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Fault Seal Analysis, a tool to reduce the exploration and development risks, a
case study from Middle Indus Basin

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PAPG-SPE ATC 2010
Fault Seal Analysis, a tool to reduce the exploration and development risks, a case
study from Middle Indus Basin
Farrukh Daud*, Attique-ur Rehman, Gulzeb Nabi Khan, Asad Ilyas
OMV Pakistan Exploration GmbH
16th Floor, ISE Towers, 55-B, Jinnah Avenue, Blue Area Islamabad
Farrukh.Daud@omv.com, Attique.Rahman@omv.com, Gulzeb_Nabi.Khan@omv.com,
Asad.Ilyas@omv.com
ABSTRACT
The Middle Indus Basin of Pakistan contains some of the
significant gas discoveries in Pakistan. Most of the
discoveries comprise of the various sands of the early
Cretaceous, Lower Goru formation which are sourced by the
Sembar shales and the top seal is provided by the
intraformational shales. Structurally the area is characterized
by deep rooted NW-SE trending strike slip faults and
associated normal faults. The strike slip faults are nearly
vertical in the deeper sections and branch out in the shallower
part (flower structure). These faults play an important role in
the trapping as well as compartmentalization of the Middle
Indus gas fields. Initially due to small vertical throw the
faults were not considered as sealing faults. However, after
the drilling of the appraisal wells the compartmentalization
was identified due to the presence of different gas-water-
contacts across the faults. The associated normal faults also
play an important role in the trapping configuration of the
fields. In view of the structural complexity of the area,
detailed fault seal analysis study was carried out on the two
gas fields, using Badleys Geosciences’ Trap Tester 6
software. The detailed analysis included evaluation of several
attributes like Shale Gouge Ratio, Clay Smear Potential,
throws, dips, Threshold Capillary Pressure, Hydrocarbon
Column Height etc. The study has helped in developing a
better understanding of the sealing behavior of various faults.
As a result this will help in the more precise identification of
fault dependent traps as well as locating future development
wells.
INTRODUCTION
In Field “A”, well-1a was drilled in 2007 and resulted in a
gas discovery in the Cretaceous Lower Goru sands (Fig. 1). It
is a stratigraphic trap defined by up-dip and lateral pinch out
of the reservoir. The thickness of the sand is 25-35 meters. No
gas water contact was encountered in the well. Consequently
two appraisal wells 2a and 3a were drilled to confirm the
extent of the discovery area (Fig. 1) The well 2a was drilled 45
meters down-dip and was found water wet while 3a was
drilled across the fault in which the reservoir depth was almost
the same as well-1a but it was also water wet. Similarly in the
Field “B” the well 1b resulted in a discovery (Fig. 2). The
appraisal well 2b confirmed the presence of hydrocarbons in
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the adjacent fault block with a different gas water contact. The
well 3b drilled in the next fault block was water wet. This
confirmed that these wells are not in pressure communication.
In order to have a better understanding of the faults and their
behavior, a comprehensive fault seal analysis was done. The
main objectives of the study were to identify;
• Faults which are sealing
• Degree of sealing capacity with respect to hydrocarbon
accumulation
• Timing and fault sealing behavior with respect to
hydrocarbon migration
• Sealing capacity along the fault planes
• Extent of field compartmentalization
REGIONAL SETTINGS
During the Early Cretaceous, India and Madagascar
separated completely from Africa and Antarctica respectively
producing large scale sinistral movement along transform
faults. This led to the development of a restricted marine basin
between the Indian/Madagascan land masses, where the
Sembar formation prograding clastic wedges developed which
was then followed by the development of Lower Goru “A”
sand lowstand sequence.
Separation of the Indian plate from Madagascar and the
subsequent rapid northward movement of the Indian plate led
to the opening of the Indian Ocean, which increased the
overall relative sea-level. The Lower Goru B to D intervals
were deposited in this overall transgressive environment
which was however, punctuated with 2nd and 3rd order
lowstands. The remainder of the Cretaceous was dominated by
the deposition of mixed carbonate/clastic highstand type
deposits (Upper Goru). It is understood that relative eustatic
changes exerted primary control during the passive margin
deposition of the Lower Goru sequence [1].
The structural style in the Middle Indus Basin is primarily
controlled by the dominant set of deep-rooted wrench faults
oriented in a NW-SE direction. These faults are near vertical,
fairly simple at depth and root vertically into the Jurassic
Chiltan Limestone. However, they become increasingly
complex as they take an en-echelon pattern in the shallower
Late Cretaceous and Tertiary section (negative flower
structures). The overall sense of movement is sinistral,

although the magnitude of horizontal displacement is small.
The faults are predominantly transtensional in nature. The
synthetic and antithetic faults are oriented in NNE-SSW
direction.
The late tertiary inversion along the Jacobabad high is
responsible for the present day structural setting of the block.
This event has the similar orientation of the present day
Jacobabad High that is NNE/SSW.
DATA AND METHODOLOGY
The dataset used for this analysis includes the petrophysical
data from wells and the seismic data.
Well Data
The petrophysical data from six wells have been used in this
analysis (Fig.3). As the volume of shale is most important in
predicting fault seal behavior, so the shale volume in well
must be calculated prior to the start of study. The Vshale log
has been used to calculate different attributes. In addition, well
tops, sand and shale bed thicknesses, net to gross ratio,
porosity and hydrocarbon content were also incorporated.
Seismic Data
Seismic data is very important in order to carry out a fault
seal analysis study. In this study the seismic data from the
Field A and B and their adjoining area is used (Fig. 4). Six
different horizons were interpreted and imported into Trap
Tester. A detailed QC of faults was done in Petrel before
importing them to Trap Tester. The final analysis was done by
using 3 horizons namely A, B and C sands and 15 different
faults. Seven faults are main wrench faults and the remaining
8 are normal faults associated to wrench faulting.
FAULT ATTRIBUTES
During the analysis more than 33 faults attributes were
generated. Different algorithms were used to calculate these
attributes (Fig 5). Some of the attributes include but not
limited to fault plane profiles, reservoir juxtaposition plots
(Allan diagrams), Shale gouge ratios etc. the details of this
analysis are as under:
Reservoir Juxtaposition
The basic tool of juxtaposition analysis is Allan Diagram,
which is a fault plane section (strike projection), illustrating
the Stratigraphy brought into contact at the fault plane [2]. The
Allan diagram is drawn to show the cross fault reservoir
juxtaposition. This shows that where the sand is juxtaposed
against sand and where it is juxtaposed against shale etc and
vice versa. In the area of study, as mentioned, there are two
types of faults, the wrench faults and the associated normal
faults. The Allan diagrams for these faults are different. For
the main wrench faults, the Allan diagrams show that there is
very little or no reservoir-reservoir juxtaposition. This implies
that there is sand against shale juxtaposition and hence it
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establishes a first order seal (Fig 6). There is consistent
reservoir-reservoir juxtaposition on the associated normal
faults and there is no first order seal.
Clay Smear Potential
Clay smear is the entrainment of clay or shale into the fault
plane, thereby giving the fault itself a high entry pressure [3].
The Clay Smear Potential (CSP) can be calculated by using
the following equation [4]:
( Shale Bed Thickness ) 2
CSP = ∑ ……… (1)
Dis. From Source Bed
The Clay Smear potential for all the faults was calculated in
entertained in the analysis. The smearing of clay on the main
wrench faults is high while low on the associated normal
faults (Fig. 7)
Shale Gouge Ratio
The Shale Gouge Ratio (SGR) is an estimate of the net shale
content that has slipped past that point on the fault plane. It is
a mathematical algorithm that aims to predict the fault rock
types for simple fault zones developed in sedimentary
sequences that are dominated by sandstones and shales. It can
be measured using the following equation [3]:
(Shale Bed Thickness)
SGR = ∑ 100 ………… (2)
Fault throw
The more shaly wall rocks will increase the amount of shale
in the fault zone, hence high capillary pressure [5]. SGR can
be applied in either bed by bed reservoirs or as a zonal average
value of shale volume when the clays are dispersed through
the sandstone units. Higher the SGR, more will be the sealing
effect. The sealing effect is different with different depths
even if the SGR is the same. The depth of the rock sequence at
the time of faulting also affects the SGR i.e. it increases with
increasing depth. The maximum depth of burial below 3 km
increases the SGR and hence strengthens the sealing capacity
of rock.
The SGR in the area of study has been calculated using the
above mentioned algorithm in equation (2). The SGR on the
associated normal faults is low. (Fig. 8) while the SGR on the
main wrench faults is high as shown in the (Fig. 9)
Vertical Throws
The throws on the main wrench faults range between 2 to 65
meters. The throw in the middle part is greater than at the edges
of faults. The throw on the associated normal faults is mostly
less than 10 meters.
Hydrocarbon Column Height
The hydrocarbon column height corresponds to the vertical
column of hydrocarbon accumulation that can be entertained
 3 of 9

across a sealing fault. The hydrocarbon column height can be a2 = 19.40 ,

estimated by using the following equations [6]:
a3 = 0.00403 ,
Hydrocarbon Buoyancy a4 = 0.00550 ,
∆P = (ρ w − ρ h )gh ………………………………. (3) a5 = 12.50
In the study area, the threshold capillary pressure ranged
from 30 to greater than 100 for most of the faults (Fig. 11).
And Seal Threshold pressure
RESULTS
2γ cos θ
Pc = ……………………………….... (4)
rg (ρ w − ρ h ) The study reveals that the strike slip faults are sealing
because there is sand-shale juxtaposition on these faults which
establishes a first order seal. Further more, the high values of
Combining equations (3) and (4) and re-arranging:
SGR on these faults confirms that these faults are sealing.
Additional attributes like low Vshale overlaps, Clay smear
ρc 2γ cos θ
hmax = = …………….. (5) potential etc give ample proof that these faults are sealing. The
g (ρ w − ρ h ) rg (ρ w − ρ h ) associated normal faults might be sealing at places but their
overall character suggests that these faults are leaking and do
Where not provide any barrier. There is sand-sand juxtaposition on

ρ w = pore water Density (kg m 3 )

ρ h = hydrocarbon Density (kg m 3 )
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/s2)
hmax is then in meters if Pc is in Pascal
Pc= threshold pressure (bars)
The hydrocarbon column height depends upon the fault
zone permeability. In the study area, the main wrench faults
are capable of holding 40 to 170 m of hydrocarbon column
(Fig. 10) while for the associated normal faults it is greatly
reduced.
Threshold Capillary Pressure
The threshold capillary pressure corresponds to a pressure
difference which is needed to overcome the capillary forces.
Fault zone composition, estimated using the SGR algorithm
can be empirically calibrated with pressure data to define
depth dependant seal failure envelopes, relating SGR to fault
zone capillary entry pressure by the following equation [7]:
these smaller faults and in addition the fault attributes like
SGR, Clay smear potential, low Vshale overlaps show the
leaking nature of these faults. The results have helped in
understanding the complexities of the area. On the basis of this
analysis, new locations for development wells have been
identified. This study has also helped in optimizing the trap
risks for exploration prospects in similar areas. In addition,
two different traps which were bounded by normal faults were
tested through trap analyst, which showed that the faults
bounding the traps are leaking.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We acknowledge OMV (Pakistan) management and joint
venture partners for granting the permission to publish this
paper. Special thanks to Mr. Ibrahim and Mr. Herwig Peresson
for their continuous support and feedback. Feedback from
Stuart Bland (OMV Petrom S.A, Romania) is highly
acknowledged. Mr. Arshad H. Palekar (DCS, Schlumberger)
and Muhammad Zafar Iqbal (BP, Pakistan) reviewed the paper
and gave valuable suggestions and comments.

(SGR d − C )
Pcap = 10 ………………………………….... (6)
Where d = 27; C = 0.5 for burial depths less than 3km and
0.25 for burial depths between 3 and 3.5km and C = 0 where
burial depth exceeds 3.5km.
The threshold capillary pressure and fault zone permeability
can also be calculated by using the following equation [8].
K fz = a1 exp− a 2 SGR + a3 z max + (a4 z ft − a5 ) (1 − SGR )  … (7)
 2
 
Where a1 = 80000 ,
REFERENCES
[1] I.E.D.S., (1995), A sequence stratigraphic study of the
Lower Goru – Sembar formations of lower and middle Indus
basins of Pakistan and Rajasthan. Multi-client study.
[2] Allan, U. S. (1989), Model for hydrocarbon migration and
entrapment within faulted structures. AAPG Bulletin, v. 73, p.
803-811.
[3] Yielding, G., B. Freeman, and D.T. Needham, 1997,
Quantitative Fault Seal Prediction. AAPG Bulletin, V. 81, No.
6 (June 1997), p. 897-917.
[4] Fuljames, J.R, L.J.J. Zijerveld, R.C.M.W. Franssen, G.M.
Ingram, and P.D. Richard, 1996, Fault seal processes, in
Norwegian Petroleum Society, eds, Hydrocarbon Seal –

Importance for exploration and production. (conference
abstracts) Oslo, Norwegian Petroleum Society, p.5.
[5] Lashin, A and Mohamed Abd El-Aal, Juxtaposition and
Fault Seal Analysis of Some Mixed Clastic Reservoirs in
Egypt. Egyptian Geological Society, EGS Journal (2004), vol-
2, No-1, p. 165-184.
[6] Berg, R. R., 1975, Capillary Pressure in stratigraphic traps,
AAPG Bulletin, v. 59, p. 939-965.
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[7] Bretan, P., G. Yielding, and H. Jones, Using calibrated
shale gouge ratio to estimate hydrocarbon column heights.
AAPG Bulletin, v. 87, No. 3 (March 2003), p. 397-413.
[8] Sperrevik, S., R.B. Faerseth, and R.H. Gabrielsen,
Experiments on clay smear formation along faults. Petroleum
Geoscience; June 2000; v. 6; no. 2; p. 113-123.
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TopC TWT

11

12

13

15

14

Fig.1: Faults and wells in Field “A”

1
9

10

2
7

3
6 8

TopC TWT

Fig.2: Faults and wells in Field “B”

 6 of 9

Fig.3: Well 1b showing Vshale in 3D, Horizons and markers.

Fig.4: Seismic section across field “A”.

Shale Gouge Ratio Threshold Capillary Pressure (Two Approaches)

Clay Smear Potential Hydrocarbon Column Height

Fig.5: Different algorithms used in the analysis.

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Fault 8

Fig. 6: Figure showing juxtaposition (Allan Diagram) along fault 8. There is very little or no sand-sand
juxtaposition except for edges.

Fig. 7: Figure showing clay smear potential along fault 12 (Main wrench fault).

Fig. 8: Figure showing shale gouge ratio along fault 6 (normal fault). Note the low values of SGR.
 8 of 9

Fig. 9: Figure showing shale gouge ratio along fault 12 (Main wrench fault). Note high values of SGR along this fault.

Fig. 10: The Hydrocarbon column height across main wrench faults can be 40 to 160m.

Fig. 11: Figure showing threshold capillary pressure on fault 4 (Main wrench fault)
 9 of 9

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Farrukh Daud Asad Ilyas

Farrukh is a Asad Ilyas is a
Geologist by Geologist in OMV
(Pakistan).
profession. He did
Previously he was
his M.Sc. in Geology
research assistant at
in 2006 from the
Vrije Universteit in
University of the Netherlands on
Peshawar with major World Rift Basin
in Sequence Petroleum System
Stratigraphy and Analysis and
Sedimentology. He Comparison
completed B.Sc. sponsored by Shell
(Hons) in Geology in 2004 from the same and Statoil in 2007. He did his MS specialization
university with gold medals in both M.Sc. and in Petroleum System Analysis & Development
B.Sc. (Hons). He started his professional career and established Petroleum System of Gulf of
with Eni Pakistan Limited in April 2006 and then Suez, Red Sea and Yemen region. He also has
joined OMV (Pakistan) in May 2007. Currently MSc in Geology from University of Peshawar.
he is working on New Ventures and Non- His professional activities and scientific interests
Operated Joint ventures. He is involved in include Petroleum System Analysis, Seismic
seismic interpretation and prospect generation. Stratigraphy for Reservoir prediction,
He has a special interest in Structural Geology, Development Geology, 3D Geocellular
Remote Sensing and GIS. Modelling and Fracture Reservoirs in
sedimentary rocks. Also he is project coordinator
on Tight Gas Sand Development in Middle Indus
Basin.

Attique ur Rehman
Gulzeb Nabi Khan
Attique is a
Geophysicist by Gulzeb Nabi Khan is
profession. He did his Senior Geologist in
M.Sc. in Geophysics OMV (Pakistan)
from Quaid-i-Azam since 2008.
University, Islamabad Previously, she
in 2000 with worked for ENI
distinction and started Pakistan Limited as
his professional an Explorationist for
carrier with 8 years. She has
Schlumberger worked extensively
(Pakistan) in 2001 as on the Cretaceous
Support Engineer. In 2007 he Joined OMV as reservoirs of the
Senior Geophysicist. Currently he is working as Indus Basin, in stratigraphic traps as well as fold
Lead Geophysicist in OMV. Major & thrust regimes. She has a particular interest in
responsibilities include seismic inversion structural geology of fold & thrust belts,
evaluation, special attributes interpretation, stratigraphic trap exploration and clastic reservoir
neural network analysis, prospect evaluation and characterization.
geocellular modeling.

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