CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

The second chapter is about review of literature. In this part of the study, concept of

perception, assessment methods, students’ perceptions of assessments, differences in

perceptions of assessments, relationship between students’ perceptions of assessments

and academic achievement, study behaviour of students, the relationship between study

behaviour and academic achievement, differences in study behaviour, the relationship

between perceptions of assessments and study behaviour, academic of achievement and

conceptual framework of the study are included.

2.1 The Concept of Perception

In a matter of fact that the word "perceptions" is frequently used in daily life and

in literature, it may be assumed that everyone knows what it is and unnecessary to define

it. However, perception is complex and its meaning depends on context. For example,

some authors appeared to consider attitudes and perceptions to be different concepts by

using the conjunction "and" between them (Greenfield, 1997). Peterson and Yaakobi

(1979) defined "perceptions of behaviour" as "how a person sees him/herself, the

behaviour of others, or a fictitious ideal" (p. 433). Barman (1999) used "views" and

"perceptions" interchangeably. Yager and Yager (1985), in their article “Changes in

Perceptions of Science for Third, Seventh, and Eleventh Grade Students”, identified four

affective categories of perceptions of science: (1) views of science teachers, (2) views of

science classes, (3) views concerning the usefulness of science study, and (4) views of

what it is like to be a scientist. In the same article, Yager and Yager appeared to

interchangeably use the term perception, view, observation, feeling, or believe.

16
 There seems to be some agreement that perception is synonymous with a view

(Yager & Yager, 1985; Bruno, 2002). In spite of the distinction that can be made between

the term perception and attitude, this study used perception as a more general term to be

inclusive of attitude, views, beliefs, and opinions. Therefore, with regard to this study,

perception is considered as the attitude or point of view or opinion of a person about the

world and the things around us.

The process of perception consists of three stages: selection, organization and

interpretation (Bruno, 2002; Parameswaran & Beena, 2006). We select information, to

which we attend through our sense organs (Sight, sound, smells, taste, and touch). We

mentally arrange the information so we can understand or make sense out of the

information. Our interpretation is subjective and based on our values, needs, beliefs,

experiences, expectations, involvement, self-concept, and other personal factors.

Interpretation of information is based on past experience, new situation and other’s

opinions (Bruno, 2002; Parameswaran & Beena, 2006). This indicates that our perception

is not constant. Perceptions are usually changing, biased, coloured, or distorted by our

unique set of experiences. Thus, perceptions are our personal interpretations of the real

world.

Perception is influenced by internal and external factors. One of the central

assumptions of the constructivist approach to perception is that perception is not

determined entirely by external stimuli. As a consequence, it is assumed that emotional

and motivational states, together with expectation and culture, may influence people’s

perceptual hypotheses and thus their visual perception (Hamachek, 1995).

17
 According to Quick and Nelson (1997), the three major characteristics that

influence our perception of other people or object are: the perceiver, the perceived object

and the situation.

a) The Perceiver: When an individual looks at the target and attempts to interpret

what he/she sees. Such interpretation is heavily influenced by personal

characteristics of the individual perceiver. The characteristics of perceiver include

person’s needs, past experience, habits, personality, values, attitudes etc.

b) The Perceived object: Characteristics of the target, which has been, observed also

affects the individual’s perception. The physical attributes, appearance and

behaviour of other persons in the situation also influences the perception. Physical

attributes of the person means age, height, weight, gender etc. Loud people are

easily noticeable in a group in comparison to the quiet ones. Motion, sound, size

and other attributes of a target also affect the perception of an individual. An

object which is perceived is not observed in isolation, the relationship of a target

with its background also influences perception. Person, objects or events that are

similar to each other also tend to be grouped together. The greater the similarity,

the greater is the probability that we will tend to perceive them as a common

group.

c) The Situation: The physical, social and organizational settings of the situation also

influence individual’s perception. The situation in which we see objects or events

is important. The elements in the surrounding environment influence our

perception. For example: hearing a subordinate calling his/her boss by his/her

18
 name may be perceived quite differently when observed in an office as opposed to

an evening social reception.

In a nutshell, the following figure represents the three major factors that influence our

perception of stimuli.

The Target

 Behaviour
 Appearance
 Background
 Motion
 Sound
 Size

The Perceiver

 Need The Situation

 Attitude  Physical
 Value Setting
 Experience Perception
 Social Setting
 Personality  Organization
 Interest Setting
 Expectation
s
Figure 1: Model of Social Perception (Quick and Nelson, 1997)

2.2 Assessment Methods

Assessment is one of the crucial components of instructions. It has been

interchangeable used with evaluation and/or measurement (Kizlik, 2012). Assessment is

a broad term defined as the process of gathering, synthesizing, interpreting, and using

19
qualitative and/or quantitative information to make educational decisions about the

learning of students (McMillan, 1997; Nitko, 2001; Brookhart, 2004).

Measurement refers to the systematic determination of outcomes or characteristics

by means of some sort of assessment device. It is a systematic process of obtaining the

quantified degree to which a trait or an attribute is present in an individual or an object. In

other words, it is a systematic assignment of numerical values or figures to a trait or an

attribute in a person or to an object. Evaluation is the process of judgement of the quality

of something on the basis of established criteria and assigning value to represent that

quality. It is an orderly process whereby a judgement is made about the skill, values and

behaviour of a student according to a prescribed standard (Brookhart, 2004; Kizlik,

2012).

Assessment as the instructional process requires collecting relevant information

(qualitative and quantitative) on student learning (knowledge, skills, competencies, and

values). The information obtained help to inform students and concerned bodies

(administrators and parents) about their progress. In addition, it serves teachers and

administrators to make reasonable instructional decisions, setting grades and developing

adequate advisory and educational programs (Yildirim, 2004).

Assessment, as part of the learning process, focuses on three individual domains:

cognitive, psychomotor and affective (Bloom 1984). The cognitive domain of an

individual contains intellectual activities such as problem solving, analyzing, comparing,

evaluating, memorizing, applying, and critical thinking (Bloom, 1984). Cognitive

assessment is an effective approach that analyses understanding of concepts, critical

20
thinking, and academic standards. The psychomotor domain comprises both students'

physical and operational activities. Laboratory experiments are a good example of

assessment of the psychomotor domain (Bloom, 1984).

The affective domain assessments involve measuring individual perceptions,

feelings, attitudes, values, and emotions. Some studies on the affective domain of an

individual have suggested that attempting to raise students' scores by over focusing on

standardized tests might smash their creativity, discovery, and problem solving skills

(Bol, Nunnery, Stephensor, & O’Connell, 1998). Affective assessment studies report that

teachers' implementation of traditional classroom assessment practices may dull students'

creativity and motivation in the classroom (Bloom, 1984). For that matter, assessments

influence students' perceptions of learning as well as their self-efficacy as learners

(Crooks, 1988).

There are many ways to categorize assessment methods. According to Brookhart

(2004) there are five types of assessments: Paper-pencil assessment, performance

assessment, oral assessment, portfolios and self-peer assessment.

Paper–pencil assessment is the most commonly used assessment method in higher

education courses (Brookhart, 2004), and it refers to multiple choice, true-false,

matching, fill-in-the blank and short answers. A paper-pencil test is usually given in one

setting (sit in for an examination). Each of these item formats has some advantages and

disadvantages. The advantages and disadvantages are related to instructional objective of

cognitive levels, time in a unit study, objectivity, subjectivity, wording and students’

belief in the adequacy for assessing their real performance and skills (Yildirim, 2004).

21
 Performance assessment is used to judge and observe a process (how a student

does something) or a product (student-created work) like term papers, academic or

technical projects, oral reports, and group presentation. Performance assessment is

evaluated using model answers, a rubric, a checklist or some type of scale. This type of

evaluation gives the reader more latitudes than the typical dichotomous (right-wrong)

answer in providing feedback for students. Performance assessment may involve students

in constructing the grading process. It gives the students latitude in how to respond to the

items, because there is no single correct answer or best answer (Crooks, 1988).

Oral/personal communication is the common use of formative assessment during

instruction. When the instructor asks the students the questions in class, Magin and

Helmore (2001) believed that it could be used in both formative and summative

assessments. The oral/personal communication assessment method uses the students’

verbal responses to the assessment task and it could be combined with written responses;

and in order to get higher benefits from oral assessment, it should be well organized

(Joughin, 1998). The oral and personal assessment methods have many forms: questions

and answers in the classroom, conferences with students, students’ contribution during

the instruction, oral tests, and journals (Brookhart, 2004).

Portfolios are a systematic collection of student work over time, often with

accompanying students’ reflections. Student portfolios may be used in any discipline,

fitting the needs of many different learning outcomes (White, 2004). They are learning

tools as well as assessment tools (Taylor, Thomas, & Sage, 1999). It is a type of

performance assessment that provides a picture or tells a story about students’ learning. It

depends on the idea that collecting information about student work throughout a long

22
term is a good way to show how students are progressing. It helps teachers, parents and

learners to know what students know and can do outside of paper-pencil tests, class

discussions, and other performance measures (White, 2004).

The portfolio can easily be integrated with instruction. It shows what students can

do, encourages students what to become reflective learners, provides an effective way to

communicate with parents, and increases students’ motivation (Linn & Gronlund, 2000).

It teaches students how to be long-life learners (Taylor, Thomas, & Sage, 1999). Also

portfolios could be used as summative assessment, formative assessment, selection,

promotion, reflective learning, and professional development (Smith & Tellema, 2003).

Peer and self-assessment is a method of providing feedback. Self and peer

assessment are the methods that are rarely used in higher education. Student self-

assessment is a cognitive strategy where the focus is on learning rather than simply the

measurement of learning outcomes, because it helps the students to generate about their

thinking. Self- assessment involves students to evaluate their own learning and think

about the way they have thought through the process, which is called metacognition that

refers to a higher order thinking that involves active control over the thinking processes

involved in learning (Falchicov, 2005). This encourages them deep approaches to

learning, provide more active engagement, and increase competence, motivation,

confidence and control over their learning (Klenowski, 1996). Using self and peer

assessment require good preparations, monitoring and follow up on the part of the

instructor.

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 Pertinent to the present study, assessment methods can be categorized into

traditional and alternative methods based on the extent to which they simulate

performance in the real world (i.e., realism of assessment tasks), the extent to which they

measure higher learning outcomes and requires demonstration of multiple skills (i.e.,

complexity of tasks), the amount of time needed for the assessment, and the amount of

judgment involved in scoring. Traditional assessments such as multiple-choice, true-false,

matching, completion, and short-answer items are often lower in realism and complexity

of the tasks assessed, but require little time to administer and can be scored quickly and

objectively. Alternative assessments such as portfolios, student self-assessment,

observations, and other performance-based assessments are higher in both realism and

complexity of the tasks assessed, but require large amount of time to use, and that scoring

is judgmental and less objective than traditional assessments (Gronlund, 2006).

Debates regarding students’ assessment methods have always been top agendas in

many educational forums. Some educators advocate for the use of traditional forms of

assessments and others advocate for contemporary views of assessments such as

portfolios, journal critiques, and research essays.

Those who support traditional forms of assessment believe that such tests are

more focused on improving the cognitive side of instruction, i.e. the skills and knowledge

that students are expected to develop within a short period of time, are based on fair

grading practices, have higher content coverage (Linn, Baker, & Dunbar, 1991; Segers &

Dochy, 2001). Those who support the use of alternative assessments argued that

traditional forms of assessment (multiple-choice and true-false) test facts and skills in

isolation and seldom require students to apply what they know and can do in real-life

24
situations. They also indicate that traditional forms of assessments do not match the

emerging content standards. They argued that over-reliance on this type of assessment

often leads to instruction that stresses basic knowledge and skills. On the other hand, if

teachers want to measure students’ ability to engage in some form of debate, write a

poem, tune an engine, use a microscope, or prepare a meal, authentic assessment (a form

of alternative assessments) are the only ones that can measure such skills rather than

traditional forms of assessments (Reynolds, Livingston, & Willson, 2009).

The road from theory to practice seems to be a rocky one, as both assessment

forms have acceptable qualities and in particular traditional forms of assessments cover

an acceptable range of curricular content in indicating high levels of content and

construct validity. Just like other forms of assessments, traditional tests are also focused

on improving the cognitive side of instruction, i.e. the skills and knowledge that students

are expected to develop within a short period of time (Segersand & Dochy, 2001). Even

though alternative assessments are still in their infancy stage; there is an emerging body

of literature that indicates their benefits in teaching and learning (Hargreaves, Earl, &

Schmidt, 2002).

Furthermore, the traditional assessments feature close-ended test items while

alternative assessments feature performance based assessments (Brookhart, 1997).

Alternative assessment is used to denote forms of assessment which differ from the

conventional assessment methods such as multiple-choice testing and short answer

questions, and continuous assessment via essays and scientific reports (Sambell,

McDowell, & Brown, 1997). Alternative assessment method is favoured over traditional

25
assessment method for the reason that the former has motivational aspects of being more

authentic and challenging (McMillan & Workman, 1998).

Although teachers are expected to conduct classroom assessment practices that

motivate students and increase their active involvement in learning, a considerable

amount of research, for example, McMillan, Myran, and Workman (2002) have shown

that teachers’ assessment practices are often not consistent with the recommended

practices. Related to this, some studies have attempted to reveal the students’ view of

assessment methods.

According to Struyven et al. (2005), students often reacted very negatively to a

traditional type of assessment. Students expressed the opinion that traditional assessment

methods had a severely detrimental effect on the learning process. Examinations had little

to do with the more challenging task of trying to make sense and understand their subject.

Furthermore, Sambell et al. (1997) reported that students perceived traditional assessment

tasks as arbitrary and irrelevant. It was found to be assumed as something they have to, a

necessary evil that allowed them to accumulate marks. The accompanying activities are

described in terms of routine, dull artificial behaviour. Traditional assessment is believed

to be inappropriate as a measure, because it appeared, simply to measure memory, or in

case of essay- writing tasks, to measure one's ability to marshal list of facts and details.

By contrast, students considered alternative assessment as one that enables, rather

than pollute the quality of learning. They considered alternative assessment as that which

channelled their efforts into trying to understand, rather than simply memorized or

routinely documented, the material being studied (Sambell et al., 1997). Alternative

26
assessment was believed to be fairer, because by contrast, it appeared to measure

qualities, skills and competencies which would be valuable in contexts other than the

immediate context of assessment. Alternative assessment attempt to produce an activity

which would simulate a real life context, so students would clearly perceive the relevance

of their academic work to the broader situations outside the academic world. This

strategy was effective and the students highly valued these more authentic ways of

working. Alternative assessment enabled students to show the extent of their learning and

allowed them to articulate more effectively what they had digested throughout the

learning program (Sambell et al. 1997).

Goubeaud and Yan (2004) studied students' views of assessment methods in

higher education, using data collected by the National Centre for Educational statistics,

U.S. Department of Education from a sample of 31,354 higher education faculties,

including about 524 teacher educators. The dataset contains information related to faculty

teaching methods, assessment and grading practices. The study showed that 54.8% of the

faculty members used multiple-choice examinations sometimes or all the time, 57.4%

used essay examinations sometimes or all the time, 55% used short answer, 53.6% used

the term/research paper, 35.8% employed peer assessment and 31.4% of them used

multiple drafts of written work. According to this study, the most commonly used

assessments in higher education were essay exams, short answer exams, and multiple

choice examinations and the least used were peer assessment and multiple drafts of

written work.

Almost all of the studies indicated above reveal students' perceptions of a specific

method of assessment. However, it is difficult to access empirical studies in the

27
classroom assessment literature that show how the implementation of classroom

assessment of a given institution influenced students’ perceptions of assessment

practices. In addition, there are very few studies that addressed the relationship among

the students’ perceptions of assessments, study behaviour and academic achievements.

The problem is worth even when it refers to higher education, especially, African

countries like Ethiopia. Thus, it becomes important to examine the perceptions of

assessment practices and study behaviour of students as related to their academic

achievement in Ethiopian universities. To this end, the assessment methods that Wollega

University has been implementing and the differences in implementing those methods in

several fields of specialization were examined.

2.3 Students’ Perceptions of Course Assessments

Students’ perception of course assessment is defined as the students’ acts of

viewing the course assessment or their attitude to assessment (van de Watering et al.,

2006). Dorman and Knightley (2006) described the students’ perceptions of assessments

as the views that students hold about most aspects of school life such as how they are

assessed. Dorman and Knightley (2006) and Dhindsa et al. (2007) indicated that students

tend to work and study well on courses they perceive the relationship between learning

and assessment tasks, view the relevance of assessment to real-life situations, have a say

in their assessments and expect some form of feedback. Furthermore, (Cavanagh et al

2005) noted that the involvement of students in assessments is as important as to add

value to learning. Because, the way students view the assessment tasks influence the way

they behave and persist to study (Scouller, 1998; Cardoso, Santiago & Sarrico, 2012).

28
Similarly, the ways students experience and the amount of attention they give for their

study correlate to their academic achievement (Scouller, 1998).

It is generally acknowledged that assessment plays a crucial role in the learning

process and, student learning is guided by the ways in which the learning is assessed

(Gulikers et al., 2006). The way students prepare themselves for an assessment depends

on how they perceive the assessment (before, during and after the assessment), and these

effects can have either positive or negative influences on learning and on their academic

achievement (Boud, 1990).

Gao (2012) examined high school students’ perceptions of mathematics

classroom assessments, 248 students provided responses to a Student Perceptions of

Assessment Questionnaire (SPAQ). Chi-square was used to test the data. Results reveal

that students felt a strong congruence between mathematics assessment, planned learning

and adequate transparency regarding the purpose and forms of the assessment, inadequate

authenticity in assessment tasks, and had little or no say in the assessment planning

process. There was a high variance in the questions regarding accommodation of student

diversity. A gender difference was observed in assessment authenticity and transparency.

Cakan (2011) examined the cross-cultural validation of the Perceptions of

Assessment Task Inventory (PATI) developed by Dorman and Knightley (2006) with

Turkish undergraduate students. The study aimed to validate the scale for Turkish

undergraduate students and to reveal validity and reliability of the scale. The result of the

study depicted that the PATI can be described as having five factors: student

consultation, awareness, congruence with planned learning, diversity and transparency.

29
The original 35 items were reduced to 18 items for the suggested reasons of cultural and

assessment practices differences between England and Turkish. It was further suggested

that the modification made to some items in order to match it to college level might

contribute to the differences. The reliability and validity of the 18 items found to be

adequate to use the scale in measuring the students’ attitude of assessment tasks in the

general curriculum area.

Birenbaum and Feldman (1998) examined the relationship between the students'

learning patterns and their attitudes towards open-ended (OE) and multiple choice (MC)

examinations, among students in higher education. The results revealed two patterns of

relationships between the learning-related variables and the assessment of attitudes.

Students with good learning skills, who have high confidence in their academic

ability, tend to prefer the constructed response type of assessment over the multiple

choice type. Perversely, students with poor learning skills, who tend to have low

confidence in their academic ability, prefer the choice to the constructed-response type of

assessment.

Another pattern shows that low test anxiety measures were related to positive

attitudes towards the OE format. Students with high test anxiety have more unfavourable

attitudes towards the OE format and have a preference for the choice-response type.

Because it is assumed that it puts fewer requirements on their information processing

capacity during the testing situation to that some capacity is occupied by worries and test-

irrelevant thoughts (Hembree, 1988).

30
 In addition, a study result also indicated gender differences, with males having

more favourable attitudes towards the choice response format than females (Birenbaum

& Feldman, 1998). The gender difference was attributed to a personality dimension of

risk- taking, with females being more reluctant than males to guess at MC questions and

being more likely to leave items blank ( Ben-Shakhar & Sinai, 1991).

Zeidner (1987) found that multiple choice type exams are generally perceived

more favourably than essay type items along most dimensions of the inventory (i.e.

perceived difficulty, anxiety, complexity, success expectancy, feeling at ease), by both

boys and girls. The small differences between the formats were evidenced on the

dimensions of trickiness, perceived interests, and perceived value. Furthermore, it was

found that students perceive essay type examinations to be somewhat more appropriate

than multiple choice exams for the purpose of reflecting one's knowledge in the subject

matter tested (Zeidner, 1987).

Moreover, Zeidner and Bensoussan (1988) designed a research that aimed to

compare students' attitudes towards oral versus written English language test and

examine the nature of the relationship between students' affective dispositions toward

language tests and level of test performance. The study was based on a sample of 170

students at Haifa University enrolled in the advanced reading course of English as a

foreign language. Students responded to an examinee feedback inventory specifically

designed to gauge their perceptions of key variables related to mode of test presentation

(oral vs. written examinations). In addition, background information was collected on

students' gender, sociolinguistic background, father's education, the university

psychometric entrance examination (including the English proficiency test score) and the

31
average grade in the department of the study. On the whole, students preferred written

over oral tests and rated the former more favourably along a variety of dimensions.

Written tests were perceived to be more pleasant.

A considerable number of studies have investigated the role of perceptions of

assessment in learning processes. For example, Scouller (1998) investigated students’

perceptions of a multiple choice question examination, consisting mostly of reproduction-

oriented questions, to examine the students’ abilities to recall information, their general

orientation towards their studies and their study strategies. The result of the study

revealed that some students perceived that the examination as assessing higher order

thinking skills. As a result these students used deep study strategies to prepare for the

examination. On the other hand, the researchers concluded that students with a surface

orientation may have an incorrect perception of the concept of understanding, cannot

make a proper distinction between understanding and reproduction, and therefore have an

incorrect perception of what is being assessed (Scouller, 1998).

It was also reported that there were relationships between preferences of

assessment types, perceptions of assessments and performance outcomes (Scouller,

1998). Students who preferred multiple choice question examinations perceived that

assessments (actually assessing lower levels of cognitive processing) to be more likely to

assess higher levels of cognitive processing than students who preferred essays. Poorer

performance, either on the multiple choice questions or on the essays, was related to the

use of an unsuitable study approach due to an incorrect perception of the assessment.

Better performance on the essays (actually assessing higher levels of cognitive

32
processing) was positively related to a perception of essays as assessing higher levels of

cognitive processing and to the use of a suitable study approach (i.e. Deep approach).

On the study titled “Student Assessment in High School Social-Studies Courses in

Turkey: Teachers' and Students' Perceptions”, Yildirim (2004) reported that short-answer

tests were most frequently used to assess student performance, followed by oral tests.

Multiple-choice and essay tests were also occasionally employed. While teachers tended

to be satisfied with such assessment strategies, students did not find that tests adequate

for assessing their real performance in social-studies courses (Yildirim, 2004).

MacLellan (2001) conducted a study that measured the differing perception of

tutors and students at a higher education level. The finding of the study indicated that

there was a significant difference of perceptions between the two groups. In specific,

students perceived that a frequent purpose of the assessment was to make a summative

judgement in the form of grading or ranking student performance.

Furthermore, (Maclellan, 2001 & Cavanagh et al 2005) contend that the

assessment strategy of a particular course has a major impact on student activity. It

influences the approach students adopt towards their learning, how much time they spend

on their studies, how widely they study the curriculum, and whether they grasp the key

concepts of the subject. There is also an evidence of a significant, negative ‘backwash’

effect (Biggs & Tang, 2007) on student learning and achievement of poorly conceived

assessment strategies. Therefore, teachers who neglect paying attention to their

assessment practices cannot coordinate students’ effort to enhance their academic

performance.

33
 Mok (2010) conducted a case study that investigated students’ perceptions of the

implementation of peer assessment in English speaking classes at junior secondary level.

Interview and classroom observation were employed to gather data for the research from

two male and two female students. The finding of the study revealed that although the

four student participants could see important benefits of peer assessment, such as

facilitating student’s thinking development, and they hoped to take the assessment

seriously, they felt inadequate about the implementation of the new assessment in their

junior secondary English speaking classes.

Alkharusi (2008) planned to examine the relationship between the teachers'

assessment practices and students’ perceptions of the classroom assessment environment.

In the study, 1636 students and 83 teachers participated. The result indicated that

students’ perceptions of the assessment environment were shaped by student

characteristics such as self-efficacy, class contextual features, aggregate perceived

assessment environment and self-efficacy levels of the class, and teacher’s teaching

experience and assessment practices.

An exploratory study of students’ perceptions of the consequential validity of

assessment (the effects of assessment on learning and teaching) was explored through a

qualitative study by Sambell et al. (1997). The investigation employed a case study

method that took about two and half years to complete the study. The result of the study

indicated that students often reacted negatively to traditional assessment. Many students

expressed the opinion that traditional assessment methods had a severely detrimental

effect on the learning process. Examinations had little to do with the more challenging

task of trying to make sense and understand their subject. In contrast, when students

34
considered new forms of assessment, their views of the educational worth of assessment

changed, often quite dramatically. Alternative assessment was perceived to enable, rather

than pollute, the quality of learning achieved. Many made the point that for alternative

assessment they were channelling their efforts into trying to understand, rather than

simply memorize or routinely document the material being studied (Sambell et al., 1997).

It is believed that assessment has an overwhelming influence on what, how and

how much students study. However, as indicated earlier, there are very few research

evidences regarding students’ perceptions of assessments practices (Cowie, 2005;

Brookhart, 1999). Most of the research findings so far discussed focussed on the students'

perceptions of assessment methods; for instance, the perception of multiple choice and

essay. Such findings could not indicate the general views of students of different course

assessments. Thus, in the present study, the student perceptions’ of course assessments

and their study behaviour were investigated.

2.4 Differences in Perceptions of Course Assessments

Students’ perceptions of course assessments were found to vary with the students’

background. For example, for a research question “How do the perceptions of assessment

of students from various groups, classified based on gender, grade and race?” Dhidsa et

al. (2007, p. 1263) reported a comparable perception of assessment between male and

female students on the SPAQ dimensions of Assessment with Applied Learning (AUA),

the Transparency in Assessment (TIA) and the Diversity in Assessment (DIA). They

reported significant differences in perception of CPL and Student Consultation in

Assessment (SCA) between male and female students. Similarly, they indicated

35
significant differences in perceptions of assessment between grades of students on

dimensions of SPAQ for CLP and TIA, and comparable differences in other dimensions.

Regarding race differences in perception of assessment, it was reported that there were

differences in perceptions of assessment among races in that Chinese students perceived

weak link between assessment and planned learning than Malay and other students.

On the development and the determination of data-metric properties of a scale

measuring students' perceptions of the classroom assessment environment, Alkharusi

(2010) contrasted the mean scores of males and females on perceptions of the classroom

assessment environment. Results indicated that there were statistically significant

differences between males' and females' perceptions of the classroom assessment

environment in that females perceived their classroom assessment environment as being

learning-oriented than males. Also, there were statistically significant differences

between males' and females' perceptions of the classroom assessment environment as

being performance oriented in that males tended to perceive their classroom assessment

environment as being performance-oriented than females.

Students' perception of continuous assessment as a precursor of academic

performance among junior secondary school students in Ogun state was undertaken by

Adekola (2004). The result indicated that there was a significant difference between the

perceptions of students from highly educated parents and those from low education

homes in continuous assessment as a sign to academic performance; there was a

significant difference between male and female students in perception of continuous

assessment while there was no significant difference between urban and rural students.

36
 In the investigation carried out on the development, validation and application of

students’ perceptions of assessment questionnaire, Koul and Fisher (2006) indicated non-

significant differences of male and female students in their perception of assessments. On

the other hand, they reported significant differences in perceptions of assessment among

students with regard to their year of study.

In the study that aimed to examine students’ perceptions of mathematics

assessment, Gao (2012) reported a gender difference in assessment of authenticity and

transparency. The possible suggestion forwarded for the significant differences of gender

in perception of assessment was related to cultural and educational orientation of the

students.

Cakan (2011) designed to study “students’ perceptions of course assessment”.

The aim of the study was to examine the students’ attitude of assessment tasks in

conjunction with programs (10 programs), gender and year level differences. The result

of the study indicated that male students were found to have a more positive attitude

towards the assessment task than the female students. In addition, while students in

Music program, Computer Education and Educational Technology were found to reveal

significant differences in attitude towards assessment tasks, the remaining programs were

found to be comparable in attitudes towards assessment tasks. Contrary to the gender and

program differences observed, students from different year of study demonstrated similar

thoughts regarding assessment tasks.

The foregoing studies reveal both significant and on-significant differences in

perception of assessment practices. Thus, the present investigation aims at examining

37
students’ perception of assessment including their study behaviour and academic

achievement.

2.5 Relationship between Students’ Perceptions of Course Assessments and

Academic Achievement

Numerous studies, both qualitative and quantitative indicated that classroom

assessment practices have a tremendous impact on student achievement (Brookhart,

1997; Crooks, 1998; Scoull, 1998; Wiliam et al. 2004; Watering et al, 2008). Brookhart

(1997) developed a framework that measures classroom assessment and student

achievement. Significant relationships were found between perceptions of task, self-

efficacy, effort, and achievement. Another study demonstrated that the use of classroom

assessment strategies were not only increased student achievement, but also students’

self-perceptions about learning (Brookhart & DeVoge, 1999).

Udoukpong and Okon (2012) explored the extent to which students’ academic

performance in Junior Secondary Certificate Examination (JSCE) in social studies were

differentiated by their perception of teachers’ formative evaluation practices. A sample of

300 Junior Secondary Three (JS-3) students was surveyed. The subjects responded to the

questionnaire on teachers’ formative evaluation practices while their academic

performance was determined by their scores in social studies in JSCE. Students’

academic performance in social studies differed significantly on the basis of their

perceptions of teachers’ formative evaluation practices. Students who perceived their

teachers’ formative evaluation practices as “enhancing to learning” (positive), performed

38
better than their counterparts who viewed the same assessment as “not enhancing to

learning” (negative).

Crooks (1988) reviewed specific fields of research that focused on the

relationship between classroom assessment practices and student outcomes. The

conclusion of the review indicated that classroom assessment had powerful direct and

indirect impacts on student learning and academic achievement. According to the review,

assessment influenced the academic self judgement and motivation of the students in

learning. Crooks also indicated that the grades students achieved not served the formative

but the summative effect. The review suggested to more emphasize the formative

function of assessment and to provide feedback that focuses on specific and relevant

tasks on a regular base.

Wiliam, Lee, and Black (2004) conducted a study that related to classroom

assessment and student achievement. The participants attended a teacher training

program. The research aimed to determine if increased classroom assessment strategies

improve student achievement. To investigate the impact of assessment strategy, the

researchers established a training program for the duration of six months for 24 teachers

to explore and plan classroom assessments. The teachers put the plans into action with

selected classes. Then, the result of the study indicated improvements in grade that were

approximately equivalent to half of previous grade of each student and per a subject.

Watering et al. (2008) conducted a study that examined the effects of students’

actual preferences and perceptions of assessment of the performances of the participants

when the different cognitive levels of assessment formats were used. Contrary to what so

39
far discussed, no relationship was found between students’ perceptions of assessment and

their assessment scores. The reason for the finding to stand against to other results may

be related to the instrument that these researchers used to explore the perception of

assessment as it was about the preference of assessment in its origin.

Browna and Hirschfeld (2008) carried out a study on “Students’ Conceptions of

Assessment: Links to Outcomes”. They focused on four major areas: “assessment makes

students accountable, assessment makes schools accountable, assessment is enjoyable,

and assessment is ignored.” The research result revealed that the concept which says

assessment makes students accountable was correlated positively to academic

achievement while the remaining three conceptions (i.e., assessment makes schools

accountable, assessment is enjoyable, and assessment is ignored) were negatively

correlated to academic achievement.

There was a focus to determine the perception of examination malpractice and

academic performance in primary science among grade six in Nigeria (Cornelius-

Ukpepi1 & Enukoha, 2012). Data were collected from 1818 primary pupils. The study

indicated a significant negative relationship between pupils’ perception of examination

malpractice and academic performance.

One may well understand about the relationship between perception of assessment

and the resulting outcome of students from what Stiggins (2007) strongly noted.

According to Stiggins since the purpose of assessment is to rank students according to

their achievement, students have experienced the sense of winning and losing when it

comes to assessment. Consequently, Stiggins (2007) suggested that students, who win at

40
assessment, feel successful and empowered to take action, and are therefore more likely

to seek challenges, take initiative, and practice with enthusiasm. On other hand, students

who lose at assessment feel failure and hopelessness, and are therefore more likely to

seek what is easy and become confused about what to practice.

The reviews so far presented reveal the existence of the relationships between

perception of assessments and academic achievements. Similarly, this study intends to

examine the extent to which the two variables relate to each other in Ethiopian context

where there are social, cultural, and educational experience differences are evident.

2.6 Study Behaviour

Bliss and Mueller (1987) attempted to indicate the relationship between the use of

appropriate study behaviours and academic achievement in the investigation of the

measurement of study behaviours. Bliss and Mueller note that there is often some

confusion between the terms “study skills” and “study behaviours”. They indicated that

study skills are the potentials for action while study behaviours are the observed actions.

A student may have all the skills required, that is he or she may be able to take good

notes in class (possession of study skill) but simply sits in class scribbling (the lack of

study behaviour). The result of the study indicated that college students who were placed

in college preparatory courses often do no demonstrate appropriate study behaviours.

Based on the result obtained, they recommended that activities that teach study

behaviours such as time management, note taking, and examination taking techniques

should be given to students. In addition they forwarded that a strong counselling

41
components focussing on students’ feelings of self worth and competence would be

useful.

As indicated in Bliss, Vinay, and Koeninger, (1996), in 1982, Mueller and Gibson

developed the first form of the Study Behaviour Inventory (SBI). According to Bliss et al.

(1996), this instrument was inspired by the work done by Wren who for the first time

developed Study Habits Inventory in 1941 and Brown and Holtzman, who also developed

Study Habits and Attitudes in 1966. In addition, Bliss et al. indicated that the Study

Behaviour Inventory, Form C was developed in which the number of items related to test

anxiety and coping behaviour were expanded by Muller and Gibson in 1983. The most

recent version of the Study Behaviour Inventory (Form D) was developed by Bliss and

Mueller in 1986.

On the validation of the Study Behaviour Inventory Bliss and Mueller (1986,

1993) reported three underlying factors of the inventory. These were the feelings of

academic-efficacy, management of time for short-term routine, recurring tasks and

management of long-term specific, nonrecurring tasks. According to Bandura (1977) and

Bliss and Mueller (1986, 1993), academic self-efficacy refers to learners’ beliefs about

their capabilities to accomplish academic tasks and activities.

Similarly, Zimmerman (1998, 2000a, 2008) described academic self-efficacy as

personal judgements of one's capabilities to organize and execute courses of action to

attain designated types of educational performances. Time management refers to how

well individuals are able to utilize and allocate time appropriately, which in turn, affects

the accomplishment of their personal goals (Ogonor & Nwadiani, 2006). Effective time

42
management generally is positively related to students’ performance; that is, students

who are better at planning and managing their time are more likely to have higher

achievement than students who poorly manage time (Bliss & Mueller, 1993; Eilam &

Aharon, 2003; Ogonor & Nwadiani, 2006).

On the other hand, research results suggest that unproductive study behaviours

can lead to low performance to academic withdrawal (Goldfinch & Hughes, 2007).

Specifically, students with low academic self-efficacy are likely to avoid difficult tasks,

lack persistence and easily give up when facing obstacles while studying (Pajares, 2008).

Those who manage time poorly are unable to allocate their time reasonably, not pace

their study appropriately, and often cram for classes until the last minute. Poor time

management tends to yield unsatisfactory academic performance (Balduf, 2009). For that

matter, study behaviours play a key role in students' academic outcomes.

A study was conducted at American River College and Sacramento City College

in California. A total of 1,441 students registered in English and Psychology classes

participated in a study to determine the correlation values among the variables of test

anxiety and study behaviour, taking into consideration age, gender, and ethnicity. The

Study behaviour Inventory form D (SBI-D) and the Sarason’s Test Anxiety Scale (TAS)

were administered. The result of the study revealed that the best predictor of higher levels

of test anxiety was lower levels of study behaviour skills (Rasor & Rasor, 1998).

Kuhn (1988) administered the Study Behaviour Inventory-Form D to 74 science

students at Wilson Country Technical College in North Carolina to assess study skills and

habits. The study showed that a number of students had difficulty with time management

43
and keeping up-to-date with assignments. In addition, difficulty with reading, note-taking

skills and test anxiety were also noted.

A study that aimed to identify the study behaviours of 322 Spanish-speaking

students was conducted at Miami Dade College. The study used the El lnventario de

Comportamiento de Estudio (ICE) instrument developed by Bliss, Vinay, and Koenigner

(1996). The instrument was the Spanish version of the SBI-D. The result of the study

showed that academic self-efficacy was the factor that accounted for the most variance.

In addition, it was reported that students with high self-efficacy more concerned than

students with low self-efficacy in long-term study behaviours and with the need to

manage time over the long run (Bliss & Sandiford, 2004).

As presented earlier, perceptions of assessments influence the way students

approach studying. The way students think about learning and studying, influence the

way they tackle assignment tasks and their academic performances. In other way of

expression, the learner’s experiences of evaluation and assessment determine the way in

which they approach to learning (Struyven et al., 2005). Hence it becomes clear that

assessment and assessment related issues for example, students’ perceptions have direct

association with students approach to learning/study behaviour.

2.7 Relationship between Study Behaviour and Academic Achievement

It would be reasonable to expect that the student who studies more effectively will

have higher grades than the student who studies less effectively. Research has shown that

study behaviours account for more variance in measures of learning achievement than do

high school grades and class ranking (Bliss & Mueller, 1993). Researchers have linked

44
good study habits to passing grades for both high school and college students. Students

who have good study habits are more likely to pass their courses and persist in college

while students who have poor study habits more often fail in courses and subsequently

drop out of colleges (Ramist, 1981).

Bailey and Onwuegbuzie (2001) explored study strategies of students. The

purpose of the study was to determine which study habits distinguish successful from

unsuccessful foreign language learners. Participants were 219 college students from a

variety of disciplinary backgrounds, enrolled in either in Spanish, French, German or

Japanese classes. The participants were required to complete the Study Habits Inventory

(SHI). The result of study shows that compared to the high-performing counterparts,

students with the lowest levels of foreign language performance reported that they

frequently included a lot of irrelevant or unimportant information in their notes; when

they had difficulty with their assignments, they did not seek help from their instructor;

they put their lecture notes away after taking the test and never consult them again; they

have to be in the mood before attempting to study; they have a tendency to daydream

when they were trying to study; and they did not look up in a dictionary for new words.

Lammers, Onwuegbuzie, and Slate (2001) examined the college students'

predominant study skill strengths and weaknesses. The participants were 336 students.

The participants required to complete SHI. Multiple regression analysis indicated that

SHI score and hours spent working were significant predictors of GPA, combining to

explain 18% of the total variance. The SHI score explained 13.2% of the variance in

GPA, and hours working explained an additional 4.8% of the variance. The model

45
indicated that the better the study skills students employed, the higher GPA they

achieved.

Study strategies of college students were also examined by Okpala, Okpala, and

Ellis (2000). Students’ study strategies were assessed using a three-question survey that

addressed (a) avoiding friends when studying, (b) studying the main points and (c)

following a study routine. Results showed that the study strategies students used were

significant in explaining the course grade for all students. Above-average and below-

average students’ study strategies and academic efficacy were positively associated with

course grade. The authors suggested that students possibly achieve better grades if they

develop appropriate study strategies and have a high degree of behavioural confidence,

not by simply increasing their study time.

In addition, Weinstein’s (1996) study has shown that students at the University of

Texas, who had taken the course that addresses identified study strategy weaknesses,

registered more positive outcomes. That course was considered to be effective in helping

the students raise their grade point averages. Students who academically gain success

were more likely to stay in school and to progress to higher academic levels.

An appraisal of scores on study methods inventories conducted by Thompson

(1977) looked at the environmental difference between high school and college and the

need for independent study for students to excel academically. It was concluded that

students who had appropriate study habits succeeded and adapted to college’s academic

norms and requirements than students who lacked good study habits. Also students with

good study habits were found to be more self-reliant and academically oriented.

46
 Another study that correlated academic achievement with study behaviour was

performed by Stewart (1984). The study focused on investigating study skills including

the length of time spent in the study by 50 college undergraduate Educational Psychology

students. A questionnaire was given to the students to identify their study habits prior to

each class examination. Results showed that total hours of study and type of study

behaviour strategies employed were positively related to students’ grades.

The earlier study that specifically examined study skills and mathematics

achievement among 46 first-year mathematics students also revealed that the distribution

and length of study time was a factor of considerable importance in mathematics

achievement (Poulsen, 1975). Another study depicted that study habits including time

management were documented as the major problem facing beginning college students

(Olani, 2009).

Ning and Downing (2010) carried out a study to explore the reciprocal

relationship between learning experiences and study behaviours to examine the relative

impact of learning experiences and study behaviours on university students’ academic

performance. The participants were 396 undergraduate students from Hong Kong.

Students learning experiences and study behaviours were measured by Course

Experience Questionnaire and Study Strategy Inventory respectively. Primary data were

collected by pre-test and post technique with a time gap of 12 months. Students’

cumulative grade point averages and A-level scores were obtained from institutional

records. The findings depicted that both learning experiences and study behaviours were

found to be significant in influencing reciprocally each other. Moreover, the learning

47
experience (β = .29) and study behaviour (β = .36) were significantly predicted the

academic performance of students with the more contribution of the study behaviour.

Prus, Hatcher, Hope, and Grabiel (1995) used the Learning and Study Strategies

Inventory (LASSI) to predict the first-year success of college students. The correlations

showed that LASSI scales were significantly correlated with GPA, including the attitude,

motivation, time management, concentration, study aids, self testing, and test strategies

scales. In the analysis of multiple regression, college GPA was the dependent variable.

The ten LASSI scores accounted for 12% of the variance in college GPA and only the

motivation scale was significant. Correlation showed that retention was significantly

related to LASSI scales, including the motivation, concentration, and self testing scales.

All of these relationships were weak. On the LASSI all scales except anxiety, information

processing, and selecting main ideas were found to be significantly correlated with

freshman GPA. However, most of the correlations were weak. The ten LASSI scales and

the five background variables accounted for 9% of the variance in retention, and the

model including both the LASSI and background variables accounted for 8% of the

variance in retention.

The only LASSI scale with a significant correlation with GPA for African-

American students were the self testing scale while significant correlations were found

between seven LASSI scales and GPA for White students. All but one (study aids) of the

LASSI scales correlated significantly with a GPA among male students while significant

correlations were found between six LASSI scales and GPA among female students.

48
 The relationship between university students’ perceptions of their academic

environment, their approaches to study, and academic outcomes was investigated at both

university and faculty levels (Lizzio et al. 2002). One of their research result indicated

that students’ perceptions found as influencing both academic achievement and

development of key skills of learning outcomes that directly mediated by the students'

approaches to study.

Thus, the present study attempted to determine the extent to which study

behaviour of students related to their academic achievement. Determining this

relationship for Wollega University is interesting where the new assessment method was

introduced that would create opportunity to evaluate how students study and their

academic achievement related to their study behaviour.

2.8 Differences in Study Behaviour

Gender differences in study behaviour have been considered in many studies. For

instance, Speth and Brown (1990) reported gender difference in that female students were

found to be adopting a deep approach and organized study methods than male students.

Similarly, Bliss, Vinary, and Koeninger (1996) indicated similar study behaviour of male

and female students in their work of validation of the Spanish translation of Study

Behaviour Inventory (SBI) in which 495 (48% men and 52% female) students were

participated.

Bliss and Sandifored (2004) investigated the linking behaviours and student

culture to academic success among Hispanic students. The Spanish translation of study

behaviour inventory was used to gather data. It was reported that the student culture

49
rather than institutional culture determined the study behaviour of the student

participants.

Jones, Lawler-Prince, and Slate (1996) studied the differences in study skills

between college seniors majoring in elementary and in secondary education. Participants

completed the SHI. The total mean scores on SHI for the elementary education and

secondary education majors were 37.2 and 36.6 respectively. Although elementary and

secondary education majors did not differ in their overall level of academic skills, they

did differ in approach to studying. The academic behaviour of elementary education

majors was more appropriate than the academic behaviour of secondary education majors

in two ways. First, elementary education majors tended to get adequate sleep while

studying. In addition, elementary education majors had less difficulty identifying

important information when studying. On the other hand, secondary education majors

demonstrated more appropriate academic behaviours than did elementary education

majors in three ways. Secondary education majors (a) made better use of study time, (b)

had better note-taking skills, and (c) were better able to apply what they were learning to

everyday life.

The study technique preference of students was examined by Annis and Annis

(1982). On the study 914 students of different ages and grade levels were participated.

The results of the study indicated that with the increase of age and grade level, there is an

increase in the total number of study techniques used by the students. They further

concluded that by increasing grade level the ‘underlining and or note-taking’ study

techniques became more popular.

50
 The analysis of the relationship between the epistemological beliefs of secondary

level students and their attitudes towards studying was conducted by Onen (2011). The

participants of the study were Grade 10, 11 and 12 studying in secondary schools. For the

study, two instruments: the Epistemological Belief Questionnaire and the Attitudes

towards Studying Scale, were used for data collection. The result indicated that there was

significant relationship between students’ gender and grade levels in terms of their

epistemological beliefs and attitudes towards studying. It was reported that the increase

of epistemological beliefs corresponded with the improved attitudes towards studying.

The literature review so far presented in this part of the study showed that there

were significant differences in study behaviour of the students as a function of the their

background. Thus the present investigation intends to examine the study behaviour of

Wollega University students as a function of their gender, year of study and field of

specialization.

2.9 The Relationship between Perceptions of course Assessments and Study

Behaviour

It is believed that the assessment requirements influence students’ study

behaviour (how they learn) and their learning outcomes (what they learn). Lindblom-

Ylanne and Lonka (2001) in the study that examined advanced medical students'

perceptions of assessment practices looked through the ways students were studying for

examinations as related to their approaches to learning. The study divided the participants

into four groups based on their approaches to learning. There were 35 advanced medical

students who volunteered to be interviewed. The interviews focused on learning

51
strategies, study behaviour and perceptions of the learning environment. The results

indicated that students in all four groups criticized quite similarly of the examination

practices. However, the results showed that students in the four groups reported different

ways of preparation for examinations and, furthermore, had different views of the most

functional ways to study.

Struyven et al. (2005) indicated that assessment has an important influence on

students’ learning. They pointed out that the way students think about learning,

determines the way they tackle the evaluation tasks. The study concludes that students’

perceptions about assessment and their study behaviour are strongly related. Given the

findings, when assessment is perceived to be inappropriate implies a surface approach to

learning; however, a deep approach to learning seems to yield through a complex and

extensive assessment approach. Within conventional assessment practice students favour

multiple-choice format of assessment more than essay items or constructed response. The

study shows that students with more advanced learning abilities and with low test

anxieties favour essay type examinations, while students with poorer learning abilities

and low test anxiety are less likely to favour essay-type examinations. The researchers

argue that unlike multiple-choice type, an essay type examination that invokes deeper

approaches to learning (Struyven et al., 2005).

Entwistle and Tait (1990) found evidence for the relationship between students'

approaches to learning/study orientation and their assessment preferences. They indicated

that students who reported themselves as adopting surface approaches to learning

preferred teaching and assessment procedures which supported that approach, whereas

students reporting deep approaches preferred courses which were intellectually

52
challenging and assessment procedures which allowed them to demonstrate their

understanding.

Biggs (1989) addressed the relationships between perceptions of the learning

environment, study approaches and learning outcomes. Biggs argued that the influence of

students' perceptions can be very pervasive and that they can influence student learning in

two ways. Perceptions of the learning environment can have a direct influence on

learning outcomes, but the influence of perceptions of the learning outcome can also be

indirect through study approach. To this end, the empirical results of Lizzio et al. (2002)

supported both these relationships. They showed that positive perceptions of the learning

environment had a direct positive effect on learning outcomes as well as an indirect effect

on learning outcomes through stimulating a deep study approach. In addition, studies of

Sambell, et al. (1997) and Scouller (1998) showed that students adapted their study

approach when they perceived assessments as having different requirements. With

respect to perceptions of assessment authenticity, Herrington and Herrington (1998)

showed that students said that assessments positively influenced their learning when they

perceived it as relevant or as having a connection to reality. These results show that

considering students' perceptions are very important when developing assessments.

One of the oldest but very important research results of Loftus (1971) provided

some evidence that students use different processing strategies depending upon whether

they anticipate a recall or a recognition test. Using a paired-associate learning task,

Loftus observed that when subjects expect a recognition test they tended not to rehearse

much, but their strategy was to transfer sketchy information in a wide variety of topics to

the long-term memory. This strategy seems motivated by the notion that recognition can

53
be performed on the basis of partial cues or just enough information to discriminate the

target stimulus from the distracting stimuli. The strategy of the subjects anticipating a

recall test on the other hand, has been found to consist of concentrating on fewer issues

and rehearsing them for maintenance in long-term memory (Kumar, Rabinsky, & Pandey,

1990).

Hakstian (1971) studied the effects of anticipating either a multiple choice test, or

an essay test or a combination of multiple choice and essay test on students’ study

methods and performance on both multiple choice and Essay examinations. The students

were required to report on the amount of study time, often use of underlining and

highlighting, use of note-making and summarizing in preparing for the examination.

Hakstian did not find any significant differences in the manner students reported

preparing for either multiple choice or essay tests.

Contrary to the above study, it was reported that students’ preparation for

examination depends on their expectation of test type. They responded that they were

more likely to study general trends, to draw conclusions, and to organize material in

preparation for an essay test than for a multiple-choice test (Scouller 1988). In contrast,

students studying for a multiple-choice test reported trying to remember the specific

wording of text to memorize details, and underline important sentences (Scouller, 1988).

Therefore, as indicated above, students' perceptions of course assessments have

considerably influenced on students' approaches to learning/study behaviour and, more

generally, on student learning. Expressed differently, students' approaches/study

behaviour indicates the view they have of that assessment task.

54
2.10 The Relationship among Perceptions of Course Assessments, Study

Behaviour and Academic Achievement

According to Entwistle (1997), students adopt a surface approach to learning

when their intention is to cope with the requirements of the task but with little personal

engagement or aim to understand the material. They tend to focus on the detail of the

knowledge, memorizing the information or procedures, for example rote learning for an

examination. As a result, students do not grasp the overall meaning of their studies,

develop limited conceptual understanding of the material and have poor quality learning

outcomes.

In contrast, students who adopt a deep approach aim to understand ideas and are

intrinsically interested in their studies. The learning strategies they use include relating

information and ideas together and to their own experience and looking for patterns,

principles and meaning in the texts. This approach leads to higher quality learning

outcomes for the student (Entwistle, 1997).

An approach to learning is not a fixed characteristic of an individual but is

influenced by their perception of the learning environment, most particularly the

assessment task (Morgan & Beatty, 1997; Biggs & Tang, 2007). Appropriate assessment

can encourage students to adopt a deep approach to learning and the contrary is true for

poorly-designed assessment. If students perceive that a task requires memorization and

reproduction of facts, then that is what they will do. The research evidence suggests that

if the nature of the learning context is changed, and assessment is the most influential

element to be changed and there is likelihood that students change their study approach.

55
As a result, the achievement follows that change accordingly (Trigwell, Prosser &

Waterhouse, 1999; Elton & Johnston, 2002).

It is not just the nature of the assignment that makes a difference. Students’

perception of what the assessment requires affects the approach they take (Trigwell et al.,

1999). Students behave differently because they perceive tasks differently. Changing the

assessment may change the approach of some students who perceive the new

requirements appropriately to which change of grade may become evident.

2.11 Academic Achievement

Academic achievement is generally considered as the demonstrators of

knowledge attained or skills developed in the school subject. It is the level of

performance in school subjects as exhibited by an individual. In the school setting, it is

referred to as the exhibition of knowledge attained or skills developed in school subjects.

Test scores or marks assigned by teachers are indicators of the achievements (Busari,

2000 in Ogundokun & Adeyemo, 2010). Marks or grades obtained from different

subjects are computed to form GPA, especially at higher institutions, the GPAs of

different semesters (in case of Ethiopian higher education) computed and formed CGPA.

According to Rothstein (2004), worldwide CGPAs are traditionally used to

measure performances. Ninety-one percent of high schools report students’ achievement

by calculating CGPAs assigning to it different weight to different subjects depending on

the nature of the subjects and number of hours used to teach the subjects (Astin &

Antonio, 2012).

56
 In higher education, first year GPA (grade point average) was used as a measure

of college success for several reasons. First, it is available soon after admission to most of

the admitted class. Second, it is often based on a relatively comparable (across

institutions) set of classes taught in typical freshman curricula (Burton & Ramis, 2001).

Another rationale for considering CGPA as a measure of college success is that it reflects

on the student’s entire academic performance in college. On the other hand, study habits

of students influence their CGPA.

Oluwatimilehin and Owoyele (2012) investigated the relationship between study

habits and students’ academic achievement in core subjects at the junior secondary school

level. The aim of the study was to determine the relationship between various aspects of

study habits including homework and assignments, time allocation, reading and note

taking, study period procedures, concentration, written work, examination and teacher

consultation and students’ achievement in English language, Mathematics, Integrated

Science and Art. A total of 300 students were participated in the study.

Findings revealed that of all the study habits’ subscales, ‘teacher consultation’

was most influential while the time allocation exercise, concentration, note-taking

reading and assignments were regarded as less integral to students’ academic

performances.

Thus, it would be reasonable to expect that a student who studies more effectively

and efficiently will have higher grades than the student who studies less effectively and

less efficiently (Wolfenden & Pumfrey, 1985). Since effective and efficient study habits

are positively associated with grades, it is reasonable to expect that students having better

57
study habits would tend to persist in a university and students having poor study habits

would tend to drop out of university.

2.12 Conceptual Framework of the Study

A conceptual framework is the researcher’s idea on how the research problem will

have to be explored. This is founded on the theoretical framework, which lies on a much

broader scale of resolution. The theoretical framework dwells on time tested theories that

embody the findings of numerous investigations on how phenomena occur (Leshem &

Trafford, 2007).

The theoretical framework provides a general representation of relationships

between things in a given phenomenon. The conceptual framework, on the other hand,

embodies the specific direction by which the research will have to be undertaken.

Statistically speaking, the conceptual framework describes the relationship between

specific variables identified in the study. It also outlines the input, process and output of

the whole investigation (Leshem & Trafford, 2007).

In consideration to the theoretical bases of perceptions of course assessments and

study behaviour presented in chapter one the study, the Astin & Antonio (2012) Inputs-

Environment-Outputs Model (I-E-O model) found to be appropriate to guide the

conceptual framework of the present study.

The I-E-O model provides a simple but effective framework for research design.

The basic purpose of the design is “... to measure relevant inputs characteristics of each

student and then correct or adjust for the effects these input differences in order to get a

58
less biased estimate of the comparative effects of different environments on outputs” (p.

21). The model is applicable to social and behavioural sciences, including education.

When applying this model, researchers should keep in mind that higher education is

attempting to enhance the education and personal development of its students and

teachers. Higher education academic staffs and administrators are particularly interested

in learning about environmental experiences that can be changed, since it is these

experiences that offer the possibility of improving outcomes in the future (Astin &

Antonio, 2012).

Most of the problems that Astin and Antonio researched were quantitative in

nature. For this research, the particular interests are the students’ perceptions of course

assessments, their study behaviour and the assessment methods (environment). If the

input differences that are related to students (gender, year of study and field of

specialization) are adjusted for, an estimate of the effects of perception of assessment,

study behaviour and assessment method in the academic performance of university

students may be obtained.

Environment

Input Output

Figure 2: Inputs/Environment/Outputs (I-E-O) Model

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 In the present study, Inputs refer to the personal qualities of the student (age,

gender, interest for field of specialization). Environment refers to the actual experiences

the student develops (perception of assessment and study behaviour) and the assessment

methods teachers implement to enhance the student’s experience. Outputs refer to the

academic achievement of students (CGPA). When the three entities (input, environment

and output) were treated together, the outcome variable is dependent variable, while

environmental and input variables become independent. On the other hand, when input

and environmental variables were separately compared, the input variables serve as

independent and the environment variables play as dependent for this study.

Thus, by plugging the variables of this study into the I-E-O model, the following

diagram emerges.

Environment
Perception of Assessment
Study Behaviour
Assessment method

Input Output
Gender
Academic Achievement
Year of study
(CGPA)
Field of specialization

Figure 3: I-E-O Conceptual Model

Astin (1977) began researching input, environment and outcomes of college

students more than three decades ago. His basic research questions were “What is the

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impact of college on students?” and “What is the value of college?” These questions were

also being asked by students, parents, public officials, and educators. Astin looked at a

wide range of cognitive and affective student outcomes; in fact, over eighty different

measures of attitudes, values, behaviours, achievements, career development, and

satisfaction was researched in more than two hundred thousand college students. Astin

found that students change in many ways after they enter college. These changes were

affected by a number of factors, including the student’s characteristics at the time of

college entry (input), the type of college attended (environment) and the extent of the

student’s involvement in the college environment. Related to this study, academic

achievement of students viewed as to be influenced by the students’ perceptions of course

assessments, their study behaviours, their background (gender, year of study, field of

specialization) and assessment methods used.

2.13 The Context of the Study

Ethiopia is found in the North-East part of Africa commonly known as the horn of

Africa. The country shares borders with five countries: these are Sudan in the North

West, West Sudan in the southwest, Kenya in the south, Somalia in east and Southeast,

Djibouti in the east and Eritrea in the North. Ethiopia’s total land area is about 1.1 million

square kilometres. Ethiopia is the second most populous country in Africa, after Nigeria.

According to the 2000 census, the population is estimated at 78 million in 2009/10

(Ministry of Education/MOE, 2010).

Ethiopia is a country with about 80 ethnic composition and linguistic groups

(Balcha, 2006). The agricultural sector is the major driver of the economy and is a source

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of income for the majority of the population. Currently, Ethiopia has a three-tiered

federalist system of government, comprising the federal government; nine administrative

regions and two chartered city administrations; and over 800 woredas/districts and sub-

cities. The government is made up of two tiers of parliament: the House of Peoples’

Representatives and the House of Federation where political leaders are elected every

five years. The federal government is committed to decentralization that provides each

region with autonomy and accompanied by fiscal decentralization which devolves

decision making powers to lower tiers of government (MOE, 2010).

Ethiopia had a different education system and structures at different periods. For

example, in the preceding military government period (1974-1991), Ethiopia had 12

years of general education system divided into primary, junior-secondary and secondary

levels. The system then was suffering from low enrolment, high gender disparity and low

quality of education. These have been major challenges of the Ethiopian education

system for a long period of time. In cognizant of the problems, in 1994, an Education and

Training Policy (MOE, 1994) came into effect, that restructured the education system

with far reaching changes. The policy is directed as indicated in its general objectives to

solve the long-standing problems of Ethiopian education in the areas of relevance,

quality, equity and accessibility. As a result, a huge amount of expansion and more

emphasis to improve the quality of education at all levels were a trend currently in the

country (MOE, 1994; MOE, 2010).

According to the 1994 Education and Training Policy (MOE, 1994), the primary

education covers grades 1-8 divided into two four year cycles: basic and general

education. The secondary education is divided into two cycles. The first cycle includes

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two years of general education. The second cycle is also two years of preparation for

higher education. The other stream is technical and vocational education and training,

which requires one to three years of training time that depends on the type of program

and level of training a student joined (Solomon, 2010). With regard to higher education,

currently, there are 32 public universities in Ethiopia.

Regardless of the efforts made to improve the quality of higher education in

Ethiopia, the education system suffers from mismatch of performance of university

graduates and expectations of employers (Solomon, 2010). Most graduates were good in

theoretical knowledge, but poor in skills and in the application of the knowledge they

gained from the universities in the real world of work (Daniel, 2004). A study conducted

by (Ashcroft, 2005) indicated a mismatch between Ethiopian employer and stakeholder

requirements and the curriculum, pedagogy and assessment methods commonly

developed by the higher education institutions. The study was based on interviews that

were held with a range of representatives of ministries, donor organizations, NGOs and

employers. The analysis of the interviews revealed an apparent pattern of weaknesses in

the graduates that are presently coming out of the higher education institutions. One

common problem is that graduates lack practical competence (Solomon, 2010).

According to Ashcroft (2005) report, Ethiopian higher education institutions

mainly focus on the quality of certain inputs (curriculum content, staff qualification,

physical resources and so on). They evaluate to a lesser extent the quality of processes

(teaching, learning and assessment methods) and outcomes (the employability of

graduates, employers' satisfaction). Ethiopian higher education generally lacked

systematic ways of assuring outcome standards (Solomon, 2010).

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 To address the problems of higher education in general and to ensure the quality

of education, the Ethiopian Government introduced a higher education proclamation in

2003 to bring about reform in the higher education system. As part of the higher

education reform, the government has recently established a Higher Education Relevance

and Quality Agency (HERQA). The agency is mandated to follow up and supervise the

quality of higher education institutions in the country. Its main task involves establishing

an appropriate national system of quality assurance within higher education institutions

which guarantees the availability of appropriate and effective learning, teaching, and

assessment that ensures the output of the educational programs to meet the development

needs of the country (HERQA 2006).

2.14 Student Assessment in Ethiopia

Following the development of education and training policy in 1994, first, to

primary then to secondary levels, learner-centred approaches of teaching and continuous

assessment were introduced. The intention of implementing learner-centred and

continuous assessment was two-fold. One was to reduce wastage and the other was to

improve the quality of teaching learning process.

To that effect, MOE (2005) reported that the repetition rate of primary school

students in grades decreased at national level. The decrease in the repetition rate,

according to the report was influenced by the implementation of continuous assessment

in many schools that facilitated the promotion of students from one grade to the next

grade. As a result, the national repetition rate for grades 1-8 level fell to 4.25% in

2003/04 from the high rate of 11.90% in 1996/97. This 7.65% reduction in the repetition

64
rate in seven years was pointed out as evidence of an improvement in the internal

efficiency of the primary school system (Damtew, 2011).

With the establishment of 10 new universities in 2007, the active learning and

continuous assessment strategies have begun to an issue in higher education in Ethiopia

to that Wollega University took the initiation to begin the practice. Now days, though

there are differences in extent of implementation of active learning and continuous

assessment methods among higher education in Ethiopia, the trend has not brought

significant change. Presently, in average, the teaching and learning within the Ethiopian

higher education is very teacher-led and curriculum-based that focuses on the contents to

be covered (Raju 2007; Daniel, 2004). Course objectives generally cover knowledge but

often not skills and attitudes. They do not specify employability qualities to be developed

such as communication, report writing and working as part of a team. The instructors

usually use lecture notes that mostly work in a “chalk and talk” situation (Daniel, 2004).

Learning is often measured by testing students on the material they have received

from the instructor through lectures. The assessment methods in the higher education

institutions are relatively ineffective to measure and test a wide range of work-related

skills and abilities like problem solving abilities, teamwork capability or communication

skills. It is not a common practice to use evaluation techniques such as self assessment,

team assessment, oral presentation, or report writing (Raju, 2007; Daniel, 2004).

Most of the Ethiopian higher education institutions use norm-referenced

assessment techniques that focus on how students’ achievements vary within a group.

The assessment is comparative, telling that one student is better than another student. The

65
achievement of student learning is often measured by testing students on their knowledge

of the content covered. The norm-referenced assessment is not associated with learning

outcomes, and it is inappropriate for measuring students’ achievements (Raju, 2007).

Daniel (2004) examined the way teaching and learning experiences are organized,

the approaches that are adopted, the institutional support made available for teachers and

learners, and related issues in the Ethiopian higher education. The dominance of the

lecture method, poor guidance and counselling services, lack of pedagogical training,

lack of experience and qualifications of teachers, attitude towards education courses and

teaching, poor evaluation mechanism, limitations in the area of research, and shortage of

resources and facilities were identified as problems that affect quality of teaching and

learning in higher education institutions.

With regard to assessment of students’ learning, Daniel (2004) explained that test

and measurement practices of Ethiopian Higher Education did not adequately serve the

purpose they were intended for. Implementation of assignments in the form of projects,

and term papers in quite many programs was found limited. The types of examinations

given seem to encourage students to memorize facts. The evaluation practice is generally

summative. There is little or no habit of planning a test particularly with the aim of

improving teaching. Though the primary purpose of measurement in education is to

improve learning, in practice measurement and evaluation exercises in many programs of

Ethiopian higher institutions were poor at least in terms of giving feedback and in

motivating further learning (Daniel, 2004).

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 Raju (2007) conducted a survey that compared perceptions and reflections of

Ethiopian and Indian professors who were teaching in Addis Ababa University on

assessment of students. The result of the study revealed that the system of assessment

was supposed to include continuous assessment and a final examination. At an

undergraduate level as well as at the graduate level, the continuous assessment included

only one midterm test, and probably one or two assignments.

According to Raju (2007), the large number of students per class inhibited to

implement group assignments in that one or two students of the group write the

assignment ‘on behalf’ of the group. In overcrowded classroom teachers cannot identify

who were active participants and who were not active enough. Hence it becomes crucial

to examine the relationship among perceptions of course assessments, study behaviour

and academic achievement of students of Higher Education in Ethiopia at least to inform

concerned bodies like MOE, university administrators, teachers, etc. with regard to the

area and mechanisms of improvements.

2.15 Significance of the Study

The extent to which students learn in class by large determined by the way teachers

deliver their lessons and assess them. When students feel the assessment as interesting

and helpful, they put effort to study and to achieve high (Brookhart, 1997; McNair,

Bhargava, Adams, Edgerton, and Krypos, 2003). Thus, effective assessments shape

students’ perceptions and study behaviour. Otherwise, as Rangachari (2006) reported

students develop negative feeling towards assessment and utilize surface study strategy

which also influences their performance.

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 Since currently active learning and continuous assessments have become the

concern of universities to improve the learning of students in Ethiopia, it becomes timely

to investigate the assessment methods that universities are implementing, students’

perceptions of course assessments and the study behaviour of students.

Research has shown that individual behaviour is guided by personal perceptions

(Fouts, 1990). Then students’ attitude can be influenced by assessment (Brookhart,

1999). On the other hand, perceptions of course assessments influence their behaviour of

studying courses which in turn influence their academic performance. However, little

attention has been given to students' perceptions of assessments and its relation to study

behaviour and academic achievement (Marcus, Gross, and Seefeldt, 1991). In addition,

although perceptions of assessments and study behaviour were reported as correlates to

academic achievements of students, limited studies have focused on the relationship

among perceptions of course assessment, study behaviour and academic achievement that

this study intends to examine in depth.

Furthermore, the examination of the significant differences in perceptions of

assessments and study behaviour as function of the students’ gender, year of study and

field of specialization could help to provide support for the students according to the gap

being observed.

This study differs in its scope and concern from other studies in that it attempted

to examine the implementation of course assessment method, perceptions of course

assessments, study behaviour and their relationships with academic achievement of

students. Hence the result of present study will broaden our understanding of the

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relationship among perceptions of course assessments, study behaviour and academic

achievements of students in order to devise assessment strategies that may positively

influence students’ attitudes and help them develop effective study behaviours and

improve their academic performances.

The result of the study may also contribute to the effort made at all levels of the

education system (with special focus to higher education) in Ethiopia to improve the

quality of education by changing assessment methods and by installing appropriate study

behaviour of students. In addition it may help academic programs to build a classroom

atmosphere where students feel comfortable, responsible and self confident that would

initiate them work hard. Furthermore, the result of the study may inform professionals

design training programs for teachers on assessment and methods of teaching considering

feeling, views and attitudes of students.

Similarly, the finding of the study may initiate Ministry of Education, university

administrators, colleges and faculties to develop counselling services in universities that

mainly focuses on improvement of students’ perceptions of course assessments and their

study behaviour so as to increase academic performance of students. Importantly, the

finding of the study will bridge the gap in local literature on the relationship among

students’ perception of assessment, study behaviour and academic achievement.

2.16 Scope of the Study

The scope of this study is limited to Wollega University in Ethiopia. Wollega is

found in Oromia Regional State. It is a publicly funded university located at 331 km

away from the capital city-Addis Ababa, in the western part of Ethiopia in Nekemte

69
Town. The university is one of the 10 new universities established in the year 2007 that

took the initiative to implement student centred teaching method and continuous

assessment strategy.

There are about 9200 students in the university in the year 2011/12. Since it may

be not cost effective to include all students, the samples of 14.6% of the students were

participated in this study. The participants were selected from 1st to 3rd year of studies

by considering their fields of specialization, namely, Natural Sciences, Social Sciences,

and Engineering.

2.17 Definitions of Important Terms

1. Assessment – It refers to the process of collecting, synthesizing, interpreting, and

using qualitative and/or quantitative information for decision-making and planning

for instruction and learning. Assessment is an integral part of instruction that

enhances, empowers, and facilitates student teaching (Heywood, 1977). Assessment

is different from evaluation in that evaluation involves looking at all factors that

influence the learning process, such as syllabus objectives, course design, materials,

methodology, teacher performance and assessment. Assessment and evaluation are

often linked, because assessment is one of the most valuable sources of information

about what is happening in a learning environment (Harris & McCann, 1994).

2. Academic achievement- It refers to the aggregated scores that a student earns as

cumulative grade point average (CGPA) possibly at the end of a semester after a

course(s) or classroom instructions have been conducted in the university. The grade

students earn can be influenced by factors like the assessment methods used, the

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 perception a student has about course assessment practices, and the study behaviour

of the students. For the purpose of this study, cumulative grade point average

(CGPA) was used as a proxy of academic achievement. CGPA is calculated by

dividing the total amount of grade points earned over the semester(s) by the total

amount of credit hours attended (Wollega University Legislation, 2008).

3. Study behaviour- It refers to the fundamental variable under examination; the sum of

all study actions a student engages in, including study approaches, habits, attitudes,

and strategies. In this study habits and study approaches directly imply study

behaviour.

4. Perception– For the purpose of the present research, perception is conceptualized as

views or opinions held by an individual resulting from experience and external

factors acting on the individual. In this study, perception, view, opinion, and attitude

are interchangeably used.

5. Perception of assessment– It refers to the overall meaning that students make out of

the various teachers' assessment practices in the classroom (Brookhart & DeVoge,

1999).

6. Field of specialization– It refers to the general area of fields such as Natural Science,

Social Science, Engineering and other related fields that students choose to study.

7. Gender– This refers to the biological differences between male and female students

8. Year of study- It refers to the number of years a student stay in the university

attending a course of study.

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 9. University student- It refers to a student who is enrolled in various departments and

presently attending his/her study from first year to third year in his/ her respective

field of specialization in the Wollega University in Ethiopia.

10. Relationship- For the purpose of this study, the relationship is defined as a tendency

for two or more characteristics or variables to vary together or be related to

individuals in a group, but not cause-effect association.

2.18 Statement of the Problem

Results of researches tell us very convincingly about the importance of

assessment in all levels of education. For example, assessments are reported to

significantly influence the students' behaviour (studying and learning) and academic

performance. Assessments were found to significantly influence learning strategies,

domain of knowledge being assessed and performance outcome of students (Scouller,

1998). These show that assessment design help to shape the way students’ approach and

study courses. Lizzio et al. (2002) indicated that inappropriate assessment influences

students towards a surface study approach.

As a result, the way students approach and study a course influence a grade they

achieve (Scouller 1998). On the other hand, their motivation of studying a course

possibly depends upon the perceptions they hold about assessment practices. Reversely,

the grade they receive on assessments can influence their motivation and shape their

perceptions of course assessments.

Indeed, assessment method is a salient influence of perception of assessment,

study behaviour, and academic achievement of students (Scouller, 1998). To this end,

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Gibbs and Simpson (2004) advised that prior to begin to improve the teaching learning

process where assessment is a part, it requires first to change the assessment before

anything else. Importantly, it is worth contributing to investigate the relationships that

study behaviour, perception of assessment and academic achievement of students have

together and separately to each other before introducing a change in teaching learning

process in general and to the assessment method in particular. Being observed as a

complex process, what methods, materials and instruments are used to facilitate learning,

evaluation and assessment in higher education seek special concern.

Though the influences of assessment on the academic achievement of students

have widely been investigated, especially, at primary and secondary levels, few have

considered the perceptions that students hold about assessments. In addition, it is difficult

to find adequate research results that delineate the relationship between the perceptions of

course assessments and study behaviour of students with their contribution to students’

academic achievement. Hence, in the present research, relationship among perceptions of

course assessments, study behaviour, and academic achievement of students will be

examined.

Furthermore, it was confirmed that classroom assessment could reasonably foster,

nurture and accelerate or stifle attitudes, skills, knowledge and thinking of students.

Besides, being unable to address the students’ perception of assessment is equivalent to

lack of adequate information about the behaviour of students (Cillessen & Lafontana,

2002).

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 In this study, higher education is focused because at this level, there are complex

ways of teaching and assessments. Compared to lower levels (primary and secondary

schools), student life at higher education level is flexible. Furthermore, relatively, at

higher education level, students are learning by self-directing and responsibility for

monitoring their actions at which behaviours influence learning and academic

achievement.

Hence, studying the relationships among perceptions of course assessments, study

behaviour and academic achievement of students especially in higher education has many

advantages. It helps to shape perceptions and attitudes of students, device assessment

strategies that motivate students to learn and install counselling services that would help

develop appropriate study behaviour in students. Furthermore it also helps to fosters

academic achievement of students, encourages students to appropriately use their time

and informs concerned bodies like teachers, university administrators, MOE etc the areas

to be considered to improve students' attitude, perceptions, behaviours and their

intellectual development. Hence, the present study could contribute necessary

information in supporting government effort which directed at enhancing assessments in

higher education.

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