1 1
(o) (p)
1. Simplify each of the following surds:
1 5 1 5
2 2
3 7 3 7
(a) ¥27 + ¥243 (b) ¥18 + ¥72 3 5 3 5 53 2 3 2

(q) (r)
(c) ¥98 - ¥ 50
(e) ¥175 + ¥112 -¥28
(d) ¥32 -¥8 + ¥288
(f) 3¥75 - ¥12 + ¥27
5 3
2
3 5
2
42 5 42 5
(g) 4¥3 x ¥12 y ¥27 (h) 2¥21 x ¥27 y ¥343

5 3 1
(i) 5¥2 y 2¥8 (j) 7¥ 5 x ¥125 y ¥27 4. If k = , find the value of k+ 2 , expressing the answer in its
(k) 8¥3 y 2¥48 x ¥243 (l) (4¥ 3 + 1)2 5 3 k
(m)(2¥3 +3¥2 )2 (n) (4¥5 - 3)2 simplest form.
(o)(6¥5 - 2¥2)2 (p) (2¥8)3
(q) (2 + ¥3)2 - (3 - ¥3)2 (r) (2¥3 - ¥3)2 - (3 - ¥3 )2

ª x2 y 2 x º
»u

x x2 y 2
2. Taking ¥2 = 1.414, ¥3 = 1.732 and ¥5 = 2.236, evaluate each of the
following without using a calculator: 5. Simplify
«
«¬
y x2 y 2
»¼ x y y ,
2 2
where x > y > 0.

3 6 9
(a) (b) (c)
8 3 12 2 2 2 2 2
6. Evaluate
1 2 2 3 3 4 7 8 8 9
2.5 1 3
(d) (e) (f)
125 5 3 3 2
(g) (2¥3 - 1)2 (h) (2¥5 + 1)2 (i) (2¥2 + 5)2
3. Rationalize the denominators of the following surds, giving your

answer in the simplest form.
2 1 3
(a) (b) (c)
3 1 7 2 2 5
3 3 2 2 1 2 5 3
(d) (e) (f)
3 1 4 2 3 3 57
3 1 3 2 2 3 5 2 2
(g) (h) (i)
2 3 1 3 22 3 2 5 2
7 32 5 3 2 2 3 5 5 3 7
(j) (k) (l)
3 52 3 3 2 2 3 4 7 3 5
1 2 1 2 1 5 5 1
(m) (n)
52 5 2 52 52

Example Example
Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator: Simplify (a) aѿ x a2/5 ÷ a½ (b)(a3b2)4 (c) 3¥a y 5¥a2 x (a-1)½
(a)27½ x 3½ (b) 2-3 x 16¾ (c)8ѿ ÷ 16¼ Solution
Solution: (a) aѿ x a2/5 ÷ a½ (b)(a3b2)4 (c) 3¥a y 5¥a2 x (a-1)½

Method 1 Method 2 = aѿ + 2/5 + ½ = a3 x 4b2 x 4 = aѿ y a2/5 x a-½
= a 10 +12 –15 /30 = a12b8 = aѿ - 2/5 - ½
(a) 27½ x 3½ = (27 x 3) ½ 27½ x 3½ = (33)½ x 3½ = a 7/30 = a-17/30
= 81½ = 31½ x 3½
= ¥81 = 31½+½
=9 = 32 Example
=9
Simplify (a) 92x x 27x - 3 ÷ 35 – x (b) 122x + 3 x 6x - 5 x
1
(b) 2 x 16 = 23 x (4¥16)3
-3 ¾ -3 ¾ -3
2 x 16 = 2 x (2 ) 4 ¾ 82x – 1
= 2-3 x 23 Solution
1 (a) 92x x 27x - 3 ÷ 35 – x (b) 122x + 3 x 6x - 5 x
= 8 x 23 =2 -3 + 3
82x – 1
= 20 = (32)2x x (33)x – 3 ÷ 35 - x = (3 x 22)2x + 3 x (2
1 x 3)x - 5 x (23)2x - 1
= 8 x8 =1 = 34x x 33x - 9 ÷ 35 - x = 32x + 3 x 24x + 6 x
2x - 5 x 3x - 5 x 26x - 3
=1
= 34x + 3(x-9) – (5 - x)
= 211x –2 x 33x – 2
= 38x – 14
(c) 8ѿ ÷ 16¼ = 3¥8 y 4¥16 8ѿ ÷ 16¼ = (23)ѿ y (22) ¼
=2y2 = 21 y 21 *Note: (a) am x an = a m + n however am + an z a m + n
=1 = 20
(b) a ÷ a = a m - n however am - an z a m - n
=1 m m m
(c) (a + b) z a + b e.g. (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
Example
If y = 2x , express each of the following in terms of y.
(a) 2x + 2 – 2x - 1 (b) 2x + 1 + 4x – 1 – 8x + 2
Solution
(a) 2x + 2 – 2x - 1 (b) 2x + 1 + 4x – 1 – 8x + 2
= 2x22 - 2x2-1 = 2x21 + (22)x – 1 - (23)x + 2
= (y)4 – (y)(½) = (2x)(2) + 2x2-2 - 23x . 26
= 3½y = 2y + ¼(2x)2 - 64(2x)3
= 2y + ¼y2 – 64y3

Exercise Solving Exponential Equations
1. Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator: An equation that contains an unknown in an index (or exponent) is
called an exponential equation. A simple example will be 2x = 32. Note
(a) 7-1 x 170 x 493/2 (b) 8-Ҁ x 4½ ÷ 2-3 that 32 can be expressed as 25. Therefore, x=5 satisfies the equation.
(c) (1/27) -4/3 x 81¼ ÷ 3-1 (d) 8Ҁ x 4-1 x 512-4/3 In general, we shall use the following rule to solve exponential
(e) 49¼ x 7ѿ ÷ 7-1/6 (f) (¼)-2 ÷ (1/576)- ½ x 2433/5 equations.
(g) 5ѿ x 25ѿ ÷ 125Ҁ (h) 12ѿ ÷ 811/6 x 162ѿ
If ax=ay then x=y where a>0 and a ±1.
2. Simplify each of the following, giving your answer in index form:
Example
(a) a1/2 x a1/3 x a1/6 (b) a3 ÷ a-4 x a2
(c) 12a-4 ÷ 4a-6 (d) 16a-2/5 ÷ 4a-2/3 Solve the following exponential equations:
(e) (a1/3 x b2/5) (f) (a-1/4 ÷ a3/8)24 (a) 4x = 8 (b) 4x + 1 = 0.25
(g) 3¥ a x ¥a (h) 8¥a7 ÷ ¥a ____
(i) 4¥a3 x¥a (j) 6¥ax+2 ÷ 9¥ax + 3 Solution:
§ ab 2 ·
¨¨ 2 4 ¸¸ (a) 4x = 8 (b) 4x + 1 = 0.25
3
(k) ¥8a -3
(l) © 9a b ¹ 3
(22)x = 23 4x + 1 = ¼
22x = 23 4x + 1 = 4-1
3. Simplify each of the following: 2x = 3 x + 1 = -1
x = 1½ x = -2
(a) 3x + 4 x 5x + 1 x 152x - 1
(b) 5x + 7 x 252x – 1 ÷ 1252 – x Example
(c) 63x + 1 x 8x - 1 x 243x - 1
(d) 2x - 1 x 43x - 2 ÷ 322x + 1 Solve the equation 22x + 3 + 2x + 3 = 1 + 2x by using the substitute of y =
(e) 6x x 122x + 5 ÷ 27x x 323x 2x.
(f) 20x + 3 x 152x + 5 ÷ 62x - 1
Solution
4. If y = 3x, express each of the following in terms of y:
22x + 3 + 2x + 3 = 1 + 2x
(a) 3 x+1
–3 x-1
(b) 3 2x + 1
+3 x-2 2x + 2x + 23 + 2x + 23 = 1 + 2x
(c) 2(31 - x) (d) 3x + 3x + 1 + 3x + 2
(e) 9 – 27ѿx + 2/3
x
(f) 3 – 9½x + 1 + 27ѿ (x + 2)
x Let y = 2x
8y2 + 8y = 1 + y
5. If y = 22x, express each of the following in terms of y: 8y2 + 7y – 1 = 0
(8y - 1)(y + 1) = 0
(a) 22x + 3(2-2x) (b) 4x – 3(16x) y = ǩ or –1
(c) 22x + 1 + 4x - 1 (d) 8Ҁx + 1/3 + 4x + 1
(e) 22x+ 22x + 1 + 4x + 2 (f) 22x –1 – 42x + 1 + 16x –1 When y = ǩ when y = -1
2x = ǩ 2x = -1 (inadmissible)
2x = 2-3 Note:2x > 0 for all values of x.
? x= -3 e.g. 21 = 2, 20 = 1, 2-1 = ½

Example Exercise
b
Given that y = ax – 5, that y = 7 when x = 2 and that y = 22 when x = 1. Solve the following equations:
3, find the values of a and b. (a) 3x =81 (b) 5x =125 (c) 32x = 8
(d) 2x = ǩ (e)16x = ½ (f) 7x = 1/49
Solution (g) 5x = 1 (h) 34x = 27x + 3 (i) 4x x 32x = 6
(j) 2x x 4x - 1 = 82x + 1 (k) 3x x 92x = 272x + 1 (l) 53x 25x + 1 = 1/125
y = axb – 5
? 7 = a(2)b – 5 => 12 = a(2)b ____ (1) 2. Solve the following equations:
22 = a(3)b – 5 => 27 = a(3)b ____ (2) (a) 2x + 2x + 3 = 72 (b) 3x + 3x + 2 = 90
(c) 4x + 1 + 22x = 20 (d) 2x – 2x - 2 = 12
(1) ÷ (2) 12 = a(2b) = (Ҁ)b (e) 3x2 - 5 – 9 x - 1 = 0 (f) 5x2 + 3 – 252x = 0
27 a(3 b)
3. By using an appropriate substitution, or otherwise, solve the
i.e. (Ҁ)b = 4 = (Ҁ)2 following equations:
9 (a) 22x + 2x + 2 = 12 (b) 32t + 1 + 3t + 2 = 3ѿ
(c) 22x - 1 – 9 x 2x -2 + 1 = 0 (d) 32x + 1 + 9 = 3x + 3 + 3x
? b =2. (e) 9x + 3 = 4(3x) (f) 5 x 2x = 2 x 4x + 2
(g) 9x + 1 – 28(3)x + 3 = 0 (h) 32x + 2 + 81 = 246(3 x)
Substitute b = 2 into (1)
12 = a(2)2 = 4a 4. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations:
? a = 3. (a) 7x - y = 49 7x + y = 343
(b) 75 = ab2 375 = ab3
Can check if a = 3 and b = 2 satisfy the given conditions? (c) 3x + y = 243 22x – 5y = 8
(d) 52x + y = 625 24x – 2y = 1/16
(e) 3x x 81y = 27 2x x 8y = 1/16
Example
5. The equation of a curve is y = axb + 4. Given that x =1, when y =9
Solve the simultaneous equations:
and y =44 when x =2, calculate the value of a and of b.
3x x 92y = 27 and 2x x 4-y = ǩ
6. The equation of a curve is y = axn. Given that y =18 when x =2 and
Solution
y =8 when x = -3, calculate the value of a and of n.
3x x 92y = 27 ______(1)
7. Given that y = 24 - axb and that y = 6 when x =2 and y = 20 when x
2x x 4-y = ǩ ______(2)
= 9. Find the value of a and b. With these values of a and b, find the
value of y when x =4.
From (1): 3x x (32)2y = 33
3x x 34y = 33
3x + 4y= 33
x + 4y = 3 ______(3)
From (2): 2x x (22)-y = 1

23
2x x 22-y = 2-3
2x-2y = 2-3
x- 2y = -3 _______(4)
Solve (3) and (4) simultaneously,

We have x = -1 and y = 1.

LOGARITHMS
Example,
If a number (y) is expressed as the exponent (x) of another number (a),
i.e., y = ax (a > 0, a 1), we say that x is the logarithm of y to the base
Index p Index p
a. We write this as loga y. 25 = 52 log5 25 = 2
Base n Base n
In general:
y = a x Ù x = logay, a > 0, a 1
100 = 10 Ù log10100 = 2
27 = b Ù logb 27 = 4
This relationship can be illustrated as below
Example
index
Convert the following to logarithm form :
(exponential form ) y = ax loga y= x (logarithmic form) (a) 23 = 8 (b) 3-2 = 1/9 (c) 2x = 47
base Solution
(a) 23 = 8 Ù log28 = 3
(b) 3-2 = 1/9 Ù log31/9 = -2
(c) 2x = 47 Ù log247 = x
Example
Convert the following to exponential form :
(a) log232 = 5 (b) log39 =2 (c) log2¼ = x
Solution
(a) log232 = 5 Ù 32 = 25
(b) log39 =2 Ù 9 = 32
(c) log2¼ = x Ù ¼ = 2x
Example
(a) log2 64 (b) log½ 4 (c) log3 1
(d) log77 (e) log8 0.25 (f) log3 -9
Solution
(a) log2 64 = x (b) log½ 4 = x (c) log3 1 = x
64 =2x 4 =(½)x 1 = 3x
26 = 2x 22 = (2-1)x = 2-x 30 = 3x
? x =2 ? x = -2 ? x=0
(d) log77 = x (e) log8 0.25 = x (f) log3 -9 = x

7 = 7x 0.25 = 8x -9 = 3x
71= 7x 3 x
¼ = (2 ) Since 3x cannot be negative for all
?x = 1 2-2 = 23x values of x, log3 –9 is not defined.
?3x = –2 and x = -2/3

Note: Exercise
(a) Logarthims of a positive number maybe negative
(b) Logarthims of 1 to any base is 0 i.e. loga 1 = 0 1. Write the following in logarithm form:
(c) Logarthims of a number to a base of the same number is i.e. loga a
=1 (a) 52 = 25 (b) 120 = 1
(d) Logarthims of a negative numbers are not defined. For example (c) 73 = 343 (d) 3-1= 1
log5 –7 and log3 -¼ are not defined. (e) ǩ = 2-3 (f) 216 = 63
(e) The base of a logarthims cannot be negative or 1. Can you think of
why this is so? 2. Write the following in index form:
Example (a) log2 8 = 3 (b) log5 625 = 4

(c) log2 ½ = -1 (d) log9 1 = 0
Solve the following equations: (e) log6 1/36 = -2 (f) log10 1000 = 3
(a) log2 x = -1 (b) logx + 1 81 = 2 (c) logx(5x -6) = 2
3. Solve the following equations:
Solution
(a) log3 1 = x (b) log2 25 = x
(a) log2 x = -1 (b) logx + 1 81 = 2 (c) logx(5x -6) = 2 (c) log5 1/5 = x (d) log4 0.25 = x
=> x = 2-1 => 81 = (x + 1)2 => 5x – 6 = x2 (e) log2 128 = x (f) log7 ¥7 = x
=½ x + 1 = ±¥81 = ±9 x2 + 5x + 6 = 0 (g) log¥5 5 = x (h) log4 x = -½
(-9 is rejected as the base (x - 2)(x - 3) = 0 (i) log5 x = 3 (j) logx 27 = 3
of a logarithm is defined ?x = 2 or x = 3 (k) log2x 64 = 4 (l) log3x 49 = 2
only when it is positive) (m) log2 (3x - 5) = 4 (n) logx (5x - 4)= 2
(o) logx (5x - 7) = 1
?x + 1 = 9 => x = 8
4. 4.Given that log2x = a and log8 y = b, express (a) x2y (b) x y2 as a
power of 2 terms of a and b.
5. If log25 x = p and log5 y = q express (a)xy3 (b) x2y as a

power of 5 terms of p and q.
*6. If loga x = p and loga y = q, express (a) loga x3y2 (b) loga¥xy in
terms of p and q.

Laws of Logarithms Example
There are 3 basic laws of logarithms. Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator:
1. loga mn = loga m + loga n 2 81 3

2. loga m/n = loga m - loga n (a) log4 ¥2 + log4 ¥8 (b) 2 log2 + log2 – 2 log2
3 8 4
3. loga mn = n loga m 4
(c) log10 _+ log10 70 - log10 2 + 2 log10 5
m and n are positive, and a 1, a > 0. 35
We shall prove them here.

Solution
Proof: (1) Let loga m = x and loga n = y
m = ax and n = ay (a) log4 ¥2 + log4 ¥8 = log4 ¥2 x 8
Multipy m by n: m x n = ax x ay => mn = ax + y = log4 4 = 1
? loga mn = x + y = loga m + loga n
2 81 3 2 81 3
(2) Let loga m = x and loga n = y (b) 2 log2 + log2 – 2 log2 = log2 ( )2 + log2 - log2 ( )2
3 8 4 3 8 4
m = ax and n = ay 4 81 9
m ax m = log2 + log2 - log2
Divide m by n: => ax ay 9 8 16
n ay n 4 81 9
? loga mn = x – y = loga m - loga n = log2 ( x y )
9 8 16
3
= log2 8 = log2 2
(3) Let loga m = x = 3 log2 2 = 3
m = ax
mn = axn 4
? loga mn = xn (c) log10 + log10 70 - log10 2 + 2 log10 5
35
= n loga m
4
= log10 + log10 70 - log10 2 + log10 52
35
Example
= log10 (4/35 x 70/2 x 25)= log10 100 = log10 102
= 2 log10 10 = 2
Simplify the following, expressing each as a single logarithm:
(a) log2 4 + log2 5 (b) loga28 - loga 4 (c) 2 loga 5 - 3 loga 2
Solution
(a) log2 4 + log2 5 = log2 (4 x 5) = log2 20

(b) loga28 - loga 4 = loga 28 /4 = loga 7
(c) 2 loga 5 - 3 loga 2 = loga 52 - loga 23 = loga 25
8
Note: loga (x + y) z loga x + loga y

loga (x - y) z loga x - loga y
loga xr = loga (xr) and z (loga x)r
Can you give examples to explain each of the above?

Example Example
Given that log2 3 = 1.585 and log2 5 = 2.322, calculate, without using Solve the simultaneous equations:
tables or calculators, the value of (a) log2 60 and (b) log2 0.3.
log2 (x – 4y) = 4 log8 4x - log8 (8y + 5) = 1
Solution
Solution
(a) log2 60 = log2 (2 x 2 x 3 x 5) log2 (x – 4y) = 4 => x – 4y = 24
= log2 2+log2 2+log23+log25 i.e. x – 4y = 16 --------------(1)
= 1 + 1 + 1.585 + 2.322
log8 4x - log8 (8y + 5) = 1 => log8 4x = 1
= 5.907
8y 5
(b) log2 0.3 =log2 3/10 i.e. 4x = 81
=log2 3 - log2 10 8y 5
= log2 3 - log2 2 - log2 5 ? 4x = 64y + 40
=log23-log2(2x 5) x = 16y + 10 --------------------------------(2)
=1.585 – 1 – 2.322
= -1.737 Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously we have x = 18, y = ½.
Substituting them back into the original equation, we find that they are
Example
the solutions.
Solve the equation log10 (3x + 2) – 2 log10 x = 1 - log10 (5x - 3).
Example
Solution
log10 (3x + 2) – 2 log10 x = 1 - log10 (5x - 3) Given that log4 x = a and log2 y = b, express xy and x as powers of 2.
log10 (3x + 2) + log10 (5x - 3) - log10 x2 = 1------------- (1) y
(3x 2) (5x - 3)
log10 = 1---------------------------------- (2) If xy = 128 and x = 4, calculate the values of a and b.
x2 y
(3x 2) (5x - 3)
? = 101 Solution:
x2
log4 x = a log2 y = b
? 15x – 9x + 10x – 6 = 10x2
2
x = 4a = 2 2a y = 2b
5x2 + x – 6 = 0
(5x + 6)(x -1) = 0 2a
? x = -1 1/5 or x = 1 Multiply x by y: xy = 22a x 2b Divide x by y: x = 2 b
y 2
Check:
?xy = 22a + b ? x = 22a-b
Substituting x = -1 1/5 into the original equation, we find 2 log10 -1 1/5 y
is not defined, so x = -1 1/5 is not a solution. Substituting x = 1 into the
original equation, we find that it satisfies the equation. Therefore, the Since xy = 128, 22a + b = 128 = 27
solution is x = 1. 2a + b = 7----------(1)
Note: Since x = 4, 22a – b = 4 = 22

y
Here, the step of checking the solution is necessary because from (1) 2a – b = 2----------(2)
to (2), the range of x is expanded. (Can you think of why?) In fact, x = - Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously, we have a = 2¼, b = 2½. Can you
1 1/5 satisfies (2) but not (1). check if they satisfy the give conditions?

Exercise 5. Solve the following equations:
1. Simplify the following, expressing each as a single logarithm: (a) (log10 x)2 = 3 log10 x (b) (log5 x)2 = 2 log5 x
(c) (log4 x)2 = 5log4 x - 4 (d) 2(log2 x)2 = 7 log2 x - 3
(a) loga 5 + loga 3 (b) loga 35 - loga 7 (e) log2 (logx 25) = 1 (f) log4 25x + 3 = x2
(c) loga 5 + loga ¥5 (d) 2 loga 3 - loga 4
(e) 3 loga 4 + 2 loga 8 (f) 2 loga 5 + loga 4 – 2 loga 3 6. Solve the following simultaneous equations:
(g) 3 loga 5 - loga 25 (h) loga 21 + loga 3 - loga 5 (a) log2 7 = 1 + log2 (p – 3q) (b) 2x y 47y = 8
3p = 18 + 4q log3 x - log3 5 = log3 (y + 1) + log3 2
2. Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator:
(c) log5 (3x - y) + log5 6 = log5 24 (d) log2 (4 + x – 5y) = 0
(a) log3 6 - log3 2 75x y 73y = 1 log2 (x + 1) = 1 + 2 log2 y
(b) log5 5¥5 + log5 ¥5
(c) log5 3¥5 + 2 log5 ¥5 7. Given that log4 3y- 3 log4 x = 1, express y in terms of x.
(d) log5 54 - log16 ¼
(e) log8 64 + log7 1/7 8. If 2 log3 y – 3 log3 x – log3 b + log3 a = 3, express y in terms of a, b
(f) 2 log10 4 - log10 2 + 3 log10 5 and x.
(g) log1027 + log1014 - log109 - log107 - log10 6
(h) Ҁlog2 8 – 3/2 log2 16 + ½ log2 32 9. If log5 y = a log5 x + 2 log5 b, express y in terms of x, a and b.
(i) log4 10/9 - log4 24/25 – 3 log4 5/6
(j) log10 ¥175 - log10 ¥91 + log10 ¥52 10. Given that log7 x2y = p and log7 xy2 = q, find the log7 3¥xy in terms of
(k) log6 4/15 + log6 32/7 + log6 9/4 - log6 8/105 p and q.
(a) If log3 2 = 0.6309 and log3 5 = 1.465, evaluate the following without 11. Given that logp 3 = x and logp 5 = y, find the logarithm of the
the use of calculator: following to base p:
5p 2
(a) log3 10 (b) log3 15 (c) log3 25 (a) 1Ҁ (b) 75 (c)
27
(d) log3 ¥ 5 (e) log3 2.5 (f) log3 3ѿ
(g) log3 ǩ (h) log3 100 (i) log3 12 _
(j) log3 0.12 (k) log3 0.08 (l) log3 5¥2 12.If log9 x = h and log 1 = k, express xy and x as powers of 3. If
3
y y y
(b) Solve the following equations: xy = 9 and x = 27, calculate the values of h and k.
3x 1
(a) log3 =3
2x - 7
(b) log3 (2x + 1) - log3 (x - 7) = 2
(c) log3 (x2 – 5x + 9) = 1
(d) log5 (3x2 – 20x - 50) = 2
(e) ½log5 (10x2 - 1) – 2 log5 x =1
(f) log2 (2x + 5) – 2 log2 2x = 2
(g) 2 log4 x - log4 (x + 5) = 2
(h) log2 4x – 2 log2 5 = 3
(i) log10 (x2 - 6) + log10 2 = 1 + log10 x

Common Logarithms (b) 7x + 1 = 23x –2
Logarithms that have a base of 10 are known as common logarithms. Taking logarithms to base 10,
The values of common logarthims can be readily obtained from tables lg 7x + 1 = lg 23x –2
of common logarithms or by using the LOG key on a calculator. (x + 1) lg 7 = (3x - 2) lg 2
x lg 7 + lg 7 = 3 x lg 2 – 2 lg 2
We use lg x to denote log10x. 2 lg 2 + lg 7 = x (3 lg 2 – lg 7)
? x = 2 lg 2 + lg 7
Example 3 lg 2 – lg 7
= 24.95
Solve the following logarithm equations, giving your answers correct to
4 significant figures. Example
3
(a) lg 2x = 1.5 (b) lg (3x - 1) = (lg - 8) Solve the equation 5x + 34 = 12 giving your answer correct to 2 decimal
places.
Solution 2 5x
(a) lg 2x = 1.5 Solution

?2x = 10 1.5 = 31.623
x = 15.81 Let y = 5x, then y + 34 = 12
2 y
(b) lg (3x - 1) = (lg - 8)3
lg (3x - 1) = 0.7365 Multiply by 2y: y2 + 68 – 24y = 0
3x – 1 = 100.7365 = 5.4517 y2 – 24y + 68 = 0
3x = 6.4517
x = 2.151 ? y = - (- 24) ± ¥(- 24)2 – 4(1)(68)
2(1)
y = 20.718 or 3.282
Example ?5x = 20.718 or 5x = 3.282
x x
lg 5 = lg 20.718 or lg 5 = lg 3.282
Solve the equations (a) 3x = 4.7 and (b) 7x + 1 = 23x –2 x lg 5 = lg 20.718 or x lg 5 = lg 3.282
lg 20.718 lg 3.282
Solution x= or x =
lg 5 lg 5
= 1.88 = 0.74
(a) 3x = 4.7
Note that we cannot express 4.7 as a power of 3 directly. We may

convert this equation to a logarithm equation using logarithms of base
10.
Taking logarithms to base 10 on both sides lg 3x = lg 4.7

x lg 3 = lg 4.7
x = lg 4.7
lg 3
= 1.409

Example Exercise
The Housing and Development Board launched a bond issue in 1. Use your calculator to evaluate each of the following giving your
January 1999 with a yield of 3.75% per annum. Mr Kumar invested $10 answers correct to 4 significant figures:
000 in the bond. The total amount that he will receive, after n years, is
$10 000 (1.0375)n. (a) lg 12 + lg 7 (b) lg 42 = lg 9
(c) 2 lg 3 + 5 lg 6 (d) 3 lg 7 – 4 lg 5
(a) How much will Mr Kumar receive in January 2005, giving your (e) 2 (lg 4)2 (f) 5 (lg 6)3 – 3 lg 14
answer correct to the nearest $10. (g) 5 lg 8 + lg 15 (h) lg (lg 45) – lg 11
(b) Which year will the amount invested by Mr Kumar first exceed $13 (i) 3 lg 9 - lg 45 (j) lg 28 + lg (lg 2.5)
500?
2. Solve the following equations, giving your answers correct to 4
Solution significant figures:
(a) By January 2005, Mr Kumar would have invested in the bond for 6 (a) lg 3x = 0.85 (b) lg (x - 1) = 1.54
years and he stands to receive a total of $10 000(1.0375)6 = $12 (c) 2 lg (3x - 2) = 5 lg 2.7 (d) 3 lg (4x + 1) = (lg 25)2
471.78 = $12 470 (correct to the nearest $10.) (e) (lg 24)(lg x2) = 5 lg 12 (f) lg(lg 5x) = 0.32
(b) Let the number of years it takes for the amount to grow to $13 500 3. Solve the following equations, giving your answers correct to 3
be t years from 1999. significant figures:
Now, we have $13 500 = $10 00(1.0375)t. (a) 2x = 5 (b) 3x + 1 = 5

? 1.35 = (1.0375)t (c) 4x - 1 = 7 (d) 3x + 1= 2x + 2
lg 1.35 = lg 1.0375t (e) 35x + 1 = 28 (f) 7x + 1 = 23x - 2
lg 1.35 = t lg 1.0375 (g) 8x + 1 = 10 (h) 5x + 3 = 100
t = lg 1.35 = 8.15 (i) 2x- 3 = 5 (j) 7x = 10
lg 1.0375 (k) 1.5x = 1.2 x + 3 (l) 0.6x - 3 = 3.2x + 4
? It will take 8.15 years for the amount to be approximately $13 500, 4. Solve the following equations, giving your answers correct to 3
and it will be in year 2008 when the amount first exceeds $13 500. significant figures where necessary:
(a) 75 – 3x = 3 (b) 4 x 5x = 0.74

(c) 52x + 100 = 5x + 2 (d) 72x – 7 x 7x + 12 = 0
(e) 53x + 2(5x) = 3(25x) (f) 32x - 3 – 4(3x - 2) + 1 = 0
(g) 5x + 12 = 7 (h) 3(36x) – 7(6x) + 2 = 0
5. Solve the following equations for x, giving your answers correct to 3

significant figures where necessary:
(a) 2 log2 x = 3 + log2 (x +6) (b) lg x = 10lg 2

(c) log3 x + log3 (2x - 1) = 2 (d) 5x = 16 – 63 x 5-x
6. Given that 2 lg (x2y) = 3 + lg x – lg y where x and y are both

positive, express y in terms of x. If x – y = 3, find the value of x and
y.
7. Solve the simultaneous equations correct to 3 significant figures.

3x – 4y = 5, 3x + 1 + 4y = 23

8. Change of base of Logarithms

(a) Evaluate 10x when
We can find the value of a logarithm to base other than 10 by changing
(i) x = lg 5 (ii) x = lg(lg 5) the base to 10. The following example illustrates how we can evaluate
the log of a number expressed in a base other than 10.
(b) Prove that 3n + 1 + 3n + 3n – 1
is divisible by 13 for all posititve
integral values of n. Example
9. Two variables x and y are related by the equation log2 y = a log2 x Find the value of log5 7, giving your answer correct to 4 significant
+ b, where a and b are constants. Find a and b, given that y = 8 figures.
when x = 2 and log2 y = 5 when x = 8. Show that the relationship
can be expressed in the form of y = qxx, where q and n are Solution
constants. Hence, find the value of q and n.
Let log5 7 = x, then 7 = 5x.
2 x y
10. If lg x y = a and lg = b, express lg 2 in terms of a and b.
y x Taking logarithms of both sides to base 10, we have
lg 27 lg 8 lg 125 . log10 7 = log10 5x

11. Simplify i.e. log10 7 = x log10 5
lg 6 - lg 5
log10 7
?x= = 1.209
log10 5
12. (a) Given that y = 2x, express (¼)x in terms of y.
(b) Solve the equation 4x – 14(¼)x = 5 giving your answer correct to
3 significant figures. We can convert logarithms of any base to the base we desire.
13. Assume the vehicle population of Singapore, at the beginning of For example, to convert loga b to logarithms of base c, we let loga b = x,
2000, is estimated to be 560 000. With the effective implementation then ax = b.
of the Certificate of Entitlement (COE) and Electronic Road Pricing
(ERP), the vehicle population is now projected to grow at an annual Taking logarithms of both sides to base c, we have logc ax = logc b
rate of 3%, so that, after a period of t years, the new vehicle
population will be 560 000(1.03)t. Find i.e. x logc a = logc b
(a) the vehicle population at the beginning of2005, giving your log c b
?x=
answer correct to the nearest 500; log c a
(b) the year in which the vehicle population is expected to reach
three quarters of a million.
14. The population of Singapore, at the beginning of 2000, was 3 920

000. With the policy of encouraging more foreign talents to settle in
Singapore, the population is projected to grow at an annual rate of
1.8%, so that, after a period of t years, the new population will be 3
920 000 (1.018)t. Find
(a) the population at the beginning of 2008, giving your answer

correct to the nearest 1 000;
(b) the year in which the population is expected to reach the 5.5
million mark.

Example Exercise
Solve the following logarithmic equations: (a) Evaluate each of the following, giving your answers correct to 4
significant figures:
(a) log3 N + log9 N = 6
(b) log4 x = 9 logx 4 (a) log5 7
(b) log7 15
Solution (c) log6 12.3
(d) log8 97 + log9 85
(a) log3 N + log9 N = 6 (e) log2 35 - log4 13
log3 N (f) (log4 17)2 + log4 19
log3 N + =6 (g) (log¥2 31) x (log3 46.7)
log3 9
log3 N (h) (2 log9 7)3 y (3 log15 9)2
log3 N + =6 [log3 9 = log3 32 = 2 log3 3 = 2] (i) log5 192 y (log3 15)2
2 (j) log11 0.89 x (log0.4 39)
3log3 N
? =6
2 2. (a) If p = lg 5, express each of the following in terms of p:
log3 N = 4
N = 34 = 81 1
(i) lg 50 (ii) lg (iii) log5 10 (iv) log5 2
2
(b) Method 1
(b) If q = log3 2, express log3 5 in terms of p and q.
log4 x = 9 logx 4
log4 4 9 1
=9 = 3. Solve the equation log3 N + log9 N = 4 .
log4 x log4 x 2
? (log4 x)2 = 9 and log4 x = r 3 4. Evaluate 4 log3 5 x 2 log5 3.

When log4 x = 3 and log4 x = -3
1 5. Given that x = loga y, (a) express y in terms of x and a and
x = 43 = 64 x = 4-3 =
64 (b) express a in terms of x and y.
Method 2 Given, also, that x = 3, find the numerical value of

log4 x = 9 logx 4 (c) loga y2
logx x (d) loga (ay)3
= 9 logx 4 (e) loga (y3/ a2)
logx 4
1/9 = (logx 4)2 6. If 3 = 5x and 5 = 3y, find the numerical value xy without using a
1 calculator.
logx 4 = r
3
7. Given that loga y = x, express log1/a y in terms of x.
1 1
When logx 4 = and logx 4 = -
3 3 1
*8. Solve the simultaneous equations xy =27, logx y + logy x = 2 .
4 = xѿ 4 = x-ѿ 2
43 = (xѿ) 4-3 = (x-ѿ)3
1
? x = 64 ? x = 4-3 =
64

Summary 4. Given that p = 275 (1.05)q, find (a) the value of p when q = 10.2
(b) the value of q when p = 1200
Indices: (1) am x an = a m+n (6) a0 = 1
1 5. In 1990, John deposited $5000 in a mutual trust fund, which
(2) am y an = a m-n (7) a-n = n promises an interest of 7.5% compounded yearly. The amount $y at
a
(3) (am)n = amn the end of n years is y = 5000 (1.075)n. Find
(4) am x bm = (a x b)m (8) a1/n = n¥a
(5) am y bm = (a/b)m (9)am/n = n¥am = (n¥a)m (a) the amount of money John will have in 1998,
(b) the year in which the amount of money first reached $20 000.
Logarithms : (1) loga y = x means ax = y (5) loga 1 = 0
(2) loga m + loga n = loga (m x n) (6) loga a = 1 6. The equation of a curve is y = axn. Given that the points (2, 9) and
log c b (3, 4) lie on the curve, calculate the value of a and of n.
(3) loga m - loga n = loga m/n (7) loga b = ,
log c a
The curve with equation py = qX passes through the points (1, -12)
where a 1 and a > 0 and (-2, 3/16) Find the value of p and of q,
(4) loga mn = n loga m
7. Mr Tan bought 5 sets of the rust day covers of the local festivals,
Review problems issued by the Singapore Post in October 1998 for $3.20 each. He
estimates that the value of the first day covers will increase at an
1. Solve the following equations: annual rate of 12% per annum, so that its price will be $3.20(1.12)n
after n years.
(a) 4x + ½ + 8 = 2x + 4 + 2 x
(b) 22x - 1 = 16 + 22x + 1 (a) What will be the value of the first day covers in the year 2030?
(c) 9x + 7(3x - 1)=16 (b) In which year will the price of a first day cover first exceed
(d) lg(2x2 - 3) – lg 5 = 2 lg x - lg 3 $15.30?
(e) 2 lg(3 – 2x) = lg(2x - 1) + lg x
(f) lg(3x + 1) + lg(3x - 1) = 3 lg 2 + lg x 8. If 3x + y = 1 and 73x - y = 49, find the numerical values of 4y - x and xY.
(g) log(11x – x2) 28 = 1
9. Given that y = axb + 7, that y = 79 when x = 2 and that y = 16 when
2. Solve the following equations: x = 4, calculate the numerical values of a and of b.
(a) 2x + 2x + 2 = 21 10. Given that Ҁ lg y = 3 + 3 lg x, find the value of x when y = 9 without

(b) 3y + 1 = 4y the use of a calculator.
(c) 22x – 2x - 3 + 7 = 0
(d) lg(2x) – 3 lg 2 = ½ lg(x - 3) 11. Solve the simultaneous equations:
(e) lg(1 – 2x) – 2 lg x = 1 – lg(2 – 5x)
(f) 2lg(x +2) + lg 4 = lg x + 4 lg 3 (a) 2X - 5Y = 3, 2x-3 = 21 – 5y – 2
(g) lg(x - 4) + 2 lg 3 = 1 + lg(x/2) (b) log2 (2x + y) = 1, log8 (4x2 - y2) = 1ѿ
3. Solve the following simultaneous equations: 12. Solve the equations:
(a) log2 (x – 14y) = 3, lg x – lg(y + 1) = 1 (a) (4x)lg 5 = (5x)lg 7

(b) 8xҀ - x -Ҁ + 7 = 0
(b) 3p = 9(27)q, log2 7 - log2 (11q – 2p) = 1
13. If log4 x = t, express each of the following in terms of t:
(c) lg x + 2 lg y = 3, x2y = 125 1
(a) log4 4x3 (b) log4 ¥x (c) log4 x
4
(d) 2x4y = 128, lg (4x - y) = lg 2 + lg 5

14. Given that log5 u + log5 v = p and log5 u/v = q, show that u = 5½(p + q) 26. Given that log2 y = a + b log2 x, where a and b are constants. Given
and find a similar expression for v. also that y = 32 when x = 2 and log2 y = 9 when x = 8.
15. If x2 + y2= 11xy, prove that lg(x - y) = ½ lg x + ½ lg y + lg 3. (a) Find the values of a and b.
(b) Show that the relationship between x and y can be expressed in
16. Given that log8 (x + 2) + log8 y = z -ѿ and that log2 (x - 2) - log8 y = the form y = kxn, where k and n are constants. State the values
2z + 1, show that x2 = 32z + 4. If z = 1, find the numerical values of x of k and n.
and y.
27.
17. If a2x-l = b1-3y and a3x-1 = b2y -2, show that 13xy = 7x + 5y - 3. (a) Solve the equation log3 (x + 3) - log3 (2x - 5) = 2.
(b) Solve the equation 9x - 4(3x) = 5
18. Given that log5 x = 4 logx 5, calculate the possible values of x. (c) Given that log5x = a and log5Y = b, express log5 4x/125y in
x x+1 2x - 3 terms of a and b.
19. (a) Solve the equation 2 · 4 = 8 .
(b) Solve the equation lg x = 1 - lg (2x - 1).
28.
(c) Given that 6 logp 6 = 4 + logp 576, find the value of p.
(a) Solve the equation log2 (x2 + 32) + log2 1/x = 2 + log2 3.
20. (a) Solve the equation 5x + 2 + 2 = 12.
(b) Solve the equation 31 - 2x = 3-x + 10.
(b) Show that 6n + 6n + 1 + 6n + 2 is divisible by 43 for all natural
(c) Find the smallest integer value of x for which 2x > 5 X 109.
numbers of n.
(c) Solve the simultaneous equations log2 2x = 3 - log2 (y + 1)
29. lf x = log9 y, express each of the following in terms of x:
log5 (2x + 1) = 1
(a) log9 3y2 (b) logy 81
21. Solve the equation 4x - 3(2x + 2) + 32 = 0.
30. If log4 x = k, express each of the following in terms of k:
22. Solve the equation 9x - 2(3x + 1) = 5, giving your answer correct to 2
(a) log4 64x (b) log8 x (c) log2 8x3
decimal places.
31. Solve the equation 25 log5 x= 16 logx 5, giving your answer correct
23. Solve the equation lg (3 +1/x ) = 1 + lg x.
to 3 significant figures.
24. (a) Solve the equation 15x = 3.5x + 1, giving your answer correct to 3
decimal places.
(b) Solve the equation 1 + 2 log4 2x = log4 (2x + 5). I
log2 x + 3 Iog8 y = 3,
(c) Solve the equation 2(5x) – 5-x = 3, giving your answer correct to
5x - 2y = 2
21 decimal places where necessary.
25.
(a) log2 x = 2 + log8 x (b) log3 x – log27 x = 4
(a) Solve the equation 2 log2 (x + 4) = 1 + log2 (x2 + 3x + 4).
(b) Solve the simultaneous equations
log2 x + 2 log4 y = 4,
log2 (6x + 3y) = 2 + log2 6
7x - y = 6
3x+ 1 = 27(3Y-1).
(c) Find the least integer value of x for which (¾)x < 0.005.

Various Numbering Systems

DECIMAL NUMBERING SYSTEM Decimal Numbering System
Decimal notation is the writing of numbers in the base 10 numeral Computers commonly use a different system, binary, internally. For
system, which uses various symbols for ten distinct quantities (0, 1, 2, external use by computer specialist, this binary representation is
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, called digits) to represent numbers. These digits are sometimes presented in a related octal or hexadecimal system. For
frequently used with a decimal point which indicates the start of a most purposes however, binary values are converted by a computer to
fractional part, and with one of the sign symbols + (plus) or – (minus) to the equivalent decimal values for presentation to humans.
indicate sign.
Nevertheless, sometimes computers do use internal representations,
The decimal system is a positional system numeral system; it has which are equivalent to decimal for doing arithmetic. Frequently this
positions for units, tens, hundreds, etc. The position of each digit arithmetic is done on data in the form of binary-coded decimal, but
conveys what multiplier is to be used with that digit. there are other decimal representations in use.
Probably the biggest stumbling block most beginning programmers
Decimal is the most common numeral system used in the world. This is encounter when attempting to learn assembly languages is the
because humans have ten fingers; for example, in English, ‘digits’ is common use of the binary and hexadecimal numbering system.
also the anatomical term referring to fingers and toes. However, some Understanding these numbering system is important because their use
cultures do or did historically use other numeral systems, including the simplifies other complex topics including Boolean algebra and logic
Tzotzil, who use a base 20 system (using all 20 fingers and toes), design, signed numeric representation, character codes and packed
some Nigerians who use several base 12 systems, the Babylonians, data.
who used base 60 and the Yuki, who reportedly used base 8.
The Decimal Number Base Systems
The Decimal Number System uses base 10. It includes the digits from
0 through 9. The weighted values for each position is as follows:
104 103 102 101 100 10-1 10-2 10-3

10 000 1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.2 0.3
You have been using the decimal (base 10) numbering system for so
long that you often take it for granted. When you see a number like
"123", you don't think about the value 123. Instead, you generate a
mental image of how many items this value represents. In reality,
however, the number 123 represents:
1 x 102 + 2 x 101 + 3 x 100 =

1 x 100 + 2 x 10 + 3 x 1 =
100 + 20 + 3 =
123
Each digit appearing to the left of the decimal point represents a value
between zero and nine times power of ten represented by its position in
the number. Digits appearing to the right of the decimal point represent
a value between zero and nine times an increasing negative power of
ten.

BINARY NUMBER BASE SYSTEM Binary Number Formats
Most modern computer systems (IBM PC, Apple computer, Avionics, We typically write binary numbers as a sequence of bits (bits is short
Air Data computer, etc) operate using binary logic. The computer for binary digits). We have defined boundaries for these bits. These
represents values using two voltage levels (usually 0V for logic 0 and boundaries are:
either +3.3 V or +5V for logic 1). With two levels we can represent
exactly two different values. These could be any two different values, Name Size Example
but by convention we use the values zero and one. These two values, (Bits)
coincidentally, correspond to the two digits used by the binary number Bit 1 1
system. Nibble 4 0101
Byte 8 0000 0101
Word 16 0000 0000 0000 0101
Double 32 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000
Word 0101
The Bit
The smallest "unit" of data on a binary computer is a single bit. Since a

single bit is capable of representing only two different values (typically
zero or one) you may get the impression that there are a very small
number of items you can represent with a single bit. Not true! There are
an infinite number of items you can represent with a single bit.
With a single bit, you can represent any two distinct items. Examples
include zero or one, true or false, on or off, male or female, and right or
wrong. However, you are not limited to representing binary data types
(that is, those objects which have only two distinct values).
To confuse things even more, different bits can represent different
Since there is a correspondence between the logic levels used by the things. For example, one bit might be used to represent the values zero
computer and the two digits used in the binary numbering system, it and one, while an adjacent bit might be used to represent the values
should come as no surprise that computers employ the binary system. true and false. How can you tell by looking at the bits? The answer, of
course, is that you can't. But this illustrates the whole idea behind
computer data structures: data is what you define it to be.
If you use a bit to represent a boolean (true/false) value then that bit
(by your definition) represents true or false. For the bit to have any true
meaning, you must be consistent. That is, if you're using a bit to
represent true or false at one point in your program, you shouldn't use
the true/false value stored in that bit to represent red or blue later.
Since most items you will be trying to model require more than two
different values, single bit values aren't the most popular data type.
However, since everything else consists of groups of bits, bits will play
an important role in your programs. Of course, there are several data
types that require two distinct values, so it would seem that bits are
important by themselves. However, you will soon see that individual
bits are difficult to manipulate, so we'll often use other data types to
represent boolean values.

The Nibble (4-Bit) Since a byte contains eight bits, it can represent 28, or 256, different
values. Generally, we'll use a byte to represent:
A nibble is a collection of bits on a 4-bit boundary. It wouldn't be a
particularly interesting data structure except for two items: BCD (binary 1. unsigned numeric values in the range 0 => 255
coded decimal) numbers and hexadecimal (base 16) numbers. It takes 2. signed numbers in the range -128 => +127
four bits to represent a single BCD or hexadecimal digit. 3. ASCII character codes
4. other special data types requiring no more than 256 different
With a nibble, we can represent up to 16 distinct values. In the case of values. Many data types have fewer than 256 items so eight bits
hexadecimal numbers, the values 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, is usually sufficient.
E, and F are represented with four bits. BCD uses ten different digits
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) and requires four bits. In fact, any sixteen Since the PC is a byte addressable machine, it turns out to be more
distinct values can be represented with a nibble, but hexadecimal and efficient to manipulate a whole byte than an individual bit or nibble. For
BCD digits are the primary items we can represent with a single nibble. this reason, most programmers use a whole byte to represent data
types that require no more than 256 items, even if fewer than eight bits
1 1 1 1 would suffice. For example, we'll often represent the boolean values
B3 B2 B1 B0 true and false by 00000001 and 00000000 (respectively).
Probably the most important use for a byte is holding a character code.
The Byte (16 Bit) Characters typed at the keyboard, displayed on the screen, and printed
on the printer all have numeric values. To allow it to communicate with
Without question, the most important data structure used by the 80x86 the rest of the world, the IBM PC uses a variant of the ASCII character
microprocessor is the byte. This is true since the ASCII code is a 7-bit set. There are 128 defined codes in the ASCII character set. IBM uses
non-weighted binary code that is used on the byte boundary in most the remaining 128 possible values for extended character codes
computers. A byte consists of eight bits and is the smallest including European characters, graphic symbols, Greek letters, and
addressable datum (data item) in the microprocessor. math symbols.
Main memory and I/O addresses in the PC are all byte addresses. This
means that the smallest item that can be individually accessed by an The Word (32–Bit)
80x86 program is an 8-bit value. To access anything smaller requires
that you read the byte containing the data and mask out the unwanted For the 8085 and 8086, a word is a group of 16 bits. We will number
bits. the bits in a word starting from bit zero (b0) through fifteen (b15) as
follows:
The bits in a byte are numbered from bit zero (b0) through seven (b7)
as follows: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
B15 B14 B13 B12 B11 B10 B9 B8 B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0 Like the byte, bit 0 is the LSB and bit 15 is the MSB. When referencing
the other bits in a word use their bit position number.
Bit 0 is the low order bit or least significant bit, bit 7 is the high order bit
Notice that a word contains exactly two bytes. Bits b0 through b7 form
or most significant bit of the byte. We'll refer to all other bits by their
the low order byte, bits 8 through 15 from the high order byte.
number.
Naturally, a word may be further broken down into four nibbles. Nibble
zero is the low order nibble in the word and nibble three is the high
A byte also contains exactly two nibbles. Bits b0 through b3 comprise
order nibble of the word. The other two nibbles are "nibble one" or
the low order nibble, and bits b4 through b7 form the high order nibble.
"nibble two".
Since a byte contains exactly two nibbles, byte values require two
hexadecimal digits.

With 16 bits, you can represent 2^16 (65,536) different values. These BINARY TO DECIMAL BASE SYSTEM
could be the unsigned numeric values in the range of 0 => 65,535,
signed numeric values in the range of -32,768 => +32,767, or any other The binary number system works like the decimal number system
data type with no more than 65,536 values. The three major uses for except the Binary Number System:
words are
1. uses base 2
1. 16-bit integer data values
2. 16-bit memory addresses 2. includes only the digits 0 and 1 (any other digit would make the
3. any number system requiring 16 bits or less number an invalid binary number)
Take for an example, the number 0110 0100 1100 0011

The Double Word (64 Bit)
The weighted values for each position is determined as follows:
A double word is exactly what its name implies, two words. Therefore,
a double word quantity is 32 bits. Naturally, this double word can be 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 20.5 20.25
divided into a high order word and a low order word, four bytes, or eight 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25
nibbles.
Double words can represent all kinds of different data. It may be
1. an unsigned double word in the range of 0 => 4,294,967,295,

NUMBER BASE CONVERSION
2. a signed double word in the range -2,147,483,648 =>
2,147,483,647,
Binary to Decimal
3. a 32-bit floating point value
4. any data that requires 32 bits or less.
It is very easy to convert from a binary number to a decimal number.
Just like the decimal system, we multiply each digit by its weight
position
BINARY TO DECIMAL BASE SYSTEM
Decimal to Binary
The binary number system works like the decimal number system
except the Binary Number System: To convert decimal to binary is slightly more difficult. There are two
methods, that may be used to convert from decimal to binary, namely
1. uses base 2 the division and subtraction method.
2. includes only the digits 0 and 1 (any other digit would make the
number an invalid binary number)
Take for an example, the number 0110 0100 1100 0011
The weighted values for each position is determined as follows:
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 20.5 20.25
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25

The Subtraction Method

Repeated Division By 2
For this method, start with a weighted position value greater that the
For this method, divide the decimal number by 2, if the remainder is 0, number.
on the side write down a 0. If the remainder is 1, write down a 1. This
process is continued by dividing the quotient by 2 and dropping the 1. If the number is greater than the weighted position for the digit,
previous remainder until the quotient is 0. When performing the write down a 1 and subtract the weighted position value.
division, the remainders which will represent the binary equivalent of
the decimal number are written beginning at the least significant digit 2. If the number is less than the weighted position for the digit,
(right) and each new digit is written to more significant digit (the left) of write down a 0 and subtract 0.
the previous digit. Consider the number 2671.
This process is continued until the result is 0. When performing the
Division Quotient Remainder Binary Numer subtraction, the digits, which will represent the binary equivalent of the
2671/2 1335 1 1 decimal number are written beginning at the most significant digit (the
1335/2 667 1 11 left) and each new digit is written to the next lesser significant digit (on
667/2 333 1 111 the right) of the previous digit. Consider the same number, 2671, using
333/2 166 1 1111 a different method.
166/2 83 0 0 1111
83/2 41 1 10 1111 Weighted Value Subtraction Remainder Binary Number
41/2 20 1 110 1111 212 = 4096 2671 - 0 2671 0
20/2 10 0 0110 1111 212 = 4096 2671 – 2048 623 01
10/2 5 0 0 0110 1111 212 = 4096 623 – 0 623 0 10
5/2 2 1 10 0110 1111 212 = 4096 623 – 512 111 0 101
2/2 1 0 010 0110 1111 212 = 4096 111 – 0 111 0 1010
1/2 0 1 1010 0110 1111 212 = 4096 111 – 0 111 0 1010 0
212 = 4096 111 – 64 47 0 1010 01
212 = 4096 47 – 32 15 0 1010 011
212 = 4096 15 – 0 15 0 1010 0110
212 = 4096 15 – 8 7 0 1010 0110 1
212 = 4096 7–4 3 0 1010 0110 11
212 = 4096 3–2 1 0 1010 0110 111
212 = 4096 1-1 0 0 1010 0110 1111

OCTAL NUMBERING SYSTEM

Binary to Octal Conversion
The Octal Number System:
It is easy to convert from an integer binary number to octal. This is
1. uses base 8 accomplished by:
2. includes only the digits 0 through 7 (any other digit would make
the number an invalid octal number) 1. Break the binary number into 3-bit sections from the LSB to the
MSB.
The weighted values for each position is as follows: 2. Convert the 3-bit binary number to its octal equivalent.
85 84 83 82 81 80
32768 4096 512 64 8 1 Octal to Binary Conversion
It is also easy to convert from an integer octal number to binary. This is
accomplished by:
It is reported that the Yuki Native Americas of California used an octal
system because they counted using the spaces between their fingers
1. Convert the decimal number to its 3-bit binary equivalent.
rather than the fingers themselves. Octal counting may have been
2. Combine the 3-bit sections by removing the spaces.
used in the past instead of decimal counting, by counting the spaces
like the yuki or by counting the fingers other than the thumbs. This may
explain why the Latin word novem (nine) is so much the word novus Octal to Decimal Conversion
(new). It may have meant a new number.
To convert from Octal to Decimal, multiply the value in each position by
Donald Knuth wrote in his book “The art of computer programming” its Octal weight and add each value.
that King Charles XII of Sweden was the inventor of octal in Europe.
Octal numerals can be made from Binary numerals by grouping
consecutive digits into groups of three (starting from the right). For
example, the binary representation for decimal 74 is 1001010, which
groups into 1 001 010 — so the octal representation is 112.
Octal is sometimes used in computing instead of hexidecimal. It has

the advantage of not requiring any extra symbols as digits (the
hexadecimal system is base-16 and therefore needs six additional
symbols beyond 0–9). It is also used for digital displays. However it has
a disadvantage in that while two hex digits make a byte, three octal
digits would be required, with the most significant octal digit inelegantly
representing only two binary digits (and in a series the same octal digit
would represent one binary digit from the next byte).

Decimal to Octal Conversion HEXADECIMAL NUMBERING SYSTEM
To convert decimal to octal is slightly more difficult. The typical method In mathematics and computer science, hexadecimal, or simply hex, is a
to convert from decimal to octal is repeated division by 8. While we numeral system with a radix or base of 16 usually written using the
may also use repeated subtraction by the weighted position value, it is symbols 0-9 and A-F. IBM first introduced the current hexadecimal
more difficult for large decimal numbers. system to the computing world in 1963. An earlier version, using the
digits 0-9 and u-z was used by Bendix G-15 computer in 1956.
Repeated Division By 8 When dealing with large values, binary numbers quickly become too
unwieldy. The hexadecimal (base 16) numbering system solves these
For this method, divide the decimal number by 8, and write the problems. Hexadecimal numbers offer the two features:
remainder on the side as the least significant digit. This process is
continued by dividing he quotient by 8 and writing the remainder until 1. hex numbers are very compact
the quotient is 0. When performing the division, the remainders which 2. it is easy to convert from hex to binary and binary to hex.
will represent the octal equivalent of the decimal number are written
beginning at the least significant digit (right) and each new digit is Hex Bin Dec
written to the next more significant digit (the left) of the previous digit.
Consider the number 44978. 0 0000 0
1 0001 1
Division Quotient Remainder Octal Number
2 0010 2
44978/8 5622 2 2
5622/8 702 6 62 3 0011 3
702/8 87 6 662 4 0100 4
87/8 10 7 7662
10/8 1 2 27662 5 0101 5
1/8 0 1 127662 6 0110 6
7 0111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
A 1010 10
B 1011 11
C 1100 12
D 1101 13
E 1110 14
F 1111 15
The Hexadecimal Number System:
1. uses base 16
2. includes only the digits 0 through 9 and the letters A, B, C, D, E,
and F

It is a useful system in computers because there is an easy mapping Decimal to Hex Conversion
from four bits to a single hex digit. A byte can be represented as two
consecutive hexadecimal digits. To convert decimal to hex is slightly more difficult. The typical method
to convert from decimal to hex is repeated division by 16. While we
Binary to Hex Conversion may also use repeated subtraction by the weighted position value, it is
more difficult for large decimal numbers.
It is easy to convert from an integer binary number to hex. This is
accomplished by: Repeated Division By 16
1. Break the binary number into 4-bit sections from the LSB to the For this method, divide the decimal number by 16, and write the
MSB. remainder on the side as the least significant digit. This process is
2. Convert the 4-bit binary number to its Hex equivalent. continued by dividing the quotient by 16 and writing the remainder until
the quotient is 0. When performing the division, the remainders which
will represent the hex equivalent of the decimal number are written
beginning at the least significant digit (right) and each new digit is
Hex to Binary Conversion written to the next more significant digit (the left) of the previous digit.
Consider the number 44978.
It is also easy to convert from an integer hex number to binary. This is
accomplished by: Division Quotient Remainder Hex Number
44978/16 2811 2 2
1. Convert the Hex number to its 4-bit binary equivalent.
2811/16 175 11 B2
2. Combine the 4-bit sections by removing the spaces.
175/16 10 15 FB2
10/16 0 10 0AFB2
Hex to Decimal Conversion
To convert from Hex to Decimal, multiply the value in each position by

its hex weight and add each value.
Hexadecimal Multiplication Table

Training Manual 1.3 Geometry
1.3 Geometry

Simple Geometrical Constructions

The diagram shows a curved line. A Curved line is also called a curve.
POINTS
The basic geometric figure is a point. All other geometric figures are
A curved line
made up of a collection of points. The smallest dot you can mark on
your paper with a sharp pencil will give you an idea of what is meant by
a geometric point. A point is only an idea in our mind; it is not a
physical object and we regard it as having a position but not size or
shape. We use a dot or sometimes a cross to mark the position of a
point. We normally use capital letters to name points. Thus we speak In this topic, when we speak of a line, it refers to a straight line whereas
of point A, point B, point C, etc. a curve refers to a curved line. Also, we shall simply use AB to denote
line AB, line segment AB, ray AB and the length of AB.
A
x
Bx C
x
LINES
A line is the path describe by a moving point. A straight-line segment

is formed when we use a ruler to join two points, say A and B.
x x
A B
We call the line segment AB or BA, A and B are called the end-points.
If we extend the line segment AB in each of the two directions
indefinitely, we get a line. This is represented by the following diagram.
x x
A B
The diagrams on the right show parts of lines with only one end-point
and extending in only one direction. We call them rays. Thus we have
ray XY, ray HK and ray PQ. A line is either straight or curved.
Y H
X
Q
K

PLANES CURVED SURFACES
A plane is a flat surface in which any two points are joined by a straight A surface, which is not flat, does not form part of a plane. Such a
line lying entirely on the surface. The floor of a classroom is an surface is called a curved surface. For example, the surface of a
example of a horizontal plane and the wall of a classroom is an basketball is a curved surface. The basketball is an example of a
example of a vertical plane. sphere (Figure below left).
SOLIDS
A solid is a three-dimensional shape or object. The box shown in the

following figure has six flat surfaces of equal size and each surface is
part of a plane. We call this solid figure a cube.
Figure above centre shows a solid figure, which has two flat surfaces
and a curved surface. It is called a cylindrical solid figure, or a cylinder.
A cone has only one flat surface and a curved surface (Figure above
right)
INTERSECTING LINES
This is a cube where AB = BC=CG =10cm The following figure shows two lines, AB and PQ, on the same plane
having a common point X. We say that the two lines intersect at X.
The box shown in the following figure has six flat surfaces of three Point X is called the point of intersection.
different sizes. We call this solid figure a cuboid.
This is a cuboid where AB = 12cm, BC = 6cm and CG = 8cm
The figure below left shows a pyramid, which has five flat surfaces.
Each surface is part of a plane. The figure below centre shows a prism
with five flat surfaces. Each surface forms parts of a plane. The figure
below right is an example of a prism with seven flat surfaces.

ANGLES The Protractor and Angle Measure
The standard unit for measuring angles is one degree (written as 1q). It
When two rays OA and OB meet at a point O , an angle is formed. 1
O is known as the vertex of the angle and OA and OB are the sides or is defined as 360 of a complete revolution. By definition, one complete
arms of the angles. rotation about a point has an angle of 360q.

The angle is called angle AOB or angle BOAand is written as AOBor The following figure shows a protractor, which is used to measure

BOA. Another way of writing this angle is AOB or BOA. We may angles. To measure an angle, place the protractor so that its centre A

is at the vertex of the angle and its base AB along one side of the
also call it angle O and write O or O when it is clear which angle we
angle. Note under which graduation mark the other side passes. Thus,
are referring to.
in the figure below left, the angle x is 60q. The figure below right (b)
shows another way of measuring the angle.
Notice that the graduation marks on the protractor are marked with two
sets of numbers, one greater than 90q and the other less than 90q.
Hence, when using the protractor, use your common sense to choose
the correct set of numbers. For example, if one arm of the angle to be
measured lies along AB , the set of numbers to be used is the one in
which the numbers increase as you read the graduations from AB
towards AC .

Different Kinds of Angles Straight Angle
Acute Angle A straight angle is equal to 180q.
An acute angle is less than 90q.

AOBis a straight angle
Reflex Angle

POQ is an acute angle A reflex angle is larger than 180q but less than 360q.
Right Angle
A right angle is equal to 90q.

Both AOBand COD are reflex angles.
Complementary Angles
XOYis a right angle
Two angles are called complementary angles if their sum is 90q.
Obtuse Angle
An obtuse angle is larger than 90q but less than 180q.
The angles 28q and 62q are said to be complementary and so are the
angles 40q and 50q, 30q and 60q, etc.

ROS is an obtuse angle

Supplementary Angles
To Construct an Angle Using a Protractor
Two angles are called supplementary angles if their sum is 180q.
Suppose you have a line XYand wish to construct angle YXZof 64q.
Place a protractor such that its centre is at X and its base is along XY
as shown in the following figure. Make the 64q graduation with your

sharp pencil and label it Z . Join Z to X and we have XYZ= 64q (Fig
below right ).
The angles 45q and 135q are supplementary angles and so are 53q and Method 1: Use a protractor.
127q, 105q and 75q, etc.
Adjacent Angles on a Line

In the following figure, XOZ and YOZare called adjacent angles
because:
(a) they have a common vertex O

(b) they have a common side OZ and
(c) they lie on opposite sides of the common arm.
The sum of adjacent angles on a line is equal to 180q. (Abbreviation for

reference: adj. s on a line)
To Construct an Angle Using a Protractor
Suppose you have a line XYand wish to construct angle YXZof 64q.
Place a protractor such that its centre is at X and its base is along XY
as shown in the following figure. Make the 64q graduation with your

sharp pencil and label it Z . Join Z to X and we have XYZ= 64q (Fig
below right ).
Method 1: Use a protractor.

Example Vertically Opposite Angles
Find the values of a, b and c in the following diagrams: Vertically opposite angles are formed when two straight lines intersect
each other. The angels of AOC and BOD are also vertically opposite
each other: We shall prove that vertically opposite angles are equal.
With the notation in the following figure,
(a) 49q + a = 180q (adj. s on a line)

? a = 180q - 49q = 131q (adj. s on a line)
a + b = 180q (adj. s on a line)
(b) 57q + 2 b + 31q = 180q - 57q - 31q = 92q a + c = 180q (adj. s on a line)
? b = 46q
a+ b= a+ c
a =c
(c) 90q + c + c + 4 c = 360q (angle at a point)
6 c = 270q
? c = 45q Similarly, we can also show that b = d . Hence, vertically opposite
angles are equal. (Abbreviation for reference: vert. Opp s)
Example
Find the values of x, y and z in the given diagram.
90q + 56q + x = 180q (adj. s on a line)

? x = 180q - 90q - 56q = 34q
z = x = 34q (vert. Opp. s)
? z = 34q
z y 38q = 180q (adj. s on a line)

34q + y + 38q = 180q
? y = 180q - 38q - 34q
= 108q

Exercise 6. Find the measure of the supplementary angle of each of the

following angles:
1. Give two examples of each of the following simple solids:
(a) cube (b) cuboid (c ) prism (d) cylinder (a) 36q (b) 12q (c ) 102q (d) 171q (e) 88q
(e) pyramid (f) cone (g) sphere
7. Use a protractor to draw the following angles:
2. What shape is each of the following solids? Make a sketch of each: (a) 20q (b) 157q (c) 197q (d) 242q (e) 320q
(f) 285q
(a) a tennis ball (b) a can of milk (c ) a compact disc
(d) a tent (e) a heap of sand 8. Refer to the figure on the right in which XOYis a straight line, and
(f) the end of a sharpened pencil answer the following questions:
3. Measure the angles marked in the following diagrams to the nearest
degree:
(a) Find a , given that b = 45q and c = 86q

4. Name and measure each of the marked angles (b) Find a , given that b = 2 a and c = 3 a
(c) Find b , given that a + c= b
(d) Find c , given that a= b= c
9. Using the figure on the right, find y in each of the following cases:
(a) If a = 2 y q and c = ( y + 30)q

(b) If a = (3 y + 40)q and c = ( y + 60q)
(c) If a = (10 y - 20q) and c = (6 y + 16)q
(d) If a = y q and b = 2 y q
(e) If b = ( y + 30)q and d = (4 y + 16)q
5. Find the measure of the complementary angle of each of the

following angles:
(a) 18q (b) 46q (c ) 53q (d) 64q (e) 7q

10. In the diagram given, 12. Calculate the unknown(s) in each of the following:
(a) Write an equation involving a and d

(b) Find the value of HOK
(c) If d = 25q, find a .

11. In the diagram below, AOB= p q. If BOC is two times AOB, COD is

four times AOBand DOAis five times AOB, find the values of all
the four angles.

PARALLEL LINES The following figure shows two parallel lines AB and CD cut by a
transversal . The angles a 1 and a 2 are called alternate angles (alt. s ).
Parallel Lines are lines, which extend in the same direction and remain
the same distance apart. We can take parallel lines as two points Similarly, b1 and b2 are also called alternate angles. Use a protractor to
moving in the same direction. In geometry, a pair of parallel lines is measure the angles a 1 , a 2 , b1 and b2 . What do you notice about the
represented by either a pair of single or double arrows, as shown in the
figure below. size of angles a 1 and a 2 , and b1 and b2 ?
The following figure shows two parallel lines AB and XYcut by a

transversal PQ . The angles a and b are called interior angles. The
angles x and y are also interior angles. Use your protector to measure
the angles a , b , x and y . Find the value of (a+b) and of (x + y). Are
We use the symbol “//” to represent “is parallel to”. Thus, in Fig. above the interior angles supplementary?
(a), AB // HK means that AB is parallel to HK and in Fig above(b),
XY// PQ . In Fig above(c), MN // ST and ST // UV . This also implies
that MN // UV.
In the following figure, the line PQ is called a transversal. The angels

k1 and k2 are called corresponding angles (corr. s ). Similarly, l1 and
l 2 are also called corresponding angles. Use your protractor to
measure the angles k1 , k2 , l1 and l 2 . What do you notice about the We can conclude from the above discussion that when two parallel
size of angles k1 and k2 , and l1 and l 2 ? Can you name two other lines are cut by a transversal,
pairs of corresponding angles in the figure below?
1. the corresponding angles are equal;
2. the alternate angles are equal;
3. the interior angles are supplementary.
The converse statements for the above are also true. That is, when
two straight lines are cut by a transversal, and
1. if the corresponding angles are equal, then the two lines are
parallel;
2. if the alternate angles are equal, then the two lines are parallel;
3. if the interior angles are supplementary, then the two lines are
parallel.

Example Example
Calculate the unknowns in the following figure. Find the values of f , g and h in Figure below
a = 48q (corr. s, AB// CD)

b = 61q (vert. Opp. s)
d = b = 61q (corr. s, AB// CD)
bc = 180q (interior s)
c = 180q - 61q = 119q
g = 42q (alt. s, AB//CD)

f = 75q (corr. s, AB//CD)
f + g + h = 180q (adj. s, on line)
h = 180q - 42q - 75q = 63q
Find the value of x in the following figure.
Example
Find the unknowns in the figure below.
i + 30q = 69q (corr. s, OA// BC)

i = 69q - 30q = 39q
j = i (corr. s, OA// BC) Solution
j = 39q
At points C and D , two lines both parallel to AB and EF are drawn as
shown in the following figure.
y1 = 40q (alt. s, AB// PQ )

? y2 = 96q - 40q = 56q
y2 = y3 = 56q (alt. s, PQ // RS)
y4 = 52q (alt. s, RS // EF )
? x = y3 + y4 = 56q + 52q
= 108q

Exercise
Drawing Parallel Lines Using a Set-square and a Ruler
1. From the diagram below, list
Given: A straight line AB .
(a) three pairs of corresponding angles;
To construct: A line parallel to AB
(b) three pairs of alternate angles.
Construction steps:
(c) Refer to the diagram in Question 1. If a = 73q and e = 106q, find

the values of p, q, r , s, x and y .
(d) Calculate the unknown(s) in the following diagrams:

PERPENDICULAR LINES (b) Given: A point K , which is not on the line.
Two lines, which are at right angles to each other, are said to be
perpendicular to each other. We use the symbol “ AB A PQ ” to denote
AB is perpendicular to PQ .
Construction steps:
1. Place one edge of the setsquare on AB as shown in the figure

above.
2. Slide the setsquare along the length of the ruler until the other
Drawing Perpendicular Lines Using a Set-square and a Ruler edge passes through K. Draw HK as shown in Fig above(ii).
We write HK A AB .
(a) Given: A point K on a line AB
Note: The length of KH gives the distance of the point K to line AB .
To construct: A line through K perpendicular to AB . In addition, if we draw a line passing through K and parallel to AB ,
KH also gives the distance between the two parallel lines.
Construction steps:
1. Place the setsquare on the line AB and place the ruler as shown in
the figure above.
2. Slide the setsquare along the length of the ruler until the other edge
of the setsquare passes through K . Draw HK as shown in the
figure above. We write AB A HK

USE OF COMPASSES PERPENDICULAR BISECTOR AND ANGLE BISECTOR

A pair of compasses is a mathematical instrument often used for
drawing circles, marking off lengths and measuring the length of a line Given: A straight line PQ .
segment.
To construct: A perpendicular bisector of a given line segment.
Construction steps:
Given: An angle PQR
To construct: The angle bisector of a given angle.
Construction steps:
The following explains how to use a compass.
To mark off a length equal to AB on the line PQ , i.e. HK :
Construction steps:
1. Adjust the arms of the compasses until they touch AB .

2. Mark a point H on another line, PQ .
3. With H as centre and radius AB , draw an arc to cut PQ at K .
Hence, AB = HK .
In-Class Activity
You can create designs with your pair of compasses. Some of these
designs are shown below. Try to create other designs of your own.

Exercise 4. Draw a line PQ of length 8 cm. Construct the perpendicular

bisector of PQ .
1. In the figure, AB and PQ are parallel lines. Draw two perpendicular
lines from points X and Y , on AB , to PQ . Similarly, draw two
perpendicular lines from H and K to AB . 5. Draw an angle ABC of 78q. Construct the bisector of ABC .
6. Draw the diagram shown accurately. Measure HK .
Measure the lengths of these perpendicular lines. What do you

notice about their lengths?
2. Draw the following triangle ABC with the given dimensions Summary
accurately and measure the angles marked a and b .
1. The sum of all the angles at a point is 360q.
Using a setsquare, draw a line from C touching AB and 2. The sum of adjacent angles on a straight line is 180q.
perpendicular to AB . Also draw a ling from B touching AC . 3. The following figure shows two parallel lines, AB and CD , with a
Measure the length of these perpendicular lines. Using a transversal PQ
setsquare, draw the line through A touching BC and perpendicular
to BC . Do these three perpendicular lines meet at the same point? (a) x and y are vertically opposite angles and are equal in size.
(b) x and q are corresponding angles and are equal in size.
(c) e and b are alternate angles and are equal in size.
(d) e and y are interior angles. Their sum is equal to 180q.
3. Draw the triangle ABC with the given dimensions accurately.

Measure AC and BC

Using a pair of compasses, construct the angle bisectors of BAC ,

ABC ACB . Do the angle bisectors meet at the same point?

Review Questions Problem Solving

1. Find the value of the unknown(s) in each of the following:
1. Draw the triangle PQR accurately. Measure PQR and RPQ . Using

a pair of compasses, construct the angle bisectors of PQR and

RPQ . Let the two lines meet at X . Measure the length of PX and
RX . What is the distance of X from PQ ? With X as centre,
construct a circle to touch PQ , PR and QR .
2. Construct triangle ABC such that AB = 12 cm, BC = 11cm and

AC = 96cm. Construct the perpendicular bisectors of AB and BC .
Let the two bisectors meet at K . With K as centre, construct a
circle to pass through A, B and C . Find out the name of this circle
from your library.
3. Draw the given quadrilateral ABCDaccurately. Construct a line

parallel to AB and passing through D . Produce this line to cut
BC at X . Measure DX and BX .
4. In the figure, ABC = aq, ACD = bq, CDF = cq and DFE = dq. Form
an equation connecting a, b, c and d.

5. In the figure, AB is parallel to XY, ABP = aq, BPQ = bq, PQY = xq

and XYQ = cq. Express x in terms of a, b and c.

Graphical Representation
NATURE AND USES OF GRAPHS (c) The gradient of PQ is given by
(y 2 , y1 )
, where x1 x2
In this chapter, you will learn how to: (x 2 , x1 )
x Find the gradient of a line perpendicular to it; If is the angle that PQ makes with the horizontal, then tan is equal
x Find the equation of a straight line given its gradient and the to the gradient of the line.
coordinates of a point on it;
x Reduce laws of higher order into simple straight-line laws and Note:
use graphical method to find the unknown.
(i) If PQ is parallel to the x-axis, then its gradient is zero.
REVISION (ii) If PQ is parallel to the y-axis, then its gradient is undefined.
(iii) If P, Q and R are collinear, then the gradients of PQ, QR and PR
Listed below are some important facts that we have learnt in are equal.
elementary mathematics about Coordinate Geometry. (iv) If a straight line AB is parallel to another straight line CD, then
the gradient of AB is equal to that of CD.
The coordinates of two points, P and Q, are P (x1 ,y1) and Q (x2, y2).
Would the result be the same if we had written
(a) PQ x1, x 2 2 y1, y 2 2

Y (b) M =
x1, x 2 , y1, y 2
2 2
Q(x2, y2) (y 2 , y1 )
(c) Gradient of PQ =
(x 2 , x1 )
P(x1, y1)
O X
(a) The distance of the line PQ is given by

PQ x1, x 2 2 y1, y 2 2
(b) The mid-point, M, of PQ is given by
x , x y , y
M= 1 2 , 1 2
2 2

Example Solution
The coordinates of three points A, B and C, are A( -3, 1), B(6, 3) and C (a) AB = >6 3@2 3 12 = 85 § 9.22
(1,8) respectively.
Y (b) M = [-3+1 /2 , 1+8 /2]= (1, 4½)
83
(c) Gradient of BC = = -1
H 1 6
C(1, 8)
B(6, 3) (d) Letting H be the point (0, h), we have gradient of BC = gradient of
BH
3h
i.e. –1 =
60
? 3 – h = -6 => h = 9
A(-3, 1)
(e) Letting D be the point (p, q), we have mid-point of AC = mid-point of
O X
BD
6p 3q
i.e (-1, 4½) = ,
2 2
(a) Calculate the length of AB. ?p = -8 and q = 6
(b) Find the mid-point. M, of AC. Thus, D is the point (-8, 6).
(c) Find the gradient of BC. (f) Letting K be the point (m, n), we have mid-point of AB = mid-point of
CK
(d) If H is the point on the y-axis, such that B, C and H are collinear,
find the coordinates of the point H. i.e [-3+6 /2 , 1+3 /2 ] = [1+m /2 , 8+n /2]
(e) Find the coordinates of the point D, such that ABCD is a ? 3 = 1+ m and 4 = 8 +n, giving m = 2, n = -4
parallelogram.
Thus the coordinates of K are (2, -4.)
(f) Find the coordinates of the point K, such that ACBK is a
parallelogram. Note: We can use the same mid-point property to find the fourth vertex
of a rectangle, a rhombus or a square.

Exercise 11. Find the point on the y-axis which is equidistant from the points (6,
2) and (2, 10).
1. Plot the following pairs of points and calculate the distance between
them: 12. Given that A = (0, 4) and B = (6, 6), find the point C on the x-axis
such that AB = BC.
(a) (2,1), (3, 7) (b) (-2,3), (2, -4)
(c) (1, -4), (-3, 2) (d) (5, 7), (-4, -9) 13. A point P is equidistant from R (-2, 4) and S (6, -4) and its x-
coordinate is twice its y-coordinate. Find the coordinates of P.
2. Calculate the length of the sides of the ÄBC and determine, for
each case, whether ÄBC is right-angled by using Pythagoras' 14. The line x + 3y = 1 intersects the curve 5y = 20 - 3x - x2 at points P
theorem. and Q. Calculate the length of PQ.
(a) A (0, 0), B (3, 0), C (3, 4) 15. Given the points P (k, 3), Q (1, 1) and R (6, 2), find the possible
(b) A (6, -2), B (-14, 10), C (2, 14) values of k if PQ = 2QR.
(c) A (4, 3), B (2, -3), C (-2,4)
16. Find the area of ÄBC with vertices A (2, I), B (12, 2) and C (12, 8).
3. Find the gradient of the line joining the following pairs of points: Hence, or otherwise, find the perpendicular distance from B to AC.
(a) (1, 3) and (2, -4) (b) (-2, -4) and (1,5) 17. Three of the vertices of a parallelogram PQRS are P (-I, -2), Q (3,
(c) (-2, 1) and (7, -3) (d) (8,2) and (-4, 2) 5) and R (9, 1). Find the mid-point of PR and use it to find the fourth
(e) (-3,6) and (-3, -1) (f) (ak2, 2ak) and (ah2, 2ah) vertex S.
4. Show that the four points, (2, 1), (-1, -5), (1, 5) and (-2, -1), are the 18. The line x + 2y = 5 meets the curve 5x2 + 4y2 = 29 - 12x at A and B.
vertices of a parallelogram. Find the coordinates of the mid-point of AB.
5. Show that the four points, (5, 8), (7, 5), (3, 5) and (5,2), are the 19. The line x + 4y = 5 intersects the curve 2x2 + 21xy + 27y2 = 0 at the
vertices of a rhombus. points A and B. Calculate the length of AB.
6. Find the values of k if the points (0, 0), (2, 3k) and (4k, 6) are 20. The line 5x + y = 17 intersects the curve 5x2 + y2 = 49 at the points
collinear. P and Q. Find the coordinates of the mid-point of PQ.
7. Find the coordinates of the mid-point of the following pairs of points. 21. In ¨PQR, A (-2, 3), B (5, -1) and C (-4, -7) are the midpoints of PQ,
QR and PR respectively. Find the coordinates of P, Q and R.
(a) (1, 1) and (7,3)
(b) (3, -2) and (-2, 7)
(c) (2a + b, 3b - a) and (b - a, 2a - b)
(d) (ah2, 2ah) and (ak2, 4ak)
8. The line joining the points A (1, 2t) and B (5, 3t2 + 11) has a
gradient of 3. Find the possible values of t.
9. The coordinates of three points are A (1, 1), B (-1, 4) and C (h, k).
Given that the gradients of AB, AC and BC are -3a, 3a and a
respectively, find the values of h, k and a.
10. Show that P (-1, 3), Q (6, 8) and R (11, 1) are the vertices of an
isosceles triangle.

Gradients of Two perpendicular Lines Example
Y The vertices of ABC are A(0, -5), B(-2, 1) and C(10, k). Find the value
of k if ABC = 90q.
l2
l1 Solution
P
C(10, k)
X
O Q S R
B(-2, 1)
X
Suppose two straight lines I1 and l2 cut each other at P at right angles O
and the x-axis at Q and R respectively. If I1 has a gradient of m1 and
PQR = Į, then tan Į = m1. If l2 has a gradient of m2 and PěX = ȕ, then A(0, -5)
tan ȕ = m2. PS is the perpendicular from P to the x-axis.
Then SPR = Į Since ABC = 90q

PS 1
m1 = = tan Į Gradient AB =
QS Gradient of BC
1
PS 1 1
And m2 = - = RS = - =- ?
1 ( 5)
x
k 1
= -1 -2 –0 10 – (-2)
QS PS tan D m1 2 0 10 ( 2)
1 k 1
? m2 = - or m1m2 = -1. i.e. (-3) x= -1
m1 12
k–1=4 ?k = 5
Hence, if two lines are perpendicular to each other, the gradient of one
is the negative reciprocal of the other. Conversely, if the gradient of
one line is the negative reciprocal of another line, then these two lines
are perpendicular to each other.

Equation of a straight line General Case
Given different conditions, we can write different forms of the equation To find the equation of the straight line joining two given points A (x1,
y1) and B (x2, y2), we let a point P (x, y) line on the same straight line.
of a straight line.
Y
Example x B(x2, y2)
Find the equation of the straight line passing through the points A (1, 2) x P(x, y)
and B (3, 7).
xA(x1, y1)
Solution X
Y O
x B(3, 7)
See
Gradient of AP = gradient of AB
x P(x, y)
xA(1, 2)
y y1 y 2 y1
X
O x x1 x 2 x1
Thus the equation of a straight line passing through two given points is
Let a point P (x, y) lie on the same straight line.
Gradient of AP = gradient of AB y 2 y1
y y1 (x x1 )
x 2 x1
y2 72
x 1 3 1 Given Gradient and One Point on the Straight Line
2y – 4 = 5x – 5
The coefficient of x in the equation above gives the gradient of the
2y = 5x – 1
straight line. Thus, if only the gradient m of the straight line and a point
lying on it are given, the equation of the straight line can be found by
?The equation of the straight line is 2y = 5x – 1. using the formula.
y – y1 = m(x – x1)

Example Example
Find the equation of the line joining Find the equation of the straight line having the gradient m and passing
through the point (0,c).
(a) A (1, 5) and B (8, 5)
(b) C (4,10) and D (4, 2) Solution
Let (0, c) be (x1, y1) and m be the gradient.

Y
ɏ C(4, 10) Equation of the straight line is y - c = m(x - 0)
y = mx+c
A(1, 5) B(8, 5) ? the equation of the straight line is y = mx+c.

X D(4, 2) The above equation is said to be of the gradient/intercept form. When
the coefficient of y in this equation is unity, m gives the gradient of the
O X straight line while c gives the intercept on the y-axis.
Y
Solution
55
(a) The gradient of AB = 0
8 1
? Equation of AB is y – 5 = 0(x – 1) (0, c)

i.e. y = 5
O X
Notice that all points on the line AB have a distance of 5 units from the
x-axis. Thus lines parallel to the x-axis and at a distance of a units from Thus, the line y = 3x - 4 has a gradient of 3 and cuts the y-axis at the
the x-axis has an equation of the form y = a. point (0, -4);
x
The line y = + ѿ has a gradient of ¼ and cuts the y-axis at the point
10 2 4
(b) The gradient of CD = which is not defined.
44 (0, ѿ).
Notice that all points on the line CD have a distance of 4 units from the The straight-line 2y - 3x - 4 = 0 can be expressed in the
y-axis and their x-coordinate is 4. The equation of the line is x = 4.
gradient/intercept form as y = 3/2 x + 2.Thus the equation has a
Thus, lines parallel to the y-axis and at a distance of b units from the y- gradient of 3/2 and cuts the y-axis at the point (0, 2).
axis has an equation of the form x = b.
Note also that the lines y = 3x - 4 and y = 3x + 5 are parallel because

they have the same gradient (m = 3).

Example Exercise
The diagram shows a quadrilateral ABCD (not drawn to scale) in which 1. Find the equation of each of the following straight lines:
A is on the y-axis and D is on the x-axis. C is the point (16, 11) and the
equation of AB is y = 2x + 4. If AD and BC are perpendicular to AB, find (a) gradient t, passing through (0, 0)
(b) gradient 3, passing through (1, 1)
(a) the coordinates of A and D, (c) gradient 2, passing through (2, 3)
(b) the equation of BC, (d) gradient a, passing through (0, a)
(c) the coordinates of B.
2. Find the equation of the straight line joining each of the following
Y B pairs of points:
(a) (0,0) and (1, -1) (b) (1,3) and (2, 5)

(c) (2,4) and (-2,3) (d) (-2, -4) and (1, -7)
A C(16, 11) (e) (3, -5) and (-4, -5) (f) (-2,3) and (-2, -7)
(g) (0, 3) and (5, 0) (h) (0, -5) and (-5, 0)
(i) (0,1) and (-3, 0) (j) (0, -3) and (0, 4)
O D X 3. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the
points (1, 1) and (2, 4).
Solution
4. Find the equation of the straight line that is parallel to 2y - x = 7 and
(a) At A, x = 0 bisects the line joining the points (3, 1) and (1, -5).
?y = 20(0) + 4 = 4 5. Find the equation of the chord joining the points whose x-
? The coordinates of A are (0, 4). coordinates on the curve y = 2X2 - 3 are -1 and 1.
Let D be the point (k, 0). 6. Find the equation of the line passing through the point
The gradient of AB is 2, ? gradient of AD is -½. (a) (5, 7) and parallel to the line 5x + 4 = 0
(b) (-2,5) and parallel to the line 3y + 7 = 29
1 40 (c) (3,4) and perpendicular to the line 2x - 3 = 0
i.e. ?k=8 (d) (-1, -6) and perpendicular to the line 42 - 7y = 5
2 0k (e) (4,8) and parallel to the line 3x + y = 17
(f) (-1,9) and parallel to the line 2y - 4x = 71
i.e. the coordinates of D are (8, 0). (g) (2, -3) and perpendicular to the line y+2x= 13
(h) (-3, 2) and perpendicular to the line 3y = 9x – 37
(b) Gradient of BC = gradient of AD = -½
7. The coordinates of three points are A (-1, -3), B (2, 3) and C (6, k).
? The equation of BC is y - 11 = -½ (x - 16) If AB is perpendicular to BC, find
i.e. 2y + x = 38
(a) the value of k
(c) To find the coordinates of B, we solve y = 2x + 4 and 2y + x=38 (b) the gradient of AC
simultaneously. (c) the acute angle that AC makes with the x-axis
2(2x+4)+x = 38
?x = 6 and y = 2(6) + 4 = 16
?the coordinates of B are (6, 16).

8. The triangle formed by A (-2, -3), B (1, 3) and C (10, k) is right- 16. The three vertices of a parallelogram are A (-6, 5), B (-5, 0) and C
angled at A, find (0, 1). Find the coordinates of the fourth vertex and show that
ABCD is a square.
(a) the value of k
(b) the area of ÄBC 17. Given that the x-intercept of a line is twice its y-intercept and that
(c) the length of AM where M is the mid-point of BC the line passes through the point of intersection of the lines 3y + x
= 3 and 4y - 3x = 5, find the equation of this line.
9. The coordinates of three points are A (-1, -6), B (3, 12) and C (k, 6).
Find the value(s) of k if 18. Find the gradient of the line joining the points A (4, 0) and C (-2, 8).
If B is the point (-3, 1), show that AB = BC and that ABC = 90°. If A,
(a) A, B and C are collinear B and C are the three vertices of a square, find the coordinates of
(b) AB is perpendicular to AC the fourth vertex, D. Hence, or otherwise, calculate the area of the
(c) BC is perpendicular to AC square.
10. The coordinates of three points are A (0, 4), B (10, 8) and C (k, 1). 19. The line whose equation is y = x + 5 is the perpendicular bisector of
Find the coordinates of the mid-point M of AB. If MC is the
the line joining the points P(3, 10) and Q( , ).
perpendicular bisector of AB, find k.
11. The vertices of the triangle ABC are given by the points of (a) Write down, in terms of a and , the coordinates of the mid-
intersection of the following three lines. point of PQ.
(b) Show that = + 3 and + = 13.
AB: y = 2x + 3, BC: 2y + x - 4 = 0,
CA: 2y = 7x + 4. 20. A (t, t + 2), B (t2, 3t), C (2t, t - 3) and O(0, 0) are four distinct points.
Calculate the values(s) of t if
Find the coordinates of A, B and C. (a) AB is parallel to OC,
(b) OB is perpendicular to AC.
12. A straight line has intercepts of 2 on the x-axis and -3 on the y-axis.
Another straight line passes through the points (0, 3) and (3, -4). 21. Find the equation of the line I passing through P(2, 3) and
Find the point of intersection of the two straight lines. perpendicular to the line x - 3y = 15.The line I cuts the x-axis at A
and the y-axis at B, calculate the ratio of AP : BP.
13. Find the equation of a line which passes through the point of
intersection of the lines x + y + 2 = 0 and 3x - 2y + 1 = 0 and is 22. The coordinates of ÄBC are A(1, 5), B(4, 4) and C(8, 6). Given
perpendicular to the line 3x - y + 3 = 0. that P is the foot of the perpendicular from A to BC, find
14. The points A (-1, 0), B (4, 10) and C (-2, 8) form a triangle. Find the (a) the equation of AP,
equation of the altitude from C to AB and from B to AC. Hence, find (b) the coordinates of P,
the intersecting point of these altitudes. (c) the lengths of AP, BC and AC,
(d) the area of ÄBC,
15. Show that the three points A, Band C whose coordinates are (0, 6), (e) the length of the perpendicular from B to AC.
(2, 1) and (7, 3) respectively are the three possible vertices of a
square. Find 23. The coordinates of ÄBC are A(1, 2), B(6, 7) and C(7, 2). Find the
equations of the perpendicular bisectors of (a) AB (b) BC. Hence
(a) the coordinates of the point where the diagonals intersect, find the coordinates of the point equidistant from A, B and C.
(b) the gradient of the diagonal BD,
(c) the coordinates of D, the fourth vertex of the square.

24. The diagram shows a trapezium ABCD (not drawn to scale) in

25. The diagram shows a quadrilateral ABCD where A is (6, 1), B is on
which AB is parallel to DC and BC is perpendicular to both AB and
the x-axis and C is (1, 3). The diagonal BD bisects AC at right
DC. The coordinates of A, B and D are A (4, 2), B (16, 8) and D (5,
angles at M and BD = ½. BM. Find
10).
Y Y
D(5, 10) D
B(16, 8) C(1, 3)
A(4, 2) A(6, 1)
O B X
O X
(a) the equation of BD,
(b) the x-coordinate of B,
Find (c) the coordinates of D,
(d) the area of the quadrilateral ABCD.
(a) the equations of DC and BC,
(b) the coordinates of C. By considering the area of triangle ABD, or otherwise, find the
perpendicular distance from D to BA extended.
The lines AD and BC are produced to meet at the point P, find
26.
(c) the coordinates of the point P,
(d) the ratio of AP : DP,
Y
(e) the ratio of the area of ¨PCD to the area of trapezium ABCD.
B M E
y = 3x - 3
D 5y = x + 13
C
X
O
The diagram shows a trapezium ABCE consisting of a parallelogram

ABCD and a triangle ADE, where angle DAE = 90°. The equation of the
line CDE is 5y = x + 13 and the equation of CB is y = 3x - 3. Calculate
the coordinates of C.
Given also that the diagonals of the parallelogram intersect at M (5, 5),
calculate the coordinates of A, B, D and E.

27. In the diagram PQRST is a straight line cutting the x-axis at Q and Determination of Functions from Straight Line Graphs
the y-axis at R. The coordinates of P, T and M are (-10, -4), (14, 12)
and (4, 11) respectively where MS is the perpendicular from M to In research work, when two variables are believed to be related, a set
PT. Find of corresponding values is obtained. This set of values can then be
used to draw a graph of a series of points. If all the points are found to
lie on the same straight line, the law relating the two variables can be
Y easily derived. This law is used to predict further values, which, in turn,
T(14, 12) serve to confirm the law experimentally. If the set of values can be
M(4, 11) plotted as a straight line graph, then, assuming that the quantities
plotted on the vertical axis are denoted by Y and the quantities plotted
on the horizontal axis by X, the law will be of the form Y = mX + c,
S where m is the gradient of the graph and c the intercept on the Y-axis.
However, not all experimental results obey a simple straight-line law.

More often, one of the following types of relationships applies:
R
X (a) y = ax + bx2
Q O a
(b) y = b
P(-10, -4)
x
b
(c) y = a x
x
(a) the equations of PQ and MS, a
(b) the coordinates of Q, R and S, (d) xy = bx
x
(c) the area of ¨PMS.
a
(e) y = 2 b
x
(f) y = abx
(g) y = abb , where a and b are constants.
With a little manipulation, anyone of the above relationships can be

converted to a simple straight-line function.
(a) y = ax + bx2
Divide throughout by x:
y
= a + bx
x
Thus, a straight-line graph is obtained when y/x (Y) is plotted against x

(X). Here, b denotes the gradient and a, the y/x intercept.
a
(b) y = +b
x
A straight-line graph is obtained when y (Y) is plotted against 1/x (X).

The gradient is denoted by a and the y-intercept by b.

b Example
(c) y = a x
x
1 1 1
(a)
Multiply throughout by ¥x: x y k
(b) y = ax3 + bx2
y ¥x = ax + b (c) py = qx
A straight line graph is obtained when y (Y) is plotted against x (X), Each of the above equations, where k, a, b, p and q are constants, may
where a denotes the gradient and b, the y ¥x -intercept. be represented by a straight-line graph of the form Y = mX + C. where
X and Yare Junctions of x and/or y, and m and C are constants. Find
a the expressions for X, Y, m and C in each case.
(d) xy = + bx
x
Divide throughout by x: Solution
a 1 1 1
y= +b (a)
x2 x y k
1 1 1 1 1
= -1( ) +
1 y x k x k
A straight line graph is obtained when y (Y) is plotted against (X),
x2
where a denotes the gradient and b, the y-intercept. 1 1 1
?Y= ,X= , m = -1, C =
y x k
a
(e) y = +b
x2
(b) y = ax3 + bx2
Its graphical construction is similar to (d). y
= ax + b
x x2
(f) y = ab
Take common logarithms of both sides: y

?Y= , X = x, m = a, C =b
x2
lg y = lg abx
lg y = lg a + x lg b y b 1
or =a+ = b( )+ a
x3 x x
A straight-line graph is obtained when lg y (Y) is plotted against x
(X), where lg b denotes the gradient and lg a, the lg y-intercept.
y
?Y= , X = 1/x, m = b, C =a
(g) y = ax b x3
Take common logarithms of both sides: (c) py = qx

lg py = lg qx
b lg p + lg y = x lg q
lg y = lg ax
lg y = lg a + b lg x lg y = (lg qx)x – lg p
? Y = lg y, X = x, m = lg q, C = -lg p
A straight-line graph is obtained when lg y (Y) is plotted against lg x
(X). Here, b denotes the gradient and lg a, the lg y-intercept.

Example Example
The diagram shows part of a straight line representing the equation y = The diagram shows part of a straight-line graph obtained by plotting 1/y
axh, where a and b are constants. Find the value of a and of b. against x2, together with the coordinates of two of the points on the line.
Express y in terms of x.
Solution
lg y 1/y
A(2, 2)
x
x B(4, 3)
x B(4, 1)
x
O lg x A(1, 2)
x2
b O
y = ax
lg y = lg axb = lg a + lg xb
?lg y =b(lg x) + lg a Solution
where b is the gradient and lg a is the y-intercept. 1

The equation of the graph will be of the form = m(x2) + C,
y
Let C(0,c) be the lg y-intercept. 1
Gradient of AB = gradient of AC where m is the gradient of the graph and c the - intercept.
y
lg y 3 2 1
From the graph, m = =
4 1 3
C(0, c)
1
x
A(2, 2) Let C (0, c) be the intersection of BA produced on the
y
x B(4, 1) 1/y
O lg x
2 1 c2 x B(4, 3)
? , i.e. c = 3
24 02 x
A(1, 2)
? lg y = -½ lg x + 3 => lg y + ½ lg x = 3 C(0, c)
lg y + lg x½ = 3 x2
½
lg yx = 3 O
yx½ = 103 = 1000
1000
?y= = 1000 x-½
x1 / 2
?a = 1000 and b = -½

1 §1·
Now gradient of AC = q¨ ¸
1 x 3
3 © ¹
1 2c y 2p 2p
? =
3 1 0
5 1 1 1 3
c= Thus when is plotted against , the intercept is and the
3 Y x y 2p
q
? The equation of the corresponding curve is gradient is
2p
1 1 2 5 1 c0 5
= x + Let A (0, c) be the intercept, then , giving c = 10.
y 3 3 y 04 2
3 3 q 5 3 3
? y= Thus we have = 10 and = giving p = and q = .
x2 5 2p 2p 2 20 4
Example
Example
Variables x and y are related by the equation 2px + qy = 3xy. When a
1 1
graph of against is drawn, the resulting line has a gradient of -2.5 The following results are obtained from an experiment: the values of x
y x are exact and the values of yare measured to the nearest one decimal
and passes through (4, 0). Calculate the value of p and of q. place. It is believed that these quantities obey the equation y = axn,
where a and n are constants, and that one quantity of y is inaccurate.
1/y Plot lg y against lg x to obtain a straight-line graph and use your graph
to estimate the value of a and of n. Hence, correct the inaccurate value
of y.
A (0, c) x 1.2 1.6 2.5 4.0 6.3

y 1.5 2.3 2.6 3.6 5.0
Solution
Take common logarithms on both sides:
1/x
lg y = lg axn
O (4, 0)
lg y = lg a + n lg x
Solution A table of the values of 19 x and 19 y is constructed.
2px + qy = 3xy lg x 0.08 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80

Divide both sides by 2pxy: lg y 0.18 0.36 0.41 0.56 0.70
2 px qy 3xy A graph of lg y against lg x is plotted with n as the gradient and lg a as

the lg y intercept. To draw the graph, choose a suitable scale so that
2 pxy 2 pxy 2 pxy
the graph will cover at least half of the graph paper. Generally, the
bigger the graph drawn, the more accurate the reading will be.

Notice that four of the points plotted lie nearly on the same straight line. Example
Only the second value lies far off the line. Therefore, the second value
is an inaccurate reading of y. Notice also that the graph does not The pairs of values of x and y in the table below are obtained by
exactly pass through each of the four points. This could be due to experiment. It is believed that they obey the relation y = ax2 + bx,
experimental errors. The line drawn is the one which best fits the where a and b are constants.
points. This line is called the line of best fit. However, there may be
some differences in opinion as to the position of the line. Hence, a x 2 4 6 8 10 12
slight difference in the results is allowed. y 6.0 18.8 35.0 40.0 93.0 123.7
From the graph, One of the values of y is believed to be inaccurate. By plotting the
values of y/x against x, draw a straight line through these values.
0.36 Hence, determine
Gradient n = = 0.72
0.5
(a) the value of a and of b,
From the graph, the 19 y-intercept is found to be approximately 0.12 (b) which value of y is inaccurate and find its correct value.
i.e. lg a = 0.12 Solution

a = 1.3
A table of the values of x and y/x is constructed.
0.8
lg x 0.08 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80
0.7
lg y 0.18 0.36 0.41 0.56 0.70
0.6
0.5 A graph of y/x against x is plotted. Here, a denotes the gradient and b,
the y/x intercept.
0.4
0.3
12
0.2
10
0.1 8
0 6
0.08 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 4

2
0
The correct reading of y is determined by substituting the value a and
2 4 6 10 12
of n into the equation.
lg y = lg a + n lg x
It is seen from the graph that five of the point lie very close to the line of
lg y = 0.12 + 0.72 (0.2)
best fit. One value lies very far off best fit and is thus the one that is
= 0.264
inaccurate.
y = 1.84
6.8
(a) From the graph, gradient a = = 0.71, y/x – intercept b = 1.8
9.6
(b) The value that is inaccurate is x = 8

From the graph, when x =8, y/x = 7.4
? y = 7.4 x 8 =59.2

Exercise
(c)
1. The variables x and y are related by the equation ay = x + bx2.
When a graph of y/x is plotted against x, the resulting line has a
gradient of 5 and an intercept on the y/x axis of 0.25, calculate the lg y
value of a and of b.
x (7, 5)
x y2
2. Variables x and y are related by the equation = 1. When a
2 p 3q
graph of y2 against x is drawn, the resulting line has a gradient of -
1.5 and an intercept on the y2 axis of 9. Calculate the value of p and x (2, 1)
of q.
3. Each of the following shows part of a straight line graph obtained by O x

plotting values of the variables indicated. Express y in terms of x for
each.
(a)
(d)
xy lg y
(0, 5) x (7, 5)
x
x (6, 2) O lg x
x (5, -1)
x
O
4. Variables x and y are connected by an equation of the form y = Ab-x
(b) where A and b are constants. When lg y is plotted against x, a
straight line is obtained which passes through (2, ½) and (9, -4).
Calculate the value of A and of b.
x+y
5. The variables x and y are related by the equation y = kx-n where k
and n are constants. When lg y is plotted against lg x, a straight line
x (8, 6) is obtained which passes through (2, 3) and (8, 7). Calculate the
value of k and of n.
6. The variables x and y are connected by an equation of the form y =

axb. When a graph of lg y against lg x is plotted, a gradient of 1.5
and a lg y-intercept of 1.2 are obtained, i.e. lg y = 1.5 lg x + 1.2.
O x2 Calculate the value of a and of b.
x (0, -2)

7. The following table gives experimental values of two variables x and 12. The table below shows experimental values of x and y which are
y which are known to be connected by a relation of the form xy = a connected by an equation of the form y = axb.
+ bx.
x 2 5 10 25
x 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 y 10 63 250 1540
y 22.0 15.3 12.0 10.0 8.7
Explain how a straight-line graph may be drawn to represent the
Plot a graph of y against 1/x and use it to estimate the value of a given equation and draw it for the given data. Use the graph to
and of b. estimate the value of a and of b.
8. 13. (a) The table shows experimental values of two variables x and y.
x 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
y 22.0 15.3 12.0 10.0 8.7 x 1 2 3 4 5
y 1.9 5.0 9.3 15.2 22.0
The table above gives experimental values of x and y. It is known
that the true values of x and y are connected by a law y = ax3 + bx2, It is known that x and y are related by an equation of the form cy +
where a and b are constants. Plot the graph of y/x2 against x and dx2 = x. For the given data, draw the graph of y/x against x and use
determine the value of a and of b. it to estimate c and d.
9. The table below shows experimental values of x and y which are (b) The diagram shows part of a straight-line graph drawn to
related by the equation y = ax3 + bx. represent the equation x + a/x = by.
x 1 2 3 4 5
y -1 10 45 116 235
xy
By plotting a graph of y/x against x2, estimate the values of a and b.
10. The table shows two variables x and y which are known to be
connected by a law of the form y = kbx. x
(12, 2)
x 1 2 3 4
y 30 75 190 470 (6, 0)
O x x2
Plot lg Y against x and use your graph to estimate the value of k
and of b.
Calculate the value of a and b.
14. (a) When the graph of y2 against x is drawn, a straight line is

11. The table shows experimental values of x and y which are obtained which has gradient 1.5 and which passes through the
connected by an equation of the form yxn = c, where n and c are point (10, 16). Determine the relationship connecting x and y and
constants. evaluate x when y = 5.
x 2 3 4 5 6 (b) The table shows experimental values of two variables x and y.

y 100 82 72 63 57
x I 2 3 4 5
y 5.0 12.2 23.2 38.0 56.7
Plot lg y against lg x and use the graph to estimate the value of n
and of c.

It is known that x and y are related by an equation of the form y Summary

= px2 + qx, where p and q are constants. Draw the graph of y/ 1. A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) are two distinct points.
x against x/ x for the given data and use it
(a) AB = x2 x1 2 y2 y1 2 = x1 x2 2 y1 y2 2
i. to evaluate p and q
ii. to estimate the value of x when 2y = 43 x
(b) Gradient of AB =
y2 y1 =
y1 y2
15. (a) The table shows experimental values of two variables x and y. x2 x1 x1 x2
x 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 (c) Mid-point of AB =

x2 x1 , y2 y1
Y 3.3 2.4 1.8 1.5 1.3 1.1 2
It is known that equation x and y are related by the y =

a
, where a (d) Equation of AB is y– y1 = m(x – x1) where m =
y2 y1
xb x2 x1
and b are constants.
(i) Plot xy against y and obtain a straight-line graph. 2. Two lines l1 and l2 have gradients m1 and m2 respectively.
(ii) Use your graph to estimate the value of a and of b.
(iii) Obtain the value of the gradient of the straight line obtained (a) l1 is parallel to l2 if m1 = m2
when 1/y is plotted against x. (b) l1 is perpendicular to l2 m1 m2 = -1
(b) The variables x and y are related in such a way that when y - 2x 3. To convert a non-linear equation involving x and y, exprexx the
is plotted against x2, a straight line is obtained passing through equation in the form Y = mX + c where X and Y are expressions in x
(1, -2) and (4, 7). Find (i) y in terms of x, (ii) the values of x when and/or Y.
y = 11.
y3 a 1
y –2x e.g. if ax2 + by3 = x, then =- x+
x b b
y3 a 1
?Y= , X = x, m = - and c =
x b b
x (4, 7)
O x2
x ( 1, -2)

Review Problems
1. The line y = x + 2 cuts the curve 2x2 + y2 = 5xy + 8 at A and B. y

Calculate the coordinates of the mid-point of AB.
2. Find the equation of a line which passes through the point of B

intersection of the lines 2x - 3y = 1 and 4y = 2 - x and which is
perpendicular to the line 3x + 5y = 13.
A(1, 4)
3. Find the equation of the line passing through the point of
intersection of the lines 4y = 3x + 6 and 5y = 12x - 9 and which is
parallel to the line y = 2x - 13.
C
4. The equations of the sides AB, BC and CA of the triangle ABC are
3y = 4x + 13, y = -1 and y = 1 - 2x respectively.
O D x
(a) Find the coordinates of A, Band C.
(b) If ABCD is a parallelogram, find the coordinates of D.
5. The straight-line y = 2x + 3 meets the curve xy + 20 = 5y at the

points A and B. Calculate the coordinates of the mid-point of AB. 8. The diagram shows a rhombus ABCD where A(-2, 10) and C(4, 4)
are opposite comers. The mid-point of AC is M and B lies on the x-
6. Three points are O (0, 0), A (4, 2) and B (1, 2). Find the equation of axis. Calculate
the line through B, which is parallel to OA. C is the point on this line
5 (a) the coordinates of M and B,
whose x-coordinate is - . Find the y-coordinate of C and show that
11 (b) the equation of BD,
OB = OC. (c) the area of ABCD.
7. The diagram shows a rectangle ABCD, with A having coordinates (-

1, 4). The equation of BC is 4y + 5x = 52. Find
y
(a) the equation of AD,
(b) the equation of AB,
D
(c) the coordinates of B.
A
If the length of BC is twice the length of AB, find the coordinates of
C and D. Hence find the area of ABCD. M
B O x

9. The diagram shows a trapezium in which AD is parallel to BC and (c)The variables x and y are related in such a way that, when y2 is
angle ADC = angle BCD = 90°. The points A, Band C are (a, 18), plotted against xy, a straight-line is obtained which passes through
(12, -2) and (2, -7) respectively. Given that AB = 2BC, find the points (1, 3) and (5, 11). Find the value of x when y = 3.
(a) the value of a,

(b) the equation of AD, y2
(c) the equation of CD,
(d) the coordinates of D,
(e) the area of the trapezium ABCD. x (5, 11)
Y
A (a, 18) x
(1, 3)
O xy
D
O X
B(12, -2) 11. (a) The table shows experimental values of two variables, x and y.
C(2, -7) x 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2
y 9.1 8.3 7.6 6.9 6.3
10. (a) The table shows experimental values of two variables, x and y. It is known that x and y are related by an equation of the form y = Ab-x,
where A and b are constants. Express this equation in a form suitable
for drawing a straight-line graph. Draw this graph for the given data and
use it to estimate A and b.
x 1 2 3 4
(b) The diagram shows part of the straight-line graph drawn to

Y 2.12 2.86 3.44 4.18
represent the equation px + qy = xy. Given that the straight line
passes through (2, 0) and has a gradient of -1.5, find the value of p
It is known that x and y are connected by the equation ay2 - bx3 = 1. By and of q.
plotting y2 against x3, obtain a straight line to represent the above data.
Use your graph to estimate the value of a and of b. 1/y
By drawing a suitable straight line, find the value of x and of y which

satisfy the simultaneous equations
ay2 - bx3 = 1,
y2- x3 = 1.
(b) Variables x and y are related by the equation y2 = pxq. When the
graph of lg y against lg x3 is drawn, the resulting straight line has a
gradient of -2 and an intercept of 0.5 on the axis of 19 y. Calculate
the value of p and of q.
O (2, 0) 1/x

(c) Variables x and y are related in such a way that when x - y is

plotted against xy a straight line is produced as shown in the
diagram. This line passes through the points (1, 2) and (5, 4). Find y
in terms of x. y C
B
x-y
D
A
x
(5, 4)
O x
x
(1, 2)
O xy
14.
12. ABCD is a square where A is the point (0,2) and C is the point (8, (a) Find the equation of the line which passes through the point (-2,
4). AC and BD are diagonals of the square and they intersect at M. 5) and perpendicular to the line y + 2x = 34.
Find
(b) The line x/3 + y/4 = 1 cuts the x-axis at A and the y-axis at B.
(a) the coordinates of M, Find
(b) the equation of BD,
(c) the length of AM, (i) the coordinates of A and B,
(d) the coordinates of the points B and D, (ii) the equation of the line which passes through the point (5, -7)
(e) the area of ABCD. and perpendicular to AB.
13. The diagram shows a parallelogram ABCD. The coordinates of A, B

and C are (2, 2), (0, 8) and (8, 10) respectively. Find
(a) the coordinates of the point of intersection of the diagonals AC

and BD,
(b) the coordinates of D,
(c) the equation of the diagonal BD,
(d) the lengths of the diagonals BD and AC,
(e) the area of the parallelogram ABCD.

Some Ancient Problems Revision Exercise
1. Since the recorded history of mathematics, man has been solving Test 1
problems for amusement and recreation. Some of the famous
problems may have started in this way but later lead to serious 1. Solve the following equations:
investigations. The following are examples of such problems:
(a) lg (3x + 1) - lg 4/5 - lg x = 1 - lg (3x - 1)
(a) What is the length of the side of a square if its area is 2 cm2? (b) 2 (log5 x)2 + 3 = 7 log5 x
(c) 32x +2 - 15 x 3x + 1 = 0 (giving answers correct to 2 decimal
(b) If you stand 20 m away from a wall and walk half the distance places)
towards it every 3 seconds, I.e. you walk 10m in the first 3 (d) lg x = 2 + lg y = 2 lg Ҁ - lg 9/125 - 2 lg 5/9
seconds, 5 m in the next 3 seconds and so on, how long will it (e) 42x^2 + 6x = 2-5
take you to reach the wall?
2.
(c) If you multiply a number by itself and product is -1, what is the (a) Simplify
number? Do you know the answers to these problems?
(i) lg20 + 7 lg 15/16 + 5 lg 24/25 + lg (80/81)3 ,
2. Search the library, an encyclopedia or the Internet and then write a (ii) 2 lg 13/7 + lg 266/195 – lg 286/135 – lg 171/77,
short essay on "Coordinate Geometry". lg x2 lg y2
(iii)
lg xy
(b) Solve the following simultaneous equations:
log4 x + log4 y = 5, (log4 x)( log4 y) = 6
3. (a) Find the range of values of k for which x2 + (k + 3) x + 2k + 3 > 0

for all real values of x.
(b) Find the range of values of k for which the line y = 2x + k will cut
2
the curve y = at two real and distinct points.
1 x
4. (a) Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the line 2x +

5y = 1 and the curve x2 + xy = 4 + 2y2.
(b) Find the range of values of k for which the equation 2ax(ax + kc)
+ (k2 - 2) c2 = 0 has real roots.
5. (a) Given that (x - 1) and (x + 2) are both factors of the expressions

f(x) where f(x) = 2x4 + px3 + qx2 - x + 6, find the values of p and q.
Hence, factorize f(x) completely.
(b) Given that (x - 2) and (x + 3) are factors of the expression E

where E = 3x4 + px3 + qx2 + 31x - 6, find the values of p and q.
Hence, solve the equation E = 0, giving your answers correct to 2
decimal places.

6. Test
(a) When x2 - bx + 3 and 2b - x are divided by x - a, the remainders 1.

are 1 and 4 respectively. Find the values of a and b. (a) Express y = 3x2 + 5x + 7 in the form y = 3(x + a)2 + b, where a
and b are constants. State the minimum value of y and the value
(b) Solve the equation 3x3 + X2- 15x + 2 = 0, giving answers of x when this happens.
correct to two decimal places where appropriate.
(b) Given that the line y = 3x + 2 meets the curve y = x2 + 5x + q at
7. The equations of the diagonals of a rectangle are 7y = 4x and y = two distinct points. find the ranges of value of q.
8x - 26 and the equation of one of the sides of the rectangle is 2x +
3y = 0. Find the equations of the other sides of the rectangle. 2.
(a) Given that 3x2 - 11x + 7 = Ax (x - 2) + B(x - 2) + C for all values
of x, find the values of A, B and C.
8. The equations of the sides of a triangle are
(b) Solve the equation.x3 - 7.x2 + 9x + 2 = 0, giving your answer
AB: 3y - 4x = 13, BC: y =-1, AC: y + 2x = 1 correct to 2 decimal places where necessary.
(a) Find the coordinates of A, Band C. 3. Solve the following simultaneous equations:
(b) Calculate ABC.
(c) If ABCD is a parallelogram, find the coordinates of D. (a) 7x-1 = 49 (7y), 3x + 3y = 84
(d) Find the equation of the diagonal BD. (b) 2y = x + 4, 2x2 + 42 = 38 + xy
(e) Find the area of the parallelogram ABCD.
4. An isosceles triangle POT is such that PO = PT, 0 is the origin, T is
the point (t, 0) and P lies on the line y = mx, where m is a positive
value. If the point Q is taken so that OTQP forms a parallelogram,
find, in terms of m and t,
(a) the coordinates of P,

(b) the coordinates of Q
Calculate the value of m when OQ = 2 OT.
5.
(a) Given that x + 2 is a factor of F(x) = A(x - 1)2 + B(x - 1) + C and
that when F(x) is divided by x - I and x + 1 the remainders are 9
and -11 respectively, find the value of the constants A, B and C.
(b) Given that x - 3 is a factor of the expression x3 - 2x2 + kx + 6,

calculate the value of k. Hence determine the other factors of
the expression.
6.
(a) Show that the straight line x + 2y + 4 = 0 is a tangent to the
curve y2 = 4x.
(b) Find the range of values of m for which the line y = mx + 4

intersects the curve y = x2 - 4x + 5 at real points. State the
value(s) of m for which the line is a tangent to the curve.

Test
(c) If the line y = 3x + k is a tangent to the curve x2 + y2 = 14, find
the possible values of k. 1. Solve the following equations:
7. A, B and C are the three vertices of a quadrilateral whose (a) lg x + lg (2x - 3) = 1 + lg 2 (b) lg (x + 1) = 1 + lg (5x - 1)
coordinates are (3, 5), (8, 10) and (11, 9) respectively. If the (c) lg (x2 + 1) - lg (x - 2) = 1 (d) 2 (9x - 1) - 5 (3x) = 27
perpendicular from B to the line A C meets A C at K, find the
coordinates of the point K. D is the fourth vertex of the quadrilateral 2. Solve the following simultaneous equations:
such that AB = AD and BC = DC. Find the coordinates of D.
(a) 2a+ 2b = 9, 3a-1 = 9 X 3b (b) x = y + 4, x2 + y2 = 4x + 2y
(a) Iog5 x + log5 (6x + 1) = 1 (b) 4x2 - 166-2x = 0 3.
(c) 5x = 2(5x/2) + 15 (d) log3 (4x + 1) = 1 + 2 log3(2x) (a) Find the values of k for which the quadratic equation x2 - 2(1 +
2k) x + 16 + 8k = 0 has coincident roots.
(b) Show that ax2 + ax + 1 - x - 2a = 0, where a z 0, has real roots

for all values of a.
4.
(a) The expression 2x2 - 8x - 5 can be written in the form a(x - b)2 +
c. Find the possible values of a, b and c given that x is a real
number.
(b) Express y = 1/5 [(2x + 3)2 + (x - 5)2] in the form y = (x + p)2 + q

where p and q are constants. Hence find the least value of y and
its corresponding value of x.
5. Solve the equation 6x3 – 7x2 - 12x + 7 = 0, giving your answer

correct to 2 decimal places where appropriate.
6.
(a) Given that x + 3 is a factor of the expression (2x + 5)9 + (3x +

k)3, find the value of k.
(b) If x2 - 1 is a factor of f(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 + ax + b, find
(i) the value of a and of b,

(ii) the remaining factor of f(x),
(iii) the remainder when f(x) is divided by 3x - 1.

7.
(a) Given that A is the point (0, 2), B is the point (9, 0) and C is a
point the line y = 2x + 2 such that AB = BC, find the
coordinates of C. If ABCD forms a parallelogram, find the
coordinates of point D.
(b) Find the area of ÄBC whose coordinates are A(3, 3), B(-I, 0)
and C(5, -3). Hence, or otherwise, calculate the distance from C
to AB.
8.
(a) Each of the figures (i) and (ii) shows part of a straight line
obtained by plotting the variables indicated. Express y in terms
of x in each case.
lg y 1/y
• (1, 4)
• (3, 6
• (5, 2) (-3, 1)
•
O lg x O
(i) (ii)
(b) The variable x and y are known to be connected by the equation

of the form y = ab-x. Experimental values x and y are obtained as
shown below:
x 2 3 4 5 6 7
y 60.1 25.2 9.0 6.3 3.4 1.8
Express the equation in a suitable form for plotting a straight-line

graph. Plot the graph to obtained the approximate values of a and b.

Simple Trigonometry
The following figures contain sketches of two positive angles, D and E,
In geometry an angle is defined as the set of points determined by two
rays, or half-lines, l1 and l2, having the same endpoint O. If A and B are and a negative angle, J. If the terminal side of an angle in standard
points on l1 and l2, as in the following figure, we refer to angle AOB position is in a certain quadrant, we say that the angle is in that
(denoted AOB). An angleIe may also be considered as two finite line quadrant. In the following figure, D is in quadrant III, E is in quadrant I,
segments with a common endpoint. and y is in quadrant II. An angle is called a quadrantal angle if its
terminal side lies on a coordinate axis
Positive Angles
One unit of measurement for angles is the degree. The angle in
standard position obtained by one complete revolution in the
counterclockwise direction has measure 360 degrees, written 360°.
In trigonometry we often interpret angles as rotations of rays. Start with
Thus, an angle of measure 1 degree (I°) is obtained by 1/360 of one
a fixed ray I1, having endpoint o, and rotate it about o, in a plane, to a
complete counterclockwise revolution. In the following figure, several
position specified by ray l2. We calI it l1 the initial side, l2 the terminal
angles measured in degrees are shown in standard position on
side, and o the vertex of AOB. The amount or direction of rotation is
rectangular coordinate systems. Note that the first three are quadrantal
not restricted in any way. We might let I1 make several revolutions in
angles.
either direction about o before coming to position l2, as illustrated by
the curved arrows in the following figure. Thus, many different angles
have the same initial and terminal sides. Any two such angles are
called coterminal angles. A straight angle is an angle whose sides
lie on the same straight line but extend in opposite directions from its
vertex.
Throughout our work, a notation such as T = 60° specifies an angle T

whose measure is 60°. We also refer to an angle of 60° or a 60° angle,
instead of using the more precise (but cumbersome) phrase an angle
having measure 60°.
Coterminal Angles
If we introduce a rectangular coordinate system, then the standard

position of an angle is obtained by taking the vertex at the origin and
letting initial side I1 coincide with the positive x-axis. If I1 is rotated in a
counter clockwise direction to the terminal position l2, then the angle is
considered positive. If I1 is rotated in a clockwise direction, the angle is
negative. We often denote angles by lowercase Greek letters such as
D (alpha),E (beta),J (gamma),T (theta),I (phi), and so on.

Example Example
Finding coterminal angles Finding complementary angles
If T = 60° is in standard position, find two positive angles and two Find the angle that is complementary to T:
negative angles that are coterminal with T.
(a) 0 = 25°43' 37" (b) T = 73.26°
Solution
Solution
The angle T is shown in standard position in the first sketch in the
following figure. To find positive coterminal angles, we may add 360° or
720° (or any other positive integer multiple of 360°) to T, obtaining 60°
+ 360° = 420° and 60° + (-720°) = 780°. These coterminal angles are Degree measure for angles is used in applied areas such as surveying
also shown in the following figure. navigation, and the design of mechanical equipment. In scientific
application that requires calculus, it is customary to employ radian
To find negative coterminal angles, we may add -360° or -720° (or any measure. To define an angle of radian measure 1, we consider a circle
other negative integer multiple of 360°), obtaining 60° + (-360°) = -300° of any radius r. A central angle of a circle is an angle whose vertex is
and 60° + (-720°) = -660°, as shown in the last two sketches in the at the centre of the circle. If T is the central angle shown in the following
following figure. figure, we say that the arc AP (denoted AP) of the circle subtends T or
that T is subtended by AP. If the length of AP is equal to the radius r
of the circle, then T has a measure of one radian, as in the next
definition.
Definition of Radian Measure

One radian is the measure of the central angle of a circle subtended
1 arc equal in length to the radius of the circle.
A right angle is half of a straight angle and has measure 90°. The
following chart contains definitions of other special types of angles.
If we consider a circle of radius r, then an angle D whose measure is 1
Terminology Definition Illustration radian intercepts an arc AP of length r, as illustrated in the following
figure (a). The angle E in figure (b) has radian measure 2, since it is
acute angle T 0° < T < 90° 12° ; 37°
subtended by an arc of length 2r. Similarly, J in (c) of the figure has
obtuse angle T 90° < T < 180° 95° ; 157° radian measure 3, since it is subtended by an arc of length 3r.
complementary angles D, E D + E = 90° 20°,70° ; 7°, 83
supplementary angles D, E D + E = 180° 115°, 65° ; 18°, 162° To find the radian measure corresponding to 360°, we must find the
number of times that a circular arc of length r can be laid off along the
circumference (see figure (d)). This number is not an integer or even a
Special Angles rational number. Since the circumference of the circle is 2Sr, the
number of times r units can be laid off is 2Sr. Thus, an angle of
If smaller measurements than the degree are required, we can use measure 2Sr radians corresponds to the degree measure 360°, and we
tenths, hundredths, or thousandths of degrees. Alternatively, we can write 360° = 2Sr radians. This result gives us the following
divide the degree into 60 equal parts, called minutes (denoted by '), relationships.
and each minute equal parts, called seconds (denoted by "). Thus, 1°=
60', and 1' = 60’’. The notation T = 73° 56' 18" refers to an angle T that
has measure 73 degrees, 56 minutes, 18 seconds.

We may use the techniques illustrated in the preceding chart to obtain

Relationships Between Degrees and Radians the following table, which displays the corresponding radian and
degree measure of special angles.
(1) 180° = S radians
Radians 0 S S S S 2S 3S 5S S
(2) 1° = _S radian | 0.0175 radian
180 6 4 3 2 3 4 6
(3)1 radian = (180°/S ) | 57.2958° Degrees 0q 30q 45q 60q 90q 120q 135q 150q 180q
When radian measure of an angle is used, no units will be indicated.

Radians 7S 5S 4S 3S 5S 7S 11S 2S
Thus, if an angle has radian measure 5, we write T = 5 instead of T = 5
radians. There should be no confusion as to whether radian or degree 6 4 3 2 3 4 6
measure is being used, since if T has degree measure 5°, we write T = Degrees 210q 225q 240q 270q 300q 315q 330q 360q
5°, and not T = 5.
The following table illustrates how to change from one angular Several of these special angles, in radian measure, are shown in
measure to another. standard position in the following figure.
Changing Angular Measures

We may use the techniques illustrated in the preceding chart to obtain

Examples the following table, which displays the corresponding radian and
degree measure of special angles.
Changing radians to degrees, minutes, and seconds
Radians 0 S S S S 2S 3S 5S S
If T = 3, approximate T in terms of degrees, minutes, and seconds.
6 4 3 2 3 4 6
Degrees 0q 30q 45q 60q 90q 120q 135q 150q 180q
Expressing minutes and seconds as decimal degrees
Express 19°47'23" as a decimal, to the nearest ten-thousandth of a Radians 7S 5S 4S 3S 5S 7S 11S 2S

degree. 6 4 3 2 3 4 6
Degrees 210q 225q 240q 270q 300q 315q 330q 360q
Solutions
Several of these special angles, in radian measure, are shown in

Changing radians to degrees, minutes and seconds
standard position in the following figure.
Examples
Changing radians to degrees, minutes, and seconds
If T = 3, approximate T in terms of degrees, minutes, and seconds.
Express 19°47'23" as a decimal, to the nearest ten-thousandth of a

degree.
Solutions
Changing radians to degrees, minutes and seconds


Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers Next consider any nonnegative real number t. If we regard the angle T
of radian measure t as having been generated by rotating the line
The domain of each trigonometric function we have discussed is a set segment OA about O in the counterclockwise direction, then t is the
of angles. In calculus and in many applications, domains of functions distance along U that A travels before reaching its final position P(x, y).
consist of real numbers. To regard the domain of a trigonometric In the following figure we have illustrated a case for t < 2S ; however, if
function as a subset of , we may use the following definition. t > 2S, then A may travel around U several times in a counterclockwise
direction before reaching P(x, y).
Definition of the Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers
The value of a trigonometric function at a real number t is its

value at an angle of t radians, provided that value exists.
Using this definition, we may interpret a notation such as sin 2 as either

the sine of the real number 2 or the sine of an angle of 2 radians. If
degree measure is used, we shall write sin 2°. With this understanding,
Sin 2 z sin 2°.
If t < 0, then the rotation of OA is in the clockwise direction, and the

distance A travels before reaching P(x, y) is |t|, as illustrated in the
following figure.
To find the values of trigonometric functions of real numbers with a

calculator, we use the radian mode.
We may interpret trigonometric functions of real numbers geometrically

by using a unit circle U -- that is, a circle of radius 1, with centre at the
origin 0 of a rectangular coordinate plane. The circle U is the graph of
the equation x2 + y2 = 1. Let t be a real number such that 0 < t < 2S,
and let T denote the angle (in standard position) of radian measure t.
One possibility is illustrated in the above figure, where P (x, y) is the The preceding discussion indicates how we may associate with each
point of intersection of the terminal side of T and the unit circle U and real number t a unique point P (x, y) on U. We shall call P (x, y) the
where s is the length of the circular arc from A(1, 0) to P(x, y). Using point on the unit circle U that corresponds to t. The coordinates (x,
y) of P may be used to find the six trigonometric functions of t. Thus, by
the formula s = rT for the length of a circular arc, with r = 1 and T= t, we
the definition of the trigonometric functions of real numbers together
see that
with the definition of the trigonometric functions of any angle, we see
that
s = rT = 1(t) = t.
sin t = sin T = y/r = y/1 = y.
Thus, t may be regarded either as the radian measure of the angle T or
as the length of the circular arc AP on U.
Using the same procedure for the remaining five trigonometric
functions give us the following formulas.

Definition of the Trigonometric Functions in term of a Unit Circle Example
If t is a real number and P(x, y) is the point on the circle U that Finding a point on U relative to a given point
corresponds to t, then
Let P (t) denote the point on the unit circle U that corresponds to t for 0
sin t = y cos t = x tan t = y/x (if x z 0) d t < 2S. If P (t) = (4/5, 3/5), find (a) P(t + S) (b) p(t - S) (c) P(-t)
csc t = 1/y (if y z 0) sec t = 1/x (if x z 0) cot t = x/y (if y z 0)
The formulas in this definition express function values in terms of Solution

coordinates of a point P on a unit circle. Thus, the trigonometric
functions are sometimes referred to as the circular functions. (a) The point P(t) on U is plotted in figure (a), where we have also
shown the arc AP of length t. To find P(t + S), we travel a distance S in
Example the counterclockwise direction along U from P(t), as indicated by the
blue arc in the figure. Since S is one-half the circumference of U, this
Finding values of the trigonometric functions gives us the point P(t + S) = (-4/5, -3/5) diametrically opposite P(t).
A point P(x, y) on the unit circle U corresponding to a real number t is

shown in the following figure, for S < t < 3S/2. Find the values of the
trigonometric functions at t.
Solution
Referring to the following figure, we see that the coordinates of the

point P (x, y) are
x = -3/5, y = -4/5
(b) To find P(t - S), we travel a distance S in the clockwise direction

along U from P(t), as indicated in figure (b). This gives us P(t - S) =
Using the definition of the trigonometric functions in tens of a unit circle
(-4/5, -3/5). Note that P(t + S) = P(t - S).
gives us
(c) To find P( -t), we travel along U a distance |-t| in the clockwise
sin t = y = -4/5
direction from A(1, 0), as indicated in figure (c). This is equivalent to
cos t = x = -3/5
reflecting P(t) through the x-axis. Thus, we merely change the sign
tan t = y/x = (-4/5) / (-3/5) = 4/3
of the y-coordinate of P(t) = (4/5, 3/5) to obtain P( -t) = (4/5, -3/5)
csc t = 1/y = 1/(-4/5) = -5/4
sec t = 1/x = 1/(-3/5)
cot t = x/y = (-3/5) / (-4/5) = ¾

Example
Finding special values of the trigonometric functions
Find the values of the trigonometric functions at t:
(a) t = 0 (b) t = S/4 (c) t = S/2
Solution
(a) The point P on the unit circle U that corresponds to t = 0 has

coordinates (1,0), as shown in figure (a), Thus, we let x = 1 and y = Thus, P is the point( 2 /2, 2 /2). Letting x = 2 /2 and y = 2 /2 in the
0 in the definition of the trigonometric functions in terms of a unit definition of the trigonometric functions in terms of a unit circle gives us
circle, obtaining
sin S/4 = 2 /2 cos S/4 = 2 /2 tan S 2 /2 = 1
sin 0 = y = 0 cos 0 = x = 1 csc S/4 = 2/ 2 = 2 sec S/4 = 2/ 2 = 2 cot S/4 = (2 /2) / (2 /2) = 1
tan 0 = y/x = 0/1 = 1 sec 0 = 1/x = 1/1 = 1.
Note that csc 0 and cot 0 are undefined, since y = 0 is a denominator.
(c) The point P on U that corresponds to t = S/2 has coordinates (0,

1),as shown in figure (c). Thus, we let x = 0 and y = 1 in the
definition of the trigonometric functions in terms of a unit circle,
obtaining
(b) If t = S/4, then the angle of radian measure S/4 shown in figure (b)
bisects the first quadrant and the point P(x, y) lies on the line y = x. sin S/2 =1 cos S/2 = 0 csc S/2 = 1/1 = 1 cot S/2 = 0/1 = 0
Since P(x, y) is on the unit circle x2 + y2 = 1 and since y = x, we
obtain The tangent and secant functions are undefined, since x = 0 is a
x2 + x2 = 1, or 2x2 = 1. denominator in each case.
Solving for x and noting that x > 0 gives us A summary of the trigonometric functions of special angles appears in
Appendix.
x = 1/ 2 = 2 /2
We shall use the unit circle formulation of the trigonometric functions to
help obtain their graphs. If t is a real number and P(x. y) is the point on
the unit circle U that corresponds to t, then by the definition of the
trigonometric functions in terms of a unit circle,
x = cos t and y = sin t.

Thus, as shown in the following figure, we may denote P(x. y) by

Theorem on Repeated Function Values for sin and cos
P(cos t, sin t).
If n is any integer, then
sin (t + 2Sn) = sin t and cos (t + 2Sn) = cos t.
Repeated Sine and Cos Functions
If t > 0, the real number t may be interpreted either as the radian

measure of the angle T or as the length of arc AP.
If we let t increase from 0 to 2S radians, the point P(cos t, sin t) travels

around the unit circle U one time in the counterclockwise direction. By
observing the variation of the x- and y-coordinates of P, we obtain the
next table. The notation 0 o S/2 in the fIrst row of the table means that
t increases from 0 to o S/2, and the notation (1, 0) o (0, 1) denotes
the corresponding variation of P(cos t, sin t) as it travels along U from
(1, 0) to (0, 1). If t increases from 0 to S/2, then sin t increases from 0 to
1, which we denote by 0 o1. Moreover, sin t takes on every value
between 0 and 1. If t increases from S/2 to S. then sin t decreases from
1 to 0, which is denoted by 1o 0. Other entries in the table may be
interpreted in similar fashion
t P(cos t, sin t) cos t sin t

0 o S/2 (1,0) o (0, 1) 1o 0 0o1
S/2 o S (0, 1) o (-1,0) 0 o -1 1o0
S o 3S/2 (-1,0) o (0, -1) -1o 0 0 o -1
3S/3 o2S (0, -1) o (1, 0) 0 o1 -1o 0
If t increases from 2S to 4S, the point P(cos t, sin t) in the above figure
traces the unit circle U again and the patterns for sin t and cos t are
repeated -- that is,
sin (t + 2S) = sin t and cos (t + 2S) = cos t
for every t in the interval [0, 2S]. The same is true if t increases from 4S
to 6S, from 6S to 8S, and so on. In general, we have the following
theorem.

To sketch the graph for 0 d x d 2S, we plot the points given by the table
The repetitive variation of the sine and cosine functions is periodic in and remember that sin x increases on [0, S/2], decreases on [S/2, S]
the sense of the following definition. and [S, 3S/2], and increases on [3S/2, 2S]. This gives us the sketch in
the following figure. Since the sine function is periodic, the pattern
Definition of Periodic Function shown is repeated to the right and to the left, in intervals of length 2S.
A function f is periodic if there exists a positive real number k such that

f(t + k) = f(t)
for every t in the domain of f. The least such positive real number k, if it
exists, is the period of f.
x 0 S/4 S/2 3S/4 S 5S/4 3S/2 7S/4

y = sin x 0 2 /2 | 0.7 1 2 /2 | 0.7 0 - 2 /2 | -0.7 -1 - 2 /2 | -0.7
We can use the same procedure to sketch the graph of y = cos x. The
You already have a common-sense grasp of the concept of the period
table in the margin lists coordinates of several points on the graph for 0
function. For example, if you were asked on a Monday "What day of
the week will it be in 15 days?" your response would be "Tuesday" due d x d 2S. Plotting these points leads to the part of the graph shown in
to your understanding that the days of the week repeat every 7 days the following figure.
and 15 is one day more than two complete periods of 7 days. From the
discussion preceding the previous theorem, we see that the period of
the sine and cosine functions is 2S.
We may now readily obtain the graphs of the sine and cosine functions.
Since we wish to sketch these graphs on an xy-plane, let us replace
the variable t by x and consider the equations
y = sin x and y = cos x.

X 0 S/4 S/2 3S/4 S 5S/4 3S/2 7S/4 2S
We may think of x as the radian measure of any angle; however, in
calculus, x is usually regarded as a real number. These are equivalent Y = cos x 1 2 /2 | 0.7 0 -2 /2 | -0.7 -1 -2 /2 | -0.7 0 2 /2 | 0.7 1
points of view, since the sine (or cosine) of an angle of x radians is the
same as the sine (or cosine) of the real number x. The variable y
The part of the graph of the sine or cosine function corresponding to 0
denotes the function value that corresponds to x.
d x d 2S is one cycle. We sometimes refer to a cycle as a sine wave or
a cosine wave.
The table in the margin lists coordinates of several points on the graph
of y = sin x for 0 d x d 2S. Additional points can be determined using
The range of the sine and cosine functions consists of all real numbers
results on special angles, such as
in the closed interval [ -1, 1]. Since csc x = 1/ sin x and sec x = 1/ cos x,
it follows that the range of the cosecant and secant functions consists
sin (S/6) = ½ and sin (S/3) = ¥3/2 § 0.8660. of all real numbers having absolute value greater than or equal to 1.
As we shall see, the range of the tangent and cotangent functions

consists of all real numbers.
Before discussing graphs of other trigonometric functions, let us

establish formulas that involve function of –t for any t. Since a minus
sign is involved, we call them formulas for negatives.

Formulas for negatives Example
Using formulas for negatives to verify an identity

sin (-t) = -sin t cos (-t) = cos t tan (-t) = -tan t
csc (-t) = csc t sec (-t) = sec t cot (-t) = -cot t
Verify the following identity by transforming the left-hand side into the
right-hand side:
Proofs
sin (-x) tan (-x) + cos (-x) = sec x
Consider the unit circle U in figure 12. As t increases from 0 to 2S, the
point P(x, y) traces the unit circle U once in the counterclockwise Solution
direction and the point Q(x, -y), corresponding to –t, traces U once in
the clockwise direction. Applying the definition of trigonometric We may proceed as follows:
functions of any angle (with r = 1), we have
sin(-x)tan(-x) + cos(-x) = (-sin x)(-tan x) + cos x formulas for negatives
sin (-t) = -y = -sin t sin x = (sin x/ cos x) + cosx tangent identity
cos (-t) = x = cos t = (sin2 x/ cos x) + cos x multiply
2 2
tan (-t) = -y /x = - tan t. = sin x + cos x add terms
cos x
The proofs of the remaining three formulas are similar. = 1 /cos x Pythagorean identity
= sec x reciprocal identity
We may use the formulas for negatives to prove the following theorem.
Theorem on Even and Odd Trigonometric Functions
(1) The cosine and secant functions are even.

(2)The sine, tangent, contangent, and cosecant functions are odd.
X - S/3- - S/6 0 S/6 S/4 S/3

S/4
Y = tan -3 | - -1 -3 /3 | - 0 3 /3 | 1 3 | 1.7
x 1.7 0.06 0.06
In the following illustration, formulas for negatives are used to find an
exact value for each trigonometric function.
Proofs
Illustration
We shall prove the theorem for the cosine and sine functions. If f(x) =
Use of Formulas for Negatives cos x, then
f( -x) = cos (-x) = cos x = f(x),

x Sin(-45q) = -sin 45q = -2 /2
x Cos(-30q) = cos 30q = 3 / 2
which means that the cosine function is even.
x Tan(-S/3) = -tan (S/3) = -3
x Csc(-30q) = - csc30q = -2 If f(x) = sin x, then
x Sec(-60q) = sec 60q = 2 f(-x) = sin (-x) = -sin x = -f(x).
x Cot(-S/4) = - cot(S/4) = -1
Thus, the sine function is odd.

Since the sine function is odd, its graph is symmetric with respect to
the origin. Since the cosine function is even, its graph is symmetric with
respect to the y-axis.
By the preceding theorem, the tangent function is odd, and hence the
graph of y = tan x is symmetric with respect to the origin. The table in
the margin lists some points on the graph if -S/2< x < S/2. The
corresponding points are plotted in the following figure. The values of
tan x near x = S/2 require special attention. If we consider tan x = sin x
/cos x, then as x increases toward S/2, the numerator sin x approaches
1 and the denominator cos x approaches 0. Consequently, tan x takes
on large positive values. Following are some approximations of tan x
for x close to S/2 | 1.5708:
tan 1.57000 | 1,255.8

tan 1.57030 | 2,014.8
tan 1.57060 | 5,093.5
tan 1.57070 | 10,381.3
tan 1.57079 | 158,057.9
Y = csc x, y = sin x
We may use the graphs of y = sin x, y = cos x, and y = tan x to help

sketch the graphs of the remaining three trigonometric functions. For
example, since csc x = 1/sin x, we may find the y-coordinate of a point
on the graph of the cosecant function by taking the reciprocal of the
corresponding y-coordinate on the sine graph for every value of x
except x = Sn for any integer n. (If x = Sn, sin x = 0, and hence 1 /sin x
is undefined.) As an aid to sketching the graph of the cosecant
function, it is convenient to sketch the graph of the sine function then
take reciprocals to obtain points on the cosecant graph.
Notice how rapidly tan x increases as x approaches S/2. We say that Notice the manner in which the cosecant function increases or
tan x increases without bound as x approaches S/2 through values less decreases without bound as x approaches Sn, as indicated in the
than S/2. Similarly, if x approaches -S/2 through values greater than - figure. There is one upper branch of the cosecant on the interval (0, S)
S/2, then tan x decreases without bound. and one lower branch on the intervl (S, 2S) --- together they compose
one cycle of the cosecant.
as x o S- /2, tan x o f
as x o S+ /2, tan x o -f Since sec x = 1 /cos x and cot x = 1 /tan x, we may obtain the graphs of
the secant and contangent functions by taking functions, as illustrated
This variation of tan x in the open interval (-S/2, S/2) is illustrated in the in the following figures.
following figure. This portion of the graph is called one branch of the
tangent. The lines x = -S/2 and x = S/2 are vertical asymptotes for the
graph. The same pattern is repeated in the open intervals (-3S/2, -S/2),
(S/2, 3S/2), and (3S/2, 5S/2) and in similar intervals of length S, as
shown in the figure. Thus, the tangent function is periodic with period S.

Summary of features of the Trigonometric Functions and their

graphs
Feature y = sin x y=cosx y = tan x y = cot x Y = see x y=cscx
Domain x z S/2 + Sn x z Sn xz- + Sn x z Sn
Vertical
none None x = S/2 + Sn x = Sn x = S/2 + Sn x = Sn
asymptotes
(-f, -1] [1, (-f, -1]
Range [ -1, 1] [ -1, 1]
f) [1, f)
x-intercepts Sn S/ 2 + Sn Sn S /2 + Sn None None
y-intercept 0 1 0 none 1 None

Period 2S 2S S S 2S 2S
Even or odd odd even odd odd Even Odd
Symmetry origin y-axis origin origin y-axis Origin
Y = sec x, y = cos x
Y = cot x, y = tan x
We have considered many properties of the six trigonometric functions

of x, where x is a real number of the radian measure if an angle. The
following chart contains a summary of important features of these
functions (n denotes an arbitrary integer).

Coordinate Systems
From the right triangle, we find that sin T = y/r and that cos T = x/r.
Therefore, starting with the plane polar coordinates of any point, we
Many aspects of physics involve a description of a location in space.
can obtain the Cartesian coordinates by using the equations
For example, we saw that the mathematical description of an object’s
motion requires a method for describing the object’s position at various
times. This description is accomplished with the use of coordinates, we x = r cos T
used the Cartesian coordinate system, in which horizontal and vertical
axes intersect at a point defined as the origin. Cartesian coordinates y = r sin T
are also called rectangular coordinates.
Furthermore, the definitions of trigonometry tell us that
y
tan T =
x
r= x 2 y2
The equation is the familiar Pythagorean theorem.
These four expressions relating the coordinates (x, y) to the

coordinates (r, T) apply only when T is defined – in other words, when
Designation of points in a Cartesian Coordinate System. positive T is an angle measured counterclockwise from the positive x
Each point is labelled with coordinates (x, y). axis. (Some scientific calculators perform conversions between
Cartesian and polar coordinates based on these standard
Sometimes it is more convenient to represent a point in a plane by its conventions.) If the reference axis for the polar angle T is chosen to be
plane polar coordinates (r, T), as shown in the following figure. In this one other than the positive x-axis or if the sense of increasing T is
polar coordinate system, r is the distance from the origin to the point chosen differently, then the expressions relating the two sets of
having Cartesian coordinates (x, y), and T is the angle between a line coordinates will change.
drawn from the origin to the point and a fixed axis. This fixed axis is
usually the positive x-axis, and T is usually measured counterclockwise
from it.
(a) The plane polar coordinates of a point are represented by the

distance r and the angle T, where T is measured
counterclockwise from the positive x-axis.
(b) The right triangle used to relate (x, y) to (r, T).

Example Example
Polar Coordinates Investigating the variation of csc x
The Cartesian coordinates of a point in the xy plane are (x, y) = (- 3.50, Investigate the variation of csc x as
- 2.50) m, as shown in the following figure. Find the polar coordinates
of this point. x o S- , x o S+, x o S- /2, x o S+ /6.
Solution
Referring to the graph of y = csc x in the following figure and using our
knowledge of the special values of the sine and cosecant functions, we
obtain the following:
as x o S- , sin x o f (through positive values) and csc x o f

as x o S+, sin x o f (through negative values) and csc x o f
as x o S- /2, sin x o 1 and csc x o 1
as x o S+ /6, sin x o ½ and csc x o 2
Solution
The drawing in Figure helps us to conceptualise the problem. We can

categorize this as a plug-in problem. From Equation
2 2
r = x 2 y2 = 3.5 m 2.50 m = 4.30m
and
y 2.50 m
tan T = = = 0.714
x 3.50 m
T = 216°
Note that you must use the signs of x and y to find that the point lies in
the third quadrant of the coordinate system. That is, T = 216° and not
35.5°.
Y = csc x, y = sin x

Example Example
Solving equations and inequalities that involve a trigonometric Sketching the graph of f(x) = (sin x)/x
function
If f(x) = (sin x) /x, sketch the graph of f on [-S, S], and investigate the
Find all values of x in the interval [ -2S, 2S] such that behaviour of f(x) as x o 0- and as x o0+.
(a) cos x = ½ (b) cos x > ½ (c) cos x < ½ Solution
Solution Note that f is undefined at x = 0, because substitution yields the

meaningless expression 0/0.
This problem can be easily solved by referring to the graphs of y = cos
x and y = ½, sketched on the same xy-plane in Figure 19 for -2S d x d We assign (sin x) /x to Y1. Because our screen has a 3:2 (horizontal :
2S. vertical) proportion, we use the viewing rectangle [-S,S] by [-2.1,2.1]
(since ҀS § 2.1), obtaining a sketch similar to the following figure.
Using tracing and zoom features, we find it appears that
as x o 0-, f(x) o 1 and as x o 0+ , f(x) o 1.
(a) The values of x such that cos x = ½ are the x-coordinates of the
points which the graphs intersect. Recall that x = S/3 satisfies the
equation. symmetry, x = -S/3 is another solution of cos x =½. Since
the cosine function has period 2S, the other values of x in [ -2S, 2S]
such that cos x = ½ are -S/3 + 2S = 5S/3 and S/3 - 2S = -5S/3.
There is a hole in the graph at the point (0, 1); however, most graphing
utilities are not capable of showing this fact.
(b) The values of x such that cos x >½ can be found by determining
the graph of y = cos x in the above figure lies above the line y =½.
This gives us x-intervals Our graphical technique does not prove that f(x) o 1 as x o0, but it
does make it appear highly probable. A rigorous proof, based on the
[-2S, -5S/3), (-S/3 , S/3), and (5S/3, 2S]. definition of sin x and geometric considerations, can be found in
calculus texts.
(c) To solve cos x < ½, we again refer to Figure 19 and note where the
graph of y = cos x lies below the line y = ½. This gives us the x- An interesting result is that if x is in radians and
intervals
If x § 0, then sin x/ x § 1, and so sin x § x.
(-5S/3, -S/3) and (S/3, 5S/3).
Another method of solving cos x < ½ is to note that the solutions are The last statement gives us an approximation formula for sin x if x is
the open subintervals of [ -2S, 2S] that are not included in the close to 0. To illustrate, using a calculator we find that
intervals obtained in part (b).
sin (0.03) § 0.029 9955 § 0.03
The result discussed in the next example plays an important role in sin (0.02) § 0.019 9987 § 0.02
advanced mathematics. sin (0.01) § 0.009 9998 § 0.01.

We have now discussed two different approaches to the trigonometric 5) (3/5, 4/5) 6) (-8/17, 15/17)
functions. The development in terms of angles and ratios, has many 7) (-12/13, -5/13) 8) (7/25, -24/25)
applications in the sciences and engineering. The definition in terms of
a unit circle, considered in this section, emphasizes the fact that the Let P be the point on the unit circle U that corresponds to t. Find the
trigonometric functions have domains consisting of real numbers. Such coordinates of P and the exact values of the trigonometric functions of
functions are the building blocks for calculus. In addition, the unit circle t, whenever possible
approach is useful for discussing graphs and deriving trigonometric
identities. You should work to become proficient in the use of both 9 (a) 2S (b) -3S
formulations of the trigonometric functions, since each will reinforce the 10 (a) - 7S (b) 6S
other and thus facilitate your mastery of more advanced aspects of 11 (a) 3S/2 (b) -7S/2
trigonometry. 12 (a) 5S/2 (b) -S/2
13 (a) 9S/4 (b) -5S/4
14 (a) 3S/4 (b) -7S/4
Exercises 15 (a) 5S/4 (b) -S/4
16 (a) 7S/4 (b) -3S/4
A point P(x, y) is shown on the unit circle U corresponding to a real
number t. Find the values of the trigonometric functions at t.
Use a formula for negatives to find the exact value.
17 (a) sin (-90°) (b) cos( - 3S/4) (c) tan (-45°)

18 (a) sin ( - 3S/2) (b) cos(-225°) (c) tan (-S)
19 (a) cot ( - 3S/4) (b) sec (-180°) (c) csc (-3S/2)
20 (a) cot (-225°) (b) sec ( -S/4) (c) csc (-45°)
Verify the identity by transforming the left-hand side into the right-hand
side.
21) sin (-x) sec (-x) = -tan x

22) csc (-x) cos(-x) = -cot x
23) cot (-x)/csc (-x) = cos x
24) see (-x)/ tan (-x) = -csc x
25) 1/ cos(-x) - tan (-x) sin (-x) = cos x
26) cot (-x) cos (-x) + sin (-x) = -csc x
Complete the statement by referring to a graph of a trigonometric

function.
27 (a) As xo 0+, sin x o ___

(b) As xo (-S/2)-, sin x o ___
28 (a) As xo S+, sin x o ___
(b) As xo (S/6)-, sin x o ___
29 (a) As xo (S/4)+, cos x o ___
(b) As xo S-, cos x o ___
Let p(t) be the point on the unit circle U that corresponds to t. If p(t) has 30 (a) As x o 0+, cos x o ___
the given rectangular coordinates, find (b) As xo (-S/3)-, cos x o ___
31 (a) As xo(S/4)+, tan x o ___
(1) 1p(t + S) (2) p(t - S) (3) P(-t) (4) P(-t-S) (b) As x o (S/2)+, tan x o ___

32 (a) As xo 0+, tan x o ___

(b) As x o (-S/2)-, tan x o ___
33 (a) As xo (-S/4)-,cot x o ___
(b) As xo 0+,cot x o ___
34 (a) As x o (S/6)+, cot x o ___
(b) As xo S -, cot x o ___
35 (a) As xo (S/2)-, sec xo ___
(b) As x o (S/4)+, sec x o ___
36 (a) As xo (S/2)+,sec x o ___
(b) As xo 0-,sec x o ___
37 (a) As x o 0-,csc x o ___
(b) As xo (S/2)+, csc x o ___
38 (a) As xo S+, csc x o ___
(b) As x o+ (S/4)-, csc x o ___


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Basic Maintenance Module 1 Mathematics

Training Manual Contents

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

Terms and Signs Methods of Multiplication and Division

4x1=4 5x1=5 6x1=6

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

Division Fraction and Decimals

* Quotient is the number obtained by division 70

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

$'',7,21$1'68%75$&7,212)0,;('180%(56$1' For improper fractions, convert to mixed numbers before adding or

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

Evaluate the following 08/7,3/,&$7,212))5$&7,216

j. The police conduct regular anti-secret society operations among 3 5 2 5 5 8 14 1 3 3

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

([DPSOH For a fraction whose denominator cannot be changed to 10 or a power

Express each of the following as a decimal:.

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

d) 31.75 31  0.75 $'',7,21$1'68%75$&7,212)'(&,0$/6

Express the following fractions as decimals a) 137.45 + 145.25 + 12.106

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

b) 256.7 x 0.0056 = 1.43752 ([HUFLVHV

72675 g. 10000 x 0.0124

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

Factors and Multiples

2) List the multiples of 5

Examples of the prime numbers are

2. Write down the first six multiples of the following numbers

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

4. Name the next five prime numbers after 30

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

+,*+(67&20021)$&725 LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE

([HUFLVH 1) Find the LCM of 30 and 36

1. Find all the common factors of Solution

Therefore the LCM of 30 and 36 is 180

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

1. Find the LCM of each of the following pairs of numbers

2. Find the HCF and LCM of each of the following:

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

Ratio and Proportion

A ratio has no units. It is merely a number, which indicates how many a. 6 : 10

Therefore the ratio of 50g to 200 g is 1:4.

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

If A and B are in direct proportion,

It will cost us 15¢ x 3 mins = 45 cents to use for 3 minutes.

The proportionality factor in this case is 15.

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

Weights, Measures and Conversion Factors

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

([DPSOH b) The cost of the flat per square feet.

a) The size of the flat in square feet:

?The size of the flat in square feet is 958 ft2

Oct13 / Technical Training Corresponding with Part-66

3. Suppose the area of a Boeing 747’s wing is 5400 ft2. If a cleaner

4. If a motor vehicle travels at 45 miles per hour on a road with a speed

d) 31.75 31 0.75 $'',7,21$1'68%75$&7,212)'(&,0$/6

3HULPHWHURIDUHFWDQJOH [/HQJWK:LGWK /: