Anatomy and Physiology (Introduction)

Prepared by:
ANDREW D. NGO, RN
ANATOMY
-Is the study of structure and shape of the body and body parts and their relationship to one another.
a.Gross Anatomy
b.Microscopic Anatomy

Physiology
- Is the study of how the body and its parts work or function.
-Physio: nature
- ology: study of

I. LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION

• CHEMICAL LEVEL
• TISSUE LEVEL
• ORGAN LEVEL
• ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL
• ORGANISMAL LEVEL

II. ORGAN SYSTEMS

1. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
2. SKELETAL SYSTEM
3. MUSCULAR SYSTEM
4. NERVOUS SYSTEM
5. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
6. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
7. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
8. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
9. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
10. URINARY SYSTEM
11. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
12. SPECIAL SENSES

III. MAINTAINING LIFE

What does this highly organize human beings do?
1. MAINTAIN THEIR BOUNDERIES
2. MOVE
3. RESPOND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES
4. CARRY OUT METABOLISM
5. TAKE AND DIGEST NUTRIENTS
6. DISPOSE WASTE
7. GROW
8. REPRODUCE THEMSELVES

IV. SURVIVAL NEEDS

1. NUTRIENTS

1
 2. OXYGEN
3. WATER
4. APPROPRIATE TEMPERATURE
5. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
V. HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISMS
3 components:
1. RECEPTOR
-Monitors and responds the changes in the environment
-Afferent pathway
2. CONTROL CENTER
- Determines the level (set point) at which a variable is to be maintained; analyzes the
information it receives and then determines the appropriate response or course of action
- Efferent Pathway
3. EFFECTOR
- Provides the means for the control center’s response (output) to the stimulus.

Results of the Response:

a. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM: The net effect of the response is to shut off the original
response or reduce its intensity.
- Most homeostatic control mechanisms…
b. Positive Feedback Mechanism: Tend to increase the original disturbance (stimulus) and to
push the variable farther from its original value.
Ex. Blood Clotting
Birth of the Baby

VI. The Language of Anatomy

A. Anatomical Postion
B. Directional Terms
C. Body Landmarks
D. Body Planes and Sections
E. Body Cavities

ANATOMICAL POSITION
DIRECTIONAL TERMS:
Term Definition Example

1. Superior (cranial or cephalad) Toward the head end or upper part of a
structure of the body; above
2. Inferior (caudal) Away from the heah end or toward the lower
part of the structure of the body; below
3. Anterior Toward or at the front of the body; in front of
4. Posterior Toward at the backside of the body; behind
5. Medial Toward or at the midline of the body; on inner
side of
6. Lateral Away from the midline of the body; on the
outer side of
The forehead is superior to the nose
The navel is inferior to the breastbone
The breastbone is anterior to the spine
The heart is posterior to the breastbone
The heart is medial to the arm
The arms are lateral to the chest

2
7. Intermediate Between a more medial and a more lateral The armpit is intermediate betrween the
structure breastbone and the shoulder
8. Proximal Close to the origin of the body part or the The elbow is proximal to the wrist
point of attachment of the limb to the body
trunk
9. Distal Farther for the origin of a body part The knee is distal to the thigh
10. Superficial Toward or at the body surface The skin is siperficial to the skeleton
11. Deep Away from the body surface, more internal The lungs are deep to the ribcage

DIRECTIONAL TERMS:
Anterior BODY LANDMARKS:
1. Abdominal (antriorbody trunk inferior to the ribs)
2. Antecubital (anterior surface of the elbow)
3. Axillary (Armpit)
4. Brachial (arm)
5. Buccal (cheek area)
6. Carpal (wrist)
7. Cervical (neck region)
8. Digital (fingers, toes)
9. Femoral (thigh)
10. Inguinal (area where thigh meets body trunk)
11. nasal (nose area)
12. oral (mouth)
13. orbital (eye area)
14. patellar (anterior knee)
15. peroneal (lateral part of the leg)
16. pubic (genital region)
17. sternal (breastbone area)
18. tarsal (ankle region)
19. thoracic (cheast)
20. Umbilical (navel)
21. Crural (anterior of the calf)
Posterior BODY LANDMARKS:
1. Cephalic (head)
2. Deltoid (curve of shoulder formed by large deltoid muscle)
3. Gluteal (buttock)
4. Lumbar (area of back between ribs anh hips)
5. Occipital (posterior surface of the head)
6. popliteal (posterior knee area)
7. scapular: shoulder blade region
8. sural: the posterior surface of the lower leg; the calf
9. vertebral (area of the spine)

Body Planes and Sections

1. Sagittal Section- cut made along the lengthwise or longitudinal
- Dividing the body into right and lef
- Midsagittal/ Median: if the cut is made along the legthwise plane that divides the body with
right and lef parts are equal in size
2. Frontal Section- divides the body into anterior and posterior

3
 - Also called “Coronal Section”
3. Transverse Section – cut is made along horizontal plane
- Divides the body into superior and posterior
- Also called, “Cross Section”

Body Cavities
1. Dorsal Body Cavitiy
2 Divisions:
a. Cranial- space inside thed bony skull
b. Spinal – spinal cord: protected by vertebrae (surrounds the spinal cavity)
2. Ventral Body Cavity
- Contains structures within the chest and abdomen
Divisions:
a. Thoracic
b. Abdominopelvic

ABDOMINAL REGIONS:

Concepts of Matter and Energy

- Anaything that occupies space and has mass (wieght)
- Solid, liquid and gaseous state
- Solid (bones and teeth have definite shape and volume)
- Liquids (Body liquids: blood plasma and the interstitial fluids that bathes all body cells); have
definite volume, but they conform to the shape of their container.
- Gases: have neither a definite shape nor definite volume
Changes in Matter:
1. Physical Change: do not alter the basic structure of the substance
Ex. Ice melting; food cut into small pieces
2. Chemical Change: do alter the composition of the substance’ often substantially.
Ex. Fermenting grapes to make wine; digestion of food in the body…
ENERGY
- Massless and does not occupies space
- Can only be measured by its effect on matter
- Defined as the ability to do work or put matter into motion
A. Kinetic Energy: actually doing work

4
 B. Potential Energy: inactive or stored (as in the batteries of an unused toy)
- Matter is the substance and energy is the mover of the substance
Forms of Energy:
1. Chemical Energy
2. Electrical Energy
3. Mechanical Energy
4. Radiant Energy
1. Chemical Energy: is the energy stored in the bonds of chemical substances. When the bonds
are broken, the stored, or potential energy is released for use; that is, it becomes kinetic energy…
Ex. When gasoline molecules are broken apart in your automobile engine, the energy released powers
your car.
- All body activities are run by the chemical energy harvested from the food we eat.
2. Electrical Energy: is the energy that resutls from the movement of charged particles.
- Flow of electrons along the wiring (house)
- Body: generate when charged particles called ions move across cell membranes
3. Mechanical Energy: is directly involved in moving matter.
- When you ride a bicycle, your legs provide the mechanical energy that moves the pedal.
4. Radiant Energy: is the energy that travels in waves, that is, energy of the electromagenetic
spectrum, which includes X-rays and infrared, light, radio, and ultraviolet waves.
- Light Energy: which stimulate the retinas of the eyes, is important in vision.
- Ultraviolet waves: are responsible for that suntan we get at the beach but also sitmulates our bodies to
make Vitamin D.

Composition of Matter:
1. Elements: unique substances that cannot be decomposed or broken down into simpler substance by
ordinary chemical methods
- Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen: make up about 96 percent of the body
2. Atom: The building bl.ock of an element, or the smallest particle that still remains its special
properties
- Atoms of each element differ from those of other elements

Biochemistry: The Chemical Composition of the Living Matter

1. Organic Compounds: are carbon containing compounds
- Crabohydrates, lipid, proteins, nucleic acids
2. Inorganic Compounds: lack carbon and tend to be simpler, smaller molecules.
- water, salts and many (not all) acid and bases

A. Inorganic Compounds: Water, Salts, many acid and bases

1. Water
- Is the most abundant inorganic compound in the body
- It account about two-thirds of the body weight
- Essential properties:
a. High Heat Capacity: it absorbs and releases large amounts of heat before its temperature
changes appreciably.
- It prevents the sudden changes in body temperature that might otherwise result from intense sun
exposure, chilling, winter winds, or internal events, such as vigorous muscle activity, that liberate large
amount of heat.
Water: properties (continuation)

5
b. Polarity/ Solvent Properties
- Universal solvent
- Solvent: liquid or gas in which smaller amounts of ither substance called solute… can be
dissolved or suspended
- Solution: Resulting mixture; solute particles are fairle minute
- Suspension: Solute particles are fairly large
Molecules cannot react chemically unless they are in a solution
c. Chemical Reactivity
- Important reactant in some types of chemical reactions.
- Hydrolysis Reaction
d. Cushioning
- CSF (Cerebrospinal Fluid)
- Amniotic FLuid

TERMINOLOGIES:
1. Solvent- a liquid that holds a substance in a solution.
e.g. Water (primary solvent in the body)
2. Solute- substance that dissolve in a solution.
e.g. Electrolytes and non-electrolytes
3. Osmosis: water molecules passes from an area of lesser solute concentration to an area of
greater solute concentration until equilbrium is established.
4. Osmolarity of a Solution: refers to the concentratkion of the particles in a solution, or its
pulling force. (275-295mOsm/L: same as plasma)
Movements of Substances through a plasma membrane:
a. Paasive Transport: w/o energy required (Diffusion and Filtration)
b. Active Transport (Needs energy to drive the transport process: Sulute Pumping and Bulk
Transport
5. Diffusion- is the tendency of the solute to move freely throughout a solvent. The solute moves
from an area of greater concentration ot and area of lesser concentration until unit equilibrium is
established. (Downhill)
- Gases also moves by diffusion (O2 and CO2)
- Kinetic energy of the molecules
- The smaller the faster
- The warmer the faster
- Ex. Putting a cube of sugar in your coffee…

a. Simple Diffusion: Lipid Soluble (Fats, fats soluble vitamins, oxygen, CO2); solutes small enough to
pass the membrane pores (small ions: Chloride)
b. Facilitated Diffusion: protein carrier is needed as transport vehicle
- Glucose

B. Filtration: is the process by which water and solutes are forced through a membrane or capillary wall
by fluid or hydrostatic pressure (exerted by the blood).
- Pressure Gradient: actually pushes solute containing fluid (filtrate) from higher pressure area to
lwer pressure area.
- Kidneys (water and small solutes filter out)

6
 6. Active Transport: is the process that requires energy for the movement of the substance
through a cell membrane from an area of lesser solute concentration to an area of higher solute
concentration.
-ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
a. Solute pumping
b. Bulk Transport
TERMINOLOGIES:
a. Solute Pumping: similar to facilitated diffusion.
- Requires protein
- Solute pump: uses ATP to energize protein carriers.
b. .Bulk Transport:
1. Exocytosis: Move substance out of the cell
- hormones, mucus
- Product to be released is packaged
2. Endocytosis: into the cells
- Take up or engulf extracellular substances by enclosing them in a small m embranous sac.
- Moves into the cytoplasm
- Fuses with lysozyme and contents are digested.
- Phagocytosis: large particles such as bacteria or dead cells…

Inorganic Compounds: (continuation)

2. Salt
- Most plentiful salts are those containing calcium and phosphorous (bones and teeth)
All salts are electrolytes (substance that conduct electrical current in a soulution)
3. Acid and Bases
- Electrolytes: they ionize and then dissociate in water and can then conduct an electrical current.
Characteristics of Acid:
 Have a sour taste
 Can dissolve many metals or burn a hole in your rug
 Substance that can release hydrogen ions in detectable amounts
 Proton donors
Characteristics of Bases:
 Bitter taste
 Proton acceptors
 Hydroxides (common inorganic bases)
- pH: Acid-Base Concentrations
Relative concentration of hydrogen (and hydroxyl ions in various body fluids is measured in
concentration units (pH units).
- Devised by: “Sorensen”, a Danish biochemist
pH scale: 0-14
Blood pH: 7.35-7.45 (when blood pH begins to dip in the acid range, the amount of life sustaining oxygen
that the Hgb in the blood can carry to body cells begin to decline rapidly to dangerous levels).

B. Organic Compounds
A. CARBOHYDRATES
B. LIPIDS
C. PROTEINS
D. ENZYMES

7
 E. NUCLEIC ACIDS
A. CARBOHYDRATES
- SUGAR AND STARCHES
Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
Hydrated Carbon
Ex. Glucose: C6 H12 O6
Ribose: C5 H10 O5
3 Classifications:
1. Monosaccharide
2. Disaccharide
3. Polysachharide
Monosaccharide
- One sugar
- Simple sugar
- Glucose: blood sugar (universal cellular fuel)
- Fructose and galactose (converted to glucose)
- Ribose and Deoxyribose (form part of the sructure of the nucleic acid)
Disaccharide
- Double sugars (two simple sugars are joined)
- Dehydration Synthesis: a water molecule is lost as the bond forms
- Ex. Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose)
- Lactose (Glucose + Galactose)
- Maltose (Glucose + Glucose)
- Must be broken down into simple sugars in order to be absorbed
- Hydrolysis: water molecule is added to each bond, the bond is broken and the simple sugar unit
is released.
Polysaccharide
- Literally: Many sugar
- Long branching chains of simple sugars
- Because they are large insoluble molecules, they are ideal storage products
Ex. Starch: storage polysaccharide form in plants
- Grain products, root vegetables: potatoes and carrots)
Glycogen: found in animal tissues (largely in muscles and liver)

B. Lipids
- Enters the body in the form of fats (marbled meat, egg yolks, milk products and oil)
- Neutral Fats, Phospholipids and Steroids: Most abundant in the body
a. Neutral Fats or Triglycerides:
- 2 types of building blocks: Fatty acid and glycerol
- May be solid (typically of animal fats) or liquid (plant oils)
- Represent the body’s most abundant and concentrated source of usable energy
- Help insulate the body and protect deeper tissues from heat loss and bumps
b. Phospholipids
- Always part of molecule
- Present in cellular boundaries (membranes) allow cell to be selective about what may enter or
leave.
c. Steroids
- Cholesterol: single most important steroid molecule

8
 - Found in all cell membranes
- Saturated fat and cholesterol: been implicated to cause atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis…

C. Proteins
Account for over 50% of organic matter in the body
Amino acids: building blocks of protein
1. Fibrous/ Structural Proteins:
- Providing strength in certain body tissues
- Ex. collagen: bone, cartilage and tendons
- Keratin: Hair, nails and skin
2. Globular Proteins:
- Play a crucial role in virtually all biological processes
- Functional proteins: do things rather than just from structures
- Ex. Antibodies, Hormones, Enzymes

D. Enzyme and Enzyme Activity

- Enzyme: functional proteins that act as biological catalysts
- Catalyst: is a substance that increases that rate of chemical reaction without becoming part of the
substance/ product od being changed itself
Ex. Hydrolases: which adds water
Oxidases: causes oxidation
E. Nucleic Acid
Fundamental: make up the genes (basic blueprint of life)
Direct growth and development
Building blocks: Nucleutides
2 major kinds:
1. DNA
2. RNA (molecular slave of DNA)
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
2 Fundamental Roles:
a. Replicates itself exactly before a cell divides; ensuring that genetic information in every body
cells is identical.
b. Provides instructions for building every protein in the body
Thymine (T)
Adenine (A) Pair Bond
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G) Pair Bond
F. ATP
Provides a form of chemical energy that is usable by all body cells
Without ATP: molecules cannot be made nor broken

III. CELLS AND TISSUES

a. CELLS
Robert Hooke (1600): was looking through a primitive microscope at sokme plant tissue- cork
- He saw some cube-like structures that reminded him of the long rows of monk’s rooms (cells) at
the monastery.
- Trillions of microscopic building blocks

9
 - Interstitial Fluid: Dilute saltwater solution that constantly bathe all the cells in the body (all
exchanges between cells and blood are made through this fluid.
Cells vary in:
a. SIZE (Micrometers)
b. Shape
c. Functions
3 Main Regions/Parts of Cell:
1. Nucleus (Nuclear Membrane; Nuclei, Chromatin)
2. Cytoplasm
3. Plasma Membrane

b. Cytoplasmic Organelles:
1. Ribosomes
2. Endoplasmic reticulum
3. Golgi apparatus
4. Lysozomes
5. Peroxisomes
6. Mitochondria
7. Cytoskeleton
8. Centrioles

c. Cell Division:
2 Types of Cell Division:
1. Mitosis: one cell with the diploid no. of chromosomes divides into two identical cells, each with
diploid number of chromosomes.
- Necessary for growth of organism and repair of tissues.
2. Meiosis: more complex process of cell division that results in the formation of gametes, which are
egg and sperm cells.

Cell Life Cycle: 2 Major Periods:

1. Interphase (cell grows and carries its usual metabolic activities): Duplication of DNA material
2. Cell Division (reproduce itself)
- Events:
a. Mitosis
b. Cytokinesis

Tissues and Membranes

1. Epithelial tissues- found on surfaces; have no capillaries; some are capable of secretion;
classified as to shape of cells and number of layers of cell.
2. Connective tissue- all have a non-living intercellular matrix and specialized cells
3. Muscle Tissue- specialized to contract and bring about movements
4. Nerve Tissue- neurons are specialized to generate and transmit impulses

a. Epithelial Tissue
1. Simple Squamous- one layer of flat cells; thin and smooth.
Sites: Alveoli (to permit diffusion of gases)
Capillaries (to permit exchange between blood and tissue)
2. Stratified Squamous- many layers of mostly flat cells; mitosis takes place in the lowest layer.

10
Sites: Epidermis (where surface cells are dead: a barrier of pathogens)
Lining of mouth, esophagus and vagina.
3. Transitional Epithelium- stratified, yet surface cells are rounded and flatten when stretched.
Site: Urinary bladder (to permit expansion without tearing the lining)
Epithelial Tissue
4. Simple Cuboidal: one layer of cube-shaped cells; Glandular epithelium
Sites: Thyroid gland (to secrete thyroid hormones)
Slaivary Glands (to secrete saliva)
Kidney Tubules (to reabsorb useful materials back to blood)
5. Simple Columnar- one layer of column-shaped cells, Specialized for secretion and absorption
Sites: Stomach lining (to secrete gastric juice);
Small Intestine Lining (to scerete digestive enzymes and and absorb nutrients- microvilli increases
the surface area of absorption)
Epithelial Tissue
6. Ciliated Columnar Cells- with cilia on free surfaces.
Site: Trachea (to sweep mucous and bacteria to the pharnyx)
Fallopian tube (to sweep ovum to the uterus)
7. Glands-epithelial tissues that produce secretions.
a. Unicellular: one-celled gland. Goblet cells secret mucus in the respiratory and digestive tract.
b. Multicellular: many celled glands.
- Exocrine glands: have ducts; salivary glands secrete saliva into the ducts that carry it to the oral
cavity.
- Endocrine glands: secrete hormones directly into the capillaries (no ducts)
b. Connective Tissue
1. Blood- the matrix is plasma, mostly water, transports materials in the blood.
2. Areolar (loose)-cells are fibroblasts; which produce protein fibers:Collagen is strong, elastin is
elastic.
- Matirx: Collagen, elastin and tissue fluid, White blood cells and mast cells are also present.
- Site: below the dermis and below the epithelium of tracts that open to the environment (to
destroy pathogens that enters the body)
3. Adipose- cells are adipocytes that stores fats.
Sites: between the skin and muscles (to store energy)
around the eyes and kidneys (to cushion)
also involve in appetite, use of insulin and inflammation
4. Fibrous- mostly matrix, strong collagen fibers; cells are fibroblasts.
Regular fibrous sites: Tendons (to connect muscles and bones)
Ligaments (bone to bone)
- poor blood supply (poor healing)
Irregular fibrous sites: dermis of the skin and fascia around muscles
5. Elastic-mostly matrix, elastin fibers.
Sites: walls of large arteries (to maintain blood pressure)
around alveoli (to promote normal exhalation)
6. Bone- cells are osteocytes; matrix is calcium salts and collagen , strong and not flexible; good blood
supply and rapid healing.
Sites: bones of the skeleton (to support the body and protect internal organs from mechanical injury)
7. Cartilage- cells are chondrocytes; protein matrix is firm yet flexible; no cpillaries in matrix’ very slow
healing.
Sites: joint surfaces of the bones (to prevent friction)

11
 tip of nose and external ear (to support)
wall of the trachea (to keep air passage open)
discs between the vertbrae (to absrob shock)
c. Muscle Tissues
1. Skeletal – also called striated or voluntary muscle.
- Cells are cylindrical, have several nuclei and striations.
- Each cell has motor nerve endings; nerve impulses are essential to cause contraction.
- Sites: skeletal muscles attached to bones
2. Smooth muscles: aslos called visceral or involuntary muscle.
- Cells have tapered ends, one nucleus each and no striations.
- Contraction is not under voluntary control.
- Sites: stomac and intestines (peristalltic movement)
- Walls of the arteries and veins (to maintain blood pressure)
- Iris (to constric and dilate pupils)
3. Cardiac- cells are branched, have one nucleus each and faint striations.
Site; walls of the four chambers of the heart
d. Nerve Tissue
1. Cell body contains the nucleus; axon carries impulses away from the cell body; dendrites carries
impulses toward the cell body.
2. A synapse is the space between two neurons; a neurotransmitter carries impulses across a
synapse.
3. Specialized cells in nerve tissue are neuroglia in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS.
4. Sites: Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves (to provide sensation, movement, regulation of body
functions, learning and memory)

Integumentary System
- Consists of the skin and its accessory structures and the subcutaneous tissues.
- The two major layers of the skin are the outer epidermis and the inner dermis.
Functions: Skin/ Cutaneous membrane
1. Waterproofs
2. Keep fluid inside the body
3. Insulates and cushions the deepest body organs and protects the entire body from mechanical
damge (BUMPS AND CUTS); chemical damage (acid and bases), thermal damage 9heat and
cold), bacterial damage, UV protection,
4. Regulates heat loss from the body surface
5. Synthesis of vitamin D
6. Mini-excretory system (urea salts and water are lost when we sweat)
7. Cutaneous sensory receptors (touch, pressure, temperature, pain)
Structures of the SKIN:
1. Epidermis- Stratified squamous epithelium; capable of “keratinizing” or becoming hard and
tough.
2. Dermis- dense connective tissue
3. Subcutaneous tissue/ Hypodermis-
- Adipose tissue
- Not consider as part of the skin but it does anchor the skin to underlying organs
- Insulates the deeper tissue from extreme temp outside the body

12
A. EPIDERMIS
- Compose of five zones or layers called: “Strata”
a. Stratum Corneum
b. Stratum Lucidum
c. Stratum Granulosum
d. Stratum Spinosum
e. Stratum Basale
B. DERMIS
2 MAJOR REGIONS:
a. Papillary Layer
b. Reticular layer
A. Papillary Layer
- Upper dermal region
- Dermal papillae (contains papillary loops)
- Receptors:
a. Pain Receptors (free nerve endings)
b. Meissner’s Corpuscles (touch receptors)
- Fingerprints: (ridges of the fingertips are well provided with sweat pores and leaves a unique
identifying film of sweat)
B. Reticular Layer
- Deepest skin layer
- Contains blood vessels
- Sweat and oil glands
- Pacinian Corpuscles (deep pressure receptors)
- Collagen and Elastic Fibers
Skin Color: 3 pigments
a. The amount and kind of melanin in the epidermis.
b. The amount of carotene deposioted in the stratum corneum and subcutaneous tissue.
- Carotene: is an orange-yellow pigement foun din abundant amount in carrots, other ornage,
deep yellow and green leafy vegetables.
c. The amount of Oxygen bound to hemoglobin in dermal blood vessels.
Skin Colors:
Cyanosis
Redness/ Erythema
Pallor/ Blanching
Jaundice/ Yeelow cast
Brusies (Black or blue marks)

References: Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology (5th edition) by Valerie C. Scanlon and Tina Sanders
: Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology (6 th edition) by Elaine N. Marieb

13