Energy Policy 113 (2018) 513–522

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Policy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enpol

Electricity sector in Ecuador: An overview of the 2007–2017 decade T

a,⁎ b c d b
M.A. Ponce-Jara , M. Castro , M.R. Pelaez-Samaniego , J.L. Espinoza-Abad , E. Ruiz
a
Faculty of Engineering, Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí (ULEAM), Ecuador
b
Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Spanish University for Distance Education (UNED), Spain
c
Faculty of Chemical Sciences, Universidad de Cuenca (UC), Cuenca, Ecuador
d
Faculty of Engineering, DEET, Universidad de Cuenca (UC), Cuenca-Ecuador

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Ecuadorian electricity sector has undergone several changes during the past decade. The objective of this
Energy policies paper is twofold: a) to show how the Ecuadorian electricity sector has evolved from 2007 to 2017, and b) to
Electricity reform discuss the relationship between energy policies and their impacts on electricity supply, management, tariffs,
Renewable energies and the country's economy. Although oil remains as the main energy source and the leading driver for economic
Ecuador
revenue, several hydropower projects have been built or are under construction intending in part to reduce the
country's dependence on oil. The installed hydropower capacity in the country in 2017 is approximately 81%
higher than in 2007 and it is expected that, by 2018, approximately 93% of the electricity will be produced from
hydropower. Currently, biomass and biogas contribute with 1.8% of the total electricity generation, but only
0.6% of the electricity is produced in wind and solar farms. Adoption of smart grid technologies is key to
transform the Ecuadorian electricity network and to positively impact the quality of the electricity supply. The
future of the Ecuadorian electricity sector relies on the successful implementation of the new Organic Law of
Public Service of Electricity and on external financing for new energy projects.

1. Introduction colleagues in their study on the Ecuadorian energy sector (Peláez-

Historically, the Ecuadorian electricity sector has undergone several
changes on its management and operation model. These changes have
heavily depended upon oil prices, since oil has been the major source of
exports, and thus, a key source of revenue for the Ecuadorian State. For
instance, during the oil price boom (2007–2014) the revenues of oil
exports reached an average of 56% of the total exports of the country
(BCE, 2017). Part of the oil profits have been invested on developing
other energy areas, particularly the electricity sector.
The evolution of the electricity sector in Ecuador, from a manage-
ment and operation point of view, can be divided into three periods:
1961–1999, 1999–2007, and 2007–2017. In the first and third periods,
the Ecuadorian electric sector has been operated and controlled by
public institutions owned by the State. The first period corresponded to
a vertical model of state-owned monopoly, and the third one has been
characterized by the existence of a regulated wholesale market model,
where the vertical model was partially disintegrated but the influential
role of the Ecuadorian State has remained intact. The period from 1999
to 2007, conversely, ended the State monopoly of the first period and
established a liberalized wholesale market model. The history before
2007 and its description have been presented by Peláez-Samaniego and
Samaniego et al., 2007).
Since the left-wing political party Alianza País won the elections in
2007, Ecuador has taken a variety of political and economic steps,
motivated in part by the necessity of embracing some social policies to
reduce inequality in the country (IWGIA, 2008). Those steps have led to
important changes in the Ecuadorian energy sector. Besides economic
changes, the energy policies in the country have promoted the devel-
opment of new hydroelectricity plants at different scales, which aim to
reduce the dependence on oil and the onerous costs associated to
thermoelectric generation. As a result, the matrix of electricity gen-
eration has been changing constantly since 2007. At the same time, new
energy sources, including solar and wind, have been explored with the
intent of diversifying the electricity generation mix (MEER, 2017a).
Table 1 shows the main differences between the characteristics of
the Ecuadorian electricity sector in the period 1999–2007 and the
period 2007–2017. These differences are analyzed in detail on the
following sections. Every adjustment can be tied to shifts in the Ecua-
dorian energy policies. The objective of this paper is twofold: a) to show
how the Ecuadorian electricity sector has evolved from 2007 to 2017,
and, b) to discuss the relationship between the Ecuadorian new energy
policies and their impacts on electricity supply, management, tariffs,

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: marcos.ponce@uleam.edu.ec (M.A. Ponce-Jara).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2017.11.036
Received 23 August 2017; Received in revised form 17 November 2017; Accepted 18 November 2017
0301-4215/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.A. Ponce-Jara et al. Energy Policy 113 (2018) 513–522

Table 1
Characteristics of the Ecuadorian electricity sector in periods 1999–2007 and 2007–2017, Adapted from: (Peláez-Samaniego et al., 2007; CONELEC, 2009; ARCONEL, 2016a).

Features Period 1999–2007 Period 2007–2017

Laws and regulations Law of Regime of the Electricity Sector (LRSE), promulgated in 1996. The LRSE (2007–2015) was amended. Later, the Organic Law of the Public
Service of Electrical Energy (LOSPEE) was promulgated in 2015.
Governing Structure The electricity sector was integrated by CONELEC (in charge of regulating The new governing structure is integrated mostly by State-owned
and controlling the electricity sector), CENACE (in charge of managing the institutions and companies: MEER*, ARCONEL, CENACE, public
commercial transactions of the Wholesale Electricity Market), as well as Corporations such as CELEC and CNEL and their business units (in charge of
private and state-owned companies for generation, transmission and the generation and distribution of electricity), and a few private companies
distribution of electricity. in charge of electricity generation.
State intervention The State regulated and controlled the electricity sector. The State administers, regulates, controls and manages the whole electricity
sector (i.e., generation, transmission, and distribution).
Market model Liberalized wholesale market. Regulated wholesale market.
Electricity Prices Determined in a “spot market”. Determined by ARCONEL (annually).

* Nomenclature (all by their Spanish acronyms): CONELEC – National Electricity Council, ARCONEL – Electricity Regulation and Control Agency, CELEC – Electricity Corporation of
Ecuador, CNEL – National Corporation of Electricity, MEER – Ministry of Electricity and Renewable Energy, CENACE – National Energy Control Center.

and the country's economy. In order to reach these goals, in Section 2
we examine historical and socio-political factors that influenced the
dissolution of the Law of Regime of the Electricity Sector (LRSE, for its
acronym in Spanish), the main energy policy framework active until
2015, and that led to the establishment of the Organic Law of the Public
Service of Electricity (LOSPEE, for its acronym in Spanish). In Section 3
we discuss and compare the current status of the electricity sector in
Ecuador with the previous period. We also present a projection of the
evolution of the power generation capacity until 2022. Finally, in
Section 4 we describe the current status of non-conventional renewable
energies (NCRE) and Smart Grid (SG) initiatives in the country and a
brief discussion on the driving forces that are encouraging the adoption
of such initiatives is presented.
2. Evolution of the structure of the Ecuadorian electricity sector
2.1. Background
The promulgation of the LRSE in 1996, effective with amendments
until 2015, did not provide a solid basis for establishing a liberalized
wholesale market model in the electricity sector (CONELEC, 2007a).
This law was part of a worldwide trend of commercial, economic and
financial globalization, which focused on the liberalization of the
market with the intention of privatizing public energy utilities by at-
tracting private capital. According to the LRSE, the Ecuadorian State
abandoned its planning role in the electricity sector and the new
strategy was the promulgation of the Electrification National Plan. The
belief that promoted this new Plan was that the market, through its own
forces, principles and dynamism, would encourage new companies to
invest in electricity generation. However, the results were not sa-
tisfactory in Ecuador due to both insufficient interest of new companies
and lack of fresh capital (CONELEC, 2007a).
Other types of barriers were additionally identified since this model
started operating. One of these barriers was the huge tariff deficit en-
countered in April 1999. The cost of electricity for end consumers at
domestic, industrial and commercial level was up to 44% lower than
the real electricity tariff of US$ 8.24 cent/kWh (CONELEC, 2009). Due
to that deficit, the country was forced to establish a monthly adjustment
plan until the real was reached on October 1999. Nevertheless, the
Ecuadorian economic crash of 1999 worsened this scenario, causing a
strong tariff reduction to a minimum value of US$ 2.5 cent/kWh. This
tariff was maintained until May 2000, as seen in Fig. 1. Since then, the
electricity tariff was steadily increased throughout different readjust-
ment plans, but it never reached the target (real) tariff, thus producing
a critical financial situation on the electricity sector (CONELEC, 2009).
The application of a real tariff was complex, especially due to the large
asymmetries in the levels of income of the Ecuadorian population.
Therefore, governments in the period 1997–2007 had chosen to es-
tablish tariffs that have been below the costs of production (especially
because electricity produced from thermopower plants is expensive),
via subsidies to electricity. This deficit affected the cash flow of dis-
tribution companies, which were forced to accumulate huge debts to
the wholesale electricity market (i.e., to the State, since most companies
were State owned). Consequently, debt was the only available me-
chanism for distribution companies to recover economic resources for
their operation (CONELEC, 2007b).
In addition to the tariffs problem, other barriers such as high levels
of both technical and non-technical losses (23.4% in 2006), lack of
recovery of debts from final electricity buyers (i.e., costumers) (67.3%),
high dependence on the use of fossil fuels (450 million gallons/year),
long drought periods (especially from 2004 to 2006), increasing de-
pendence on electricity imports (up to 9.6%), as well as overload levels
in facilities, were some of the causes that led the electric power system
to an economic crisis (CONELEC, 2007b). Fig. 2 summarizes the main
factors that caused this crisis.
As a consequence of the urgency to solve the crisis in the electricity
sector, a new paradigm was considered by the Ecuadorian State in
2007. This paradigm basically required the State to recover its planning
role in new electricity generation projects in order to expand the
electricity supply, as one of the tools to promote economic develop-
ment. According to this new vision, the State would be in charge of
developing and managing large-scale power plants by using part of the
State budget or by promoting public-private partnerships. The MEER
was created by Executive Decree No. 475, on July 2007, in order to
strengthen the governing role of the State on the electricity sector and
to diversify the energy mix (MEER, 2014a). The Electrification Master
Plan (PME, for its acronym in Spanish) was required to be compulsory
rather than indicative, and the CONELEC was the institution re-
sponsible of ensuring that this requirement was accomplished. Legally,
these changes were possible after reforming the LRSE in 2006 (Ecuador,
2006). This reform helped the State to create and strengthen legal
frameworks and to generate a new institutional structure. All these
policies were supported by the first National Development Plan
(2007–2010), as part of a national political transformation proposed by
the Government (MICSE, 2016a). One of the first steps related to the
electricity sector was the approval of the Constitutional Mandate No. 15
on July 23rd, 2008, by the National Constitutional Assembly. The most
important guidelines of this Mandate (Ecuador, 2008a) were:
a. A unique electricity tariff was established for each type of electricity
consumer (i.e., residential, commercial, and industrial).
b. The State would be the only institution in charge of investing in
generation, transmission and distribution of electric utilities. The
budget for this purpose will be included in the State's Annual
Budget.
c. The Ministry of Finances would be responsible of covering any dif-
ference between the unique tariff and the costs of generation,
transmission and distribution.

514
M.A. Ponce-Jara et al. Energy Policy 113 (2018) 513–522

Fig. 1. Electricity tariff evolution, April 1999 – October 2008

(CONELEC, 2009) (USDc stands for US$ cents).

No. 006/08, CONELEC No. 013/08 and CONELEC No. 004/09, which
Restricons aimed at establishing specific regulatory parameters for the creation of
and low a unique tariff, in order to apply the provisions established in the
quality Constitutional Mandate No. 15. They also aimed at establishing prin-
services
ciples and regulatory parameters related to the ways in which the
Lack of electricity market had to operate. The resulting legal framework and its
High energy
investment prices amendments were sometimes contradicting. For instance, “the pre-
sumptive billing”, according to which the end-users were invoiced with
Ecuadorian a monthly estimation of electricity consumption, was not accurately
electricity adopted. This initiative partially failed due to lack of electricity meters
crisis (especially in poor sub-urban areas), to the difficulties found when in-
Lack of stalling them, and the difficulties of directly reading those equipment in
payment to Insufficient some neighborhoods that were considered dangerous. These procedures
the electric tariff rates contradicted the provisions established in the law and lasted until the
market
Poor end of 2014 (ARCONEL, 2016a).
management In order to prepare rules according to the new constitution and
of political conditions of the country, a clear regulation for each stake-
distribuon
companies holder of the Ecuadorian electricity sector (those specified by LRSE)
was required. Consequently, the LRSE was derogated and replaced by
Fig. 2. Factors that caused the economic crisis in the Ecuadorian electricity sector in 2006 the Organic Law of The Public Service of Electrical Energy (LOSPEE, for
(CONELEC, 2007a). its acronym in Spanish) on January 16th, 2015. This new legal frame-
work reinforced the State's position in the electric sector, represented
by MEER, as the sole institution in charge of planning and construction
d. The State's General Budget would take care of the Fund for Rural
of electricity facilities and distribution of the electric energy to end-
and Marginal Urban Electrification (FERUM, for its acronym in
users. The MEER is also in charge of the maintenance and operation of
Spanish), a program to increase electricity coverage in the rural and
the whole power system. These tasks could be carried out by public
marginal urban areas of the country.
companies or joint ventures in which the State has a majority share-
e. All unpaid accounts from generation, transmission and distribution
holding. The State could delegate this activity to private companies
companies in which the State had participation, directly or through
only under exceptional circumstances (Ecuador, 2015).
its institutions, were eliminated.
f. All the debts that generation, transmission and distribution com-
panies owed to PETROECUADOR (the public national company in 2.2.1. Current structure of the electricity sector
charge of the exploration and exploitation of oil) were eliminated. With the new organizational structure, the MEER is the national
energy authority. Under the MEER is the ARCONEL, which replaces the
The second big step to organize the new energy scenario was the CONELEC. The CENACE, an institution created by the LRSE in 1996,
approval, by Constitutional Referendum, of a new Constitution of the acquired renewed legal structure and duties as the National Electricity
country on September 28th, 2008. In its Fifth Chapter, the new Operator. On the other hand, the regulated wholesale market is formed
Constitution is devoted to strategic sectors, services and public com- by the so-called “business units”, constituted by public generators,
panies, and the electricity sector was positioned as one of the main distribution companies and large consumers that are incorporated into
strategic sectors in which the State's role is to administer, regulate, the Interconnected National System (SNI, for its acronym in Spanish).
control, and manage. In addition, the State shall establish public com- Besides, private generators and others small public distribution com-
panies to manage this strategic sector, as well as to provide public panies (which operate similarly to private companies) are also actors in
services and use natural resources in a sustainable manner (Ecuador, the electricity sector. Fig. 3 shows the relationships in this energy
2008b). market model, as well as the regulatory and supervisory agencies for
technical and financial operations. Each of these stakeholders is briefly
2.2. Current period: Organic Law of The Public Service of Electrical Energy described in the next section.
(LOSPEE)
2.2.1.1. The Ministry of Electricity and Renewable Energy (MEER). The
Since the Constitutional Mandate No. 15 was approved, a series of MEER is the governing and planning body of the electricity sector. The
laws and amendments were applied to fulfill the execution of such MEER's role is to solve all the electricity needs by formulating relevant
Mandate. Three of those amendments were the regulations CONELEC regulations, development plans and sectorial policies (ARCONEL,

515
M.A. Ponce-Jara et al. Energy Policy 113 (2018) 513–522

Fig. 4. Business Units of CELEC EP (CELEC.EP, 2017b).

– Supervise and coordinate supply and use of fuel to generate elec-

Fig. 3. Organizational structure and market model of the Ecuadorian electricity sector.
tricity.
Adapted from (Ecuador, 2015).

2.2.1.4. Electrical Corporation of Ecuador (CELEC). The CELEC is a

2016a). Among its duties, it has to:
public corporation created by Executive Decree No. 220, on January
14th, 2010. The Corporation is integrated by all large power generators
– Elaborate the National Electricity Plan and the National Energy
and the country's power transmission company. Fig. 4 shows the 13
Efficiency Plan.
business units of CELEC (CELEC.EP, 2017b).
– Supervise and evaluate execution of policies, plans, programs, and
projects, as well as it has to administer and control the electric
companies.
2.2.1.5. National Corporation of Electricity (CNEL). The CNEL is
– Promote the use of clean and alternative energies.
currently the largest public electricity distribution and trading
– Authorize the operation and the concession of contracts by issuing
company in Ecuador. It was constituted by the Executive Decree No.
operating certificates for electric companies.
1459 on March 13, 2013. Currently, this Corporation supplies
– Authorize the execution and operation of projects developed by
electricity to approximately 45% of the national territory and
public companies and joint ventures with private companies.
approximately 50% of the population. CNEL is constituted by several
– Promote regional energy integration (i.e., at the Andean Community
business units, as shown in Fig. 5 (CNEL.EP, 2017a). The rest of the
level, which includes Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and, under
territory is covered by distribution companies that are not part of CNEL.
special conditions, Chile) and establish policies for electricity import
These companies are ELECGALAPAGOS S.A, EMELNORTE S.A, Ambato
and export.
Regional Centro Norte Electricity Company, Quito Electricity Company,
– Promote scientific and technological research related to electricity
Cotopaxi Electricity Company, Centrosur Electricity Company.
generation and supply.
– Promote electricity generation using renewable energies
– Promote energy efficiency.
3. The Ecuadorian electricity matrix
2.2.1.2. Electricity Regulation and Control Agency (ARCONEL). The
Since 2007, the Ecuadorian electricity sector has undergone a series
ARCONEL is the administrative technical department in charge of
of changes aiming at improving the operation of the national power
regulating and controlling activities related to the public electric
system and correcting the problems experienced in previous years.
power service and lighting service (ARCONEL, 2016a). Among its
Under the necessity of changing the energy matrix, the Ecuadorian
duties, it has to:
State is committed to substantially reducing the use of fossil fuels for
electricity generation and, instead, using its enormous hydropower
– Establish the regulation that governs the operations of electrical
potential and non-conventional renewable energies (NCRE). Renewable
companies, the National Electricity Operator (CENACE) and end
energies (mainly hydropower) are expected to take an important role in
users.
the new energy matrix, representing more than 90% of the power
– Control electricity companies to ensure their compliance with reg-
generation by 2018 (MEER, 2013a). The main drivers for this change
ulations and obligations specified in the operating certificates.
have been the need to reduce the country's historical dependency on
– Establish public electric service and lighting service tariffs.
fossil fuels when generating electricity (fossil fuels have been often
imported due to the lack of oil refining capacity in the country) a
2.2.1.3. National Energy Control Center (CENACE). The CENACE is the
general concern on climate change (MAE, 2017).
technical operator of the National Interconnected System (SNI), the
commercial administrator of the energy block transactions. It is
responsible of guaranteeing continuous power supply at the lowest
cost. The CENACE has to stick to the regulations issued by ARCONEL
(ARCONEL, 2016a). The main duties of CENACE, it has to:

– Conduct short, medium and long term operational plans for power
supply at the lowest cost, optimizing national and international
electricity transactions.
– Manage technically and commercially international electricity
transactions in behalf of the electricity sector.
– Manage the wholesale market transactions.
– Coordinate the planning and execution of generation and trans-
Fig. 5. Business Units of CNEL EP.
mission maintenance.
Adapted from (CNEL.EP, 2017a).

516
M.A. Ponce-Jara et al.
Sugar cane Wood 1%
products 2%
Other primaries Hydroenergy 4%
0.03%
Natural Gas 5%
Oil 88%
Fig. 6. Primary energy production in 2015 (million BOE) (MICSE, 2016b).
250
200
150
100
106 BOE
50
0 for year 2015 (Fig. 9). The same plan forecasted that, in 2016, ap-
-50
-100
-150
-200
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Energy Produc on Import
Export Non-U lized
Stock Varia on, Losses and Adjustments Total Transforma on
Self-Consump on Final Energy Consump on
Fig. 7. Ecuadorian Energy Balance, period 2007–2015 (MICSE, 2016b).
3.1. Power supply and transformation of the energy matrix
The production of primary energy in 2015 and the country's energy
balance are shown in Figs. 6 and 7, respectively. In Fig. 6, it can be seen
that most of the primary energy production depends on oil, which re-
presents approximately 88% of the total Ecuadorian energy matrix. In
2015, 65% of the oil produced was exported and 23% was refined
domestically in three refineries: Esmeraldas, La Libertad and Shush-
ufindi, with refining capacities of 110,000, 25,000, and 10,000 barrels/
day, respectively. These numbers have not varied in since 2007 (Pelaez-
Samaniego et al., 2007). The total oil production has not changed ei-
ther, with an average production of about 27.7 Mt annually since 2005
(BP, 2016). Natural gas, on the other hand, constitutes 4% of the pri-
mary energy production. The rest of the primary energy production is
constituted by hydroenergy (5%), energy from biomass (especially su-
garcane bagasse used for electricity production) (2%), firewood (1%)
and other primary sources (solar and wind) that represent 0.04% of the
total (MICSE, 2016b). The energy balance (Fig. 7), on the other hand,
shows that the primary energy production has changed little since
2007.
Regarding electricity generation, Ecuador has had a high de-
pendency on thermal power plants in the past decades. For example, in
2005, thermal power plants contributed with 43.1% of the electricity
produced in the country, whilst hydropower contributed with 45.5%
(Pelaez-Samaniego et al., 2007). This tendency did not change sig-
nificantly until 2016 (Fig. 8). This year, hydropower constituted 57.6%
of the electricity generation, resulting from the contribution of new
hydropower plants such as Coca-Codo-Sinclair (installed capacity of
1500 MW) and Sopladora (installed capacity of 487 MW), and in a
smaller amount to the increase in the use of NCRE (2.3%) such as
biomass, biogas, wind and solar energies. Conversely, imported
Energy Policy 113 (2018) 513–522
Fig. 8. Gross electricity production by type of source and year (GWh) (ARCONEL, 2017a).
electricity has reduced its share from 11.4% in 2005 to around 0.3% in
2016. The total electricity production in 2016 was 27,154.3 GWh, from
which 81% was distributed via the SNI (ARCONEL, 2016b).
According to the PME 2012–2021 (MEER, 2013a), the current
electricity production data matches with the prediction made in 2012
proximately 93.5% of the electricity would come from hydropower.
This has not happened yet, due to a delay in the construction of some
large hydroelectric projects. Even though Ecuador is on track to
meeting its purpose, since hydroelectric generation has presented an
2014 2015
increasing trend in the last three years and the NCREs have started to
contribute to the generation mix from several sources since 2012. The
Ecuadorian electricity generation capacity has grown at a relatively
steady pace from 2006 to 2015, increasing the installed capacity by
1935 MW, which represents an average evolution of 3.2% per year.
However, the installed capacity has doubled from 2015 to 2017,
reaching 4207 MW. This increase represents almost the same amount of
energy generation achieved during the last decade, mainly due to the
contribution of new hydropower plants (see Fig. 10), the most re-
presentative of which are Coca Codo Sinclair and Sopladora. The
nominal installed capacity available on March 2017 is presented in
Table 2. It is seen that the percentage of the contribution of NCREs
represents a minor share, in contrast to hydroelectric power plants’
contribution. On the other hand, power plants operating with Internal
Combustion Engines (ICE) have the largest share of the thermal power
plants, with 24.8% (ARCONEL, 2017a).
It is expected that, as a result of the shift of electricity generation
sources, the changes in the energy matrix will represent a reduction on
the use of fossil fuels from 578 million of gallons in 2014 to 77 million
of gallons in 2017 (i.e., a reduction of 87% in three years). In addition,
the reduction of oil consumption in thermal power plants will reduce
greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) from 3.96 Mt of CO2 in 2012 to 0.34
Mt of CO2 in 2017 (MEER, 2013a). Furthermore, due to changes in the
power sector, Ecuador expects to save approximately US$ 280 million
annually (considering 2016 oil prices) by not importing oil derived
Fig. 9. Gross electricity production by energy source – Horizon 2012–2021 (MEER,
2013a).
517
M.A. Ponce-Jara et al. Energy Policy 113 (2018) 513–522

9000 30000
8000
25000
7000

6000 20000
5000
MW

GWh
15000
4000
Nominal Power Capacity Electricity Demand
3000 10000
Effec ve Power Capacity Electricity Produccon
2000
5000
1000

0 0

Year Year
Fig. 10. Evolution of the installed power generation capacity in the period 2006–2017 Fig. 12. Electricity demand 2006–2017 (ARCONEL, 2016b) and (MCSE, 2016).
(MEER, 2013a) and (ARCONEL, 2017a).

accurate until 2016, allowing us to foresee that values predicted for

Table 2 year 2022 could be a good approximation of what the country's elec-
Nominal installed capacity of electricity generation in March 2017 (ARCONEL, 2017b).
tricity demand will be like.
Type of energy Generation type Nominal Power
Geographically, Guayas and Pichincha (in the Coastal region and in
the Andean highlands, respectively) have historically been the pro-
MW % vinces with the highest consumption of electricity in the country. In
2016 those provinces demanded for 58.9% of the total electricity used
Renewable Wind 21.2 0.3
Photovoltaic 26.5 0.3
in the country. Provinces situated in the highlands and those in the
Hydro 4446.4 53.7 coastal region represent 40.0% and 56.9% of the energy consumption,
Biomass 144.3 1.7 respectively. On the other hand, he Amazon and Insular (Galapagos)
Biogas 2.0 0.02 regions present the lowest electricity demand, with 2.8% and 0.3%,
Total Renewable 4640.0 56.1
respectively (ARCONEL, 2016b). The residential sector presented the
Non-Renewable ICE 2048.9 24.8
GT 1125.9 13.6 largest electricity consumer (37.6% of the total), followed by the in-
ST 461.9 5.6 dustrial sector (20.3%). The commercial sector used 25.3% and public
Total Non-Renewable 3636.6 43.9 lighting plus others consumed approximately 17% of the total
Total 8276.6 100 (ARCONEL, 2016b).
Nomenclature: ICE – Internal Combustion Engines (Diesel engines); GT – Gas Turbine; ST
– Steam Turbines (Rankine Cycle). 3.3. Energy efficiency programs

fuels for electricity generation (Andes, 2016).
3.2. Demand of electricity
The demand of electricity has increased by 32.9% since 2006 (from
18,159 GWh in 2006 to 27,071 GWh in 2016). Fig. 11 shows the elec-
tricity balance in 2016 and Fig. 12 presents the historical evolution of
electricity demand along with the energy production during the last
decade. It is seen that the electricity demand until 2016 has been larger
than the electricity production. Conversely, in 2016 the gross electricity
production (27,154 GWh), which includes imported energy from Co-
lombia and Peru, was higher than the demand (27,071 GWh) for the
first time. (ARCONEL, 2016b) and (MICSE, 2016b). Therefore, current
generation capacity is sufficient to cover the national demand. Ac-
cording to the MEER (MEER, 2013a), it is expected that this trend will
continue until 2022, since all projections have proved to be relatively
On May 2017, Ecuador launched its National Plan of Energy
Efficiency (PLANEE, for its acronym in Spanish) which intended to use
electricity more efficiently and to save energy. Among the tasks covered
by the program, they plan to develop the following: a) substituting old
appliances in the residential sector (especially 333,000 refrigerators
which would save US$ 27 million annually), b) substituting bulb lights
with energy saving compact fluorescent lights in the residential sector
(16 million bulbs from 2012 would save US$ 104 million annually), c)
implementing cogeneration projects in the industrial sector (especially
in the sugarcane industry), and d) promoting new/efficient technolo-
gies in the transportation sector (MEER, 2017b) and (Espinoza Abad
and Martínez Mosquera, 2015). As part of this program, Ecuador has
recently developed a small fleet of vehicles powered by electricity, in-
cluding a small fleet of electric taxis in Loja (in the south of the
country). This adds on to the electrically powered mass transport in
Quito (trolleybus) (MICSE, 2015). Other transportation programs that
will demand electricity are the tram in Cuenca and the metro in Quito,
both currently under construction. According to the MEER, the demand
of electricity in this sector will require the amount of energy produced
by a 76 MW power plant (MEER, 2014b). However, the electricity de-
mand could be even higher if private electric vehicles (EV) were suc-
cessfully implanted in the short term. Currently, there are several car
brands already offering EV models in the Ecuadorian car market.

3.4. National Interconnected System (SNI) and electricity coverage

The current status of the SNI shows a total of 5037 km of trans-

Fig. 11. Electricity balance in 2016 (ARCONEL, 2016b). (From the gross electricity mission lines, of which 264 km are electricity grids operating at 500 kV,
production, 4608 GWh were not available for public services and were used internally for 2595 km at 230 kV, and 2178 km at 138 kV. In addition, there are 58
self-consumption, production and exploitation processes).
electric stations with a total transformation capacity of 13375 MVA

518
M.A. Ponce-Jara et al. Energy Policy 113 (2018) 513–522

4. The status of the use of renewable energies in Ecuador

NCREs are expected to play an important role in the diversification

of the energy matrix worldwide and Ecuador is aware of the importance
of incorporating renewable energies to power generation. The following
sections describe the status of the use of renewables in Ecuador.

4.1. Hydroelectric energy

Hydroelectric energy is the country's most important renewable

Fig. 13. Annual electricity losses in the distribution system (ARCONEL, 2017c).
(CELEC. EP, 2017a). One of the main ongoing projects is the con-
struction of a 500 kV transmission grid system that will be used to
transport the energy produced by Coca Codo Sinclair. This new infra-
structure will guarantee the supply for the growing demand of elec-
tricity by providing a new electrical grid that crosses twelve provinces.
The infrastructure will be incorporated gradually and it is formed by
the following transmission grids (CELEC.EP, 2017c):
– 600 km of transmission lines at 500 kV
– 300 km of transmission lines at 230 kV
– 4800 MVA of transformation capacity
The coverage of electricity supply in Ecuador has increased by 4.3%
since 2006 (from 92.9% to 97.2% in 2015). The Galapagos Islands have
the highest electricity coverage (99.67%) and the Amazon region the
lowest (93.7%). The national electricity coverage is higher than the
average coverage in South America (94.8%) (ARCONEL, 2014) and
(MICSE, 2016b).
3.5. Losses in the distribution system
Fig. 13 shows the evolution of the annual electrical losses in the
distribution system from 1999 to 2015. It can be observed that the
losses were over 21% during the period 1999–2007. During that time,
the non-technical losses were about 20% higher than the technical
losses. Since 2006, losses have begun to decline due to the im-
plementation of the Plan for the Reduction of Electrical Energy Losses.
For instance, in 2015, the electricity losses were 12.1%, which was
10.9% lower than that reported in 2004 (ARCONEL, 2017b). The cur-
rent value (April 2017) of 12.1% is within international standards
(ARCONEL, 2017b) and (MEER, 2017c). This reduction in electricity
losses saved the country approximately US$ 200 million in 2014
(ARCONEL, 2015a). Although most of the electricity distribution
companies in the country show low electricity losses, there are a few
with relatively high losses (e.g., Manabí Electricity Company, with
24.2%).
source and, by using it, the State is trying to change its energy matrix.
Eight large hydroelectric projects are under construction, which will
add a capacity of 2778 MW to the total installed capacity in the country
(Vela, 2013). Table 3 shows the current status and the most important
characteristics of each of the hydropower plants projected until 2021.
To carry out these projects, Ecuador's oil sector has led the investments
in large hydropower plants. Chinese loans-for-oil agreements have en-
abled the country to access much of the necessary foreign credit, which
has and become the main source of income to change the electricity
sector (Escribano, 2013). In the long term, Ecuador's government will
face the challenge of diversifying external financial sources.
Lack of funding for new energy projects is not the only challenge the
Ecuadorian State is facing. Since the electricity sector is State-owned,
the public companies in charge of power generation and distribution
have become large institutions with high bureaucracy and centralized
management. For instance, in 2010, CELEC EP was created with six
business units, whereas in 2017 it has thirteen. One of the consequences
is the increase of operational costs. As an example, the operating costs
of CELEC EP have increased by 45% from 2014 to 2015, by 61% from
2014 to 2015 and it is expected that, by the end of 2017, these costs will
be 73% higher than those of 2014. Although this topic deserves further
study since it is premature to conclude about the correlation between
increased generation capacity and growth of operating costs, it appears
that a large part of higher operating costs is due to bureaucracy. It has
also been identified that all the important decisions regarding the op-
eration and management of CELEC EP are centralized and, in most
cases, require the authorization of the CELEC EP's Board of Directors,
which is chaired by the Minister of Electricity. Both the increase of
bureaucracy in CELEC EP and the tendency to centralize its manage-
ment could negatively impact the effectiveness of the company's man-
agement.
In addition to large hydropower plants, based on Regulation
(CONELEC 04/11), there is another category named “mini-hydro” that
includes hydropower projects with less than 50 MW of capacity. They
are considered NCRE because their environmental impact is low.
Within this category, 10 projects are currently under way, in ac-
cordance with the National Electrification Plan 2013–2022. The new
power plants will involve a total power of 170 MW with an investment
of around US$ 300 million. This new energy will represent about 4% of
the total installed capacity in the country. However, the costs of in-
vestments will mostly be borne by private companies (CONELEC,
2013).

Table 3
Current status and main characteristics of the Ecuadorian hydroelectric projects (MEER, 2017f).

Projects Installed capacity (MW) Expected production (GWh/year) Start date Expected completion date Project Status

Coca Codo Sinclair 1500 8734 July 2010 Nov. 2016 Finished in 2016
Minas San Francisco 275 1290 December 2011 2015 93% on February 2017
Delsitanisagua 180 1411 2011 2015 81% on February 2017
Manduriacu 65 367 2012 2014 Finished in 2015
Mazar-Dudas 21 125.4 2012 2014 87% on February 2017
Toachi Pilatón 254 1100 2011 2015 95% on February 2017
Quijos 50 355 2011 2015 47% on February 2017
Sopladora 487 2800 2010 2015 Finished in 2016

519
M.A. Ponce-Jara et al.
4.2. Solar energy
The first Solar Atlas of Ecuador for Power Generation Purposes was
published in 2008 by the CONELEC. It reported that the average solar
insolation of the country is approximately 4575 Wh/m2/day, which
proves the importance of this energy source in the country. The areas
with the highest radiation are located in the Andean Highlands
(CONELEC, 2008). In order to boost photovoltaic energy, the Ecua-
dorian State issued operating certificates that authorize the construc-
tion of 91 projects with a total capacity of 355 MW (15 of them with
installed capacity of 1 MW each or higher). These projects were based
on the regulations CONELEC 004/11 and 009/08 (Sanchez, 2015).
However, far from the expectations, photovoltaic generation installed
capacity at the end of 2015 was only 23.6 MW (with 17 utilities with
installed capacity above 1 MW) (ARCONEL, 2015b). Bureaucracy and
the lack of funding were the main obstacles that led to the revocation of
several photovoltaic projects (i.e., Resolution No. ARCONEL-015/16,
ARCONEL-030/15, ARCONEL-021/16, among others) (ARCONEL,
2017c).
Although photovoltaic energy has had little penetration in the
Ecuadorian continental area, it is important to highlight the presence of
this energy source in the Galapagos Islands with (a) the Baltra Island
photovoltaic project (0.2 MWp with a storage system of 0.9 MWh in
hybrid batteries), (b) the Puerto Ayora photovoltaic project (1.5 MWp);
and (c) the Isabela Hybrid project (0.92 MWp with a storage system of
0.26 MWh together with a 1.62 MW of dual thermal plant) (MEER,
2017d). Meanwhile, in the Ecuadorian Amazonian region, the following
projects are operating: first, the Euro-solar project, carried out as the
result of an agreement between the European Union and the govern-
ment of Ecuador (2007–2013). This project was executed in 91 com-
munities (66 from the Amazonian region and 25 from the coastal re-
gion). A photovoltaic system of 1.1 kWp was installed in each
community. It included internet (satellite connection V-SAT) (EU,
2013). Second, the Yatsa Ii Etsari program (“light from our sun”, in
Shuar language) carried out by the Centrosur Electricity Company,
which demonstrated that a decentralized rural electrification approach
could provide electricity in isolated communities of the Amazonian
Region. Between 2011 and 2015, the company successfully installed
over 3200 solar PV home systems distributed in almost 200 isolated and
scattered communities in the Morona Santiago province (Vásquez
Calero et al., 2015).
4.3. Wind energy
In Ecuador, the first wind power plant was installed in 2007 in the
San Cristobal Island (Galapagos province). It consisted of three turbines
with a total capacity of 2.4 MW. The project was carried out under an
agreement between by the Government of Ecuador and the Global
Sustainable Electricity Partnership (GSEP) (former e7 Group). Later on,
on January 2013, 16.5 MW were added to the SNI from the Villonaco
wind power plant located in the South of the country (Loja province).
The plant is formed by 11 wind turbines of 1.5 MW each (MEER,
2017e). Finally, on December 2014, the Baltra-Santa Cruz project (in
Galapagos) started its operations with three turbines and an installed
capacity of 2.25 MW. The project was carried out under an agreement
between the MEER and the United Nations Development Program
(UNDP) (ARCONEL, 2015b) and (MEER, 2017f). Despite the few wind
power plants in operation, Ecuador has an estimated wind energy po-
tential of 1670 MW, mainly in the Andean Highlands, according to the
first Wind Atlas of Ecuador for Power Generation issued in 2013 by the
MEER. From the mentioned potential, only 884 MW were identified as
feasible for exploitation in the short term. In the next few years, the
Huascachaca project (50 MW) will be implemented. It will be located in
the border of the provinces of Azuay and Loja. The bidding process
would take place in the second semester of 2017 (ELECAUSTRO, 2017).
520
Energy Policy 113 (2018) 513–522
4.4. Geothermal energy
Ecuador is a country with high volcanic activity since there are
more than fifty volcanoes in the Ecuadorian Highlands. Twenty of them
were active during the Holocene and another three are currently active
(Beate and Urquizo, 2015). Thus, there is a relatively high geothermal
energy potential (up to 950 MW). Although Ecuador began to explore
its geothermal energy in 1979, currently there are no plans that count
on this type of energy except for spas and thermal pools (Aguilera Ortiz
et al., 2015) and (Lloret and Labus, 2014). If energy policies do not
change, it is expected that geothermal projects could be executed in the
coming five to ten years. A complete list of geothermal projects and
their current status can be found in (INER, 2015).
4.5. Biomass
The main biomass resources potentially usable for energy produc-
tion are residues from the harvest and processing of banana, oil palm,
sugarcane, cocoa, rice and corn (Peláez Samaniego et al., 2015).
Nevertheless, only sugarcane bagasse, residues from oil palm proces-
sing, and residues from the wood industry (in small amounts) are cur-
rently used for electricity generation, and mostly in co-generation sys-
tems. The installed capacity of utilities producing electricity from
biomass is approximately 143 MW. From this capacity, 136.4 MW
(which produce over 400 GWh/year) are located in the sugarcane in-
dustry. The rest corresponds to the oil palm industry (2.2 MW), the
wood composites industry (1 MW), the ethanol industry (0.3 MW), and
landfills near Cuenca city (1 MW). The energy produced in these in-
dustries is normally for self-consumption, except for biogas from
landfills, which is sold to the national grid system.
The sugarcane industry is additionally contributing to the produc-
tion of ethanol for fuel. Since 2010, Ecuador adds up to 5% of ethanol to
regular gasoline, which is used mainly in Guayaquil, although currently
there are other cities (e.g., Cuenca) already using this fuel. The chal-
lenge for 2017 is to expand the addition of ethanol to gasoline in the
rest of the in order to substitute high octane naphta. To achieve this
goal, 36,000 ha of new sugar cane plantations have been incorporated
in recent years (MCPEC, 2014). Another important project is the use of
pinion oil (Jatropha curcas) in the production of electricity as a partial
substitute of fossil fuels in the Galapagos Islands. The first pilot project
is being carried out in Floreana Island by the construction of a hybrid
solar PV-thermal system of 21 kWp/138 kW that will use pinion oil as a
fuel as well (MEER, 2015).
4.6. Electrolytic hydrogen
Electrolysis is thought to be an important method for hydrogen
production from water in the medium term. This technology has been
used commercially for over 50 years and is economically cost-effective
when cheap electricity is available. It is likely that energy from hy-
droelectric and wind power plants could supply cheap electrical energy
for the production of hydrogen (Ponce-Jara et al., 2015). The avail-
ability of new hydropower plants in Ecuador is an opportunity to ex-
plore hydrogen as an energy vector. Pre-feasibility studies on producing
and using electrolytic hydrogen are being considered as a part of the
strategy towards a low carbon economy. Large hydroelectric utilities
that include large dams, such as CELEC EP-Hidropaute, could allow the
production of electrolytic hydrogen by taking advantage of the spilled
turbinable water. The potential uses of hydrogen in Ecuador include the
possibility of producing raw materials (e.g., ammonia for manu-
facturing nitrogenous fertilizers), for refining oil (since currently hy-
drogen for heavy oil refining in Ecuador is produced from petroleum),
or for generating electricity (Pelaez-Samaniego et al., 2014). In addi-
tion, hydrogen has been considered as an option for fueling urban
transportation in Cuenca (Posso et al., 2015). Even though hydrogen
can be a pathway to produce energy by means of fuel cells or
M.A. Ponce-Jara et al.
combustion engines during peak hours, it has been mentioned that the
subsidies to energy (especially oil-derived fuels) in Ecuador will hinder
the viability of incorporating hydrogen in the energy matrix of the
country (Ponce-Jara et al., 2016).
5. Subsidies to fossil fuels
On the last decade, subsidies to energy (i.e., subsidies for liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG), diesel, and gasoline, as well as subsidies to elec-
tricity) have been part of the government's policies. For instance, the
current price of LPG for domestic and small business use (approxi-
mately US$ 0.10 per kg) has not changed since 2001 and the prices of
regular gasoline and diesel for transportation have remained un-
changed since February 2003 (Creamer et al., 2016). Subsidies to
electricity focused on low-income population (i.e., households with an
electricity consumption under 110 kWh/month in the highlands and
under 130 kWh/month in the coastal region) have a special price and
are referred to as the “tariff of dignity”, US$ 0.04 /kWh, which is 55.5%
less than the real tariff (Creamer et al., 2016). According to the Central
Bank of Ecuador (BCE, 2017), from 2007 to 2016 the Ecuadorian State
has spent around US$ 22 billion on subsidies to fossil fuels. Diesel has
been the main subsidized fuel, followed by regular gasoline, LPG and
premium gasoline. Historically, policies intending to eliminate these
subsidies have been largely unpopular. As an attempt to reduce the
impact of subsidies on the national economy, the government, on Oc-
tober 2015 (by means of Decree 799), eliminated the subsidy on LPG for
industrial and commercial use, in addition to jet fuel and diesel and fuel
oil No. 6 for industrial use. Furthermore, since 2015, there is a monthly
adjustment plan of US$ 0.02 /gallon on premium gasoline until it
reaches the price of US$ 2.3/gallon (Creamer et al., 2016).
6. Smart Grids in Ecuador
Smart Grids (SGs) are considered the future of the current power
grid, which will solve many of the problems faced by electrical net-
works (Ponce-Jara et al., 2017). For instance, by incorporating in-
formation and communication technologies (ICT), SGs can optimize
generation sources, automate and renew the ancient electricity system,
reduce losses and introduce new sources of renewable and distributed
energy (Vasudevan et al., 2012). The path set toward SGs in Ecuador is
relatively new: the SG program of Ecuador – Road Map (REDIE, for its
acronym in Spanish) was published in January 2013 (MEER, 2013b).
This document is one way to facilitate the integration of different sta-
keholders, technologies, norms and standards, and it also provides the
basis for a modern and more reliable Ecuadorian electricity system.
Among the elements that integrate the SG Road Map, there are at least
five that correspond to ongoing projects. One of the most relevant
contributions deals with smart-metering, an initiative that is being
implemented by several electricity distribution companies since 2011.
The equipment for this project is AMI (Advanced Metering Infra-
structure) and it has the ability to immediately reconnect, repair da-
mages, detect and report power loss events and work through wireless
communication (CNEL.EP, 2017b). The increasing deployment of
smart-metering infrastructure presents opportunities to improve the
quality of the electricity service, to create a low voltage network, and to
gather data (WEF, 2017). In addition, SG Road Map has also enhanced
and contextualized ongoing initiatives fostered by the Ecuadorian
government since 2007. Some of them have already been analyzed in
previous sections and they include: eight large hydroelectric projects,
several small hydroelectric projects, the integration of renewable en-
ergies into the SNI, a 500 kV expansion of the transmission system,
energy efficiency projects, an Integrated System for Management of
Electrical Distribution System (SIGDE, for its acronym in Spanish), and
a cloud and data center (MEER, 2013b). However, there are important
challenges for the development of the SG, such as legal infrastructure,
dynamic pricing, or the high cost of smart-equipment (WEF, 2017) as
521
Energy Policy 113 (2018) 513–522
well as its own social and institutional complexity (Bale et al., 2015).
7. Conclusions
The Ecuadorian electricity sector has undergone several changes on
its structure, operation, and management model. Oil prices in the global
market have strongly influenced the development of the Ecuadorian
energy sector in general and the electricity sector in particular. During
the past decades, thermal power plants have been the main critical
source for electricity production in the country, and they have also been
favored by high fossil fuel subsidies. However, it is expected that, in
coming years, hydroelectricity will cover over 90% of the electricity
supply. This shift towards renewable energies will involve a stabiliza-
tion of the public expenditure by reducing the high dependence on
fossil fuels for electricity generation. Nevertheless, efficient manage-
ment of the power sector could be at risk if excessive bureaucracy is
added to public electric companies. In addition, Ecuador needs to di-
versify its energy matrix, mainly to prevent severe restrictions on
electricity generation caused by droughts. Thus, new sources such as
solar, geothermal, and wind are expected to increase their participation
in the generation of electricity since the integration of NCRE has been
sought key for this diversification. Nevertheless, it would also be ad-
visable to take into account the concept of “prosumer” in the
Ecuadorian legislation in order to encourage customers to self-power at
peak hours and sell power to the grid when required. In addition, en-
ergy efficiency programs and the adoption of SG technologies will help
reinforce the transformation of the Ecuadorian electricity network and
will positively impact the quality of the electricity supply. Finally,
taking into consideration the current political framework, it has become
clear that the State is highly motivated to move away from the fossil
fuel economy, which faces several challenges. The future of the
Ecuadorian electricity sector relies on the successful application of the
new Organic Law of Public Service of Electricity, the limitations of state
enterprises for managing and operating the electricity system, and on
external funding for new energy projects.
Acknowledgements
To Carmen Gallar Sánchez for English proofreading and editing.
Marcos Ponce acknowledges the Escuela de Doctorado from the UNED
(Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia), which has supported
part of this work as a part of the accreditation for the Ph.D. program
(Marcos Ponce).
References
Aguilera Ortiz, E, P.S.M.R., 2015. Estado de la exploración de la energía geotérmica en
Ecuador. In: Energías Renovables En El Ecuador. Situación Actual, Tendencias Y
Perspectivas. Universidad de Cuenca, Cuenca.
Andes, 2016 Agencia Pública de Noticias del Ecuador y Suramérica. Ecuador: nueva
hidroeléctrica ahorrará 280 millones de dólares al año [WWW Document]. URL:
〈http://www.andes.info.ec/es/noticias/ecuador-ahorrara-280-millones-anuales-
electricidad-nueva-hidroelectrica.html〉. (Accessed 28 January 2017).
ARCONEL, 2014. Agencia de Regulación y Control de Electricidad. Cobertura Anual del
Servicio 2005–2014 [WWW Document]. URL 〈http://www.regulacionelectrica.gob.
ec/estadistica-del-sector-electrico/produccion-anual-2/〉 (Accessed 14 February
2017).
ARCONEL, 2015a. El Consejo Mundial de Energía ubica al Ecuador entre los 5 mejores
países en Seguridad Energética a nivel mundial [WWW Document]. URL 〈http://
www.regulacionelectrica.gob.ec/el-consejo-mundial-de-energia-ubica-al-ecuador-
entre-los-5-mejores-paises-en-seguridad-energetica-a-nivel-mundial/〉 (Accessed 8
May 2017).
ARCONEL, 2015b. Agencia de Regulación y Control de Electricidad. Estadística
Multianual del Sector Eléctrico Ecuatoriano [WWW Document]. URL 〈http://
biblioteca.olade.org/opac-tmpl/Documentos/cg00343.pdf〉 (Accessed 10 January
2017).
ARCONEL, 2016a. Informe de Sustento al Proyecto de Regulación Sobre la Presentación
del Servicio Público de Distribución y Comercialización de Energía Eléctrica. Quito.
ARCONEL, 2016b. Agencia de Regulación y Control de Electricidad. Estadística Anual y
Multianual del Sector Eléctrico Ecuatoriano.
ARCONEL, 2017a. Agencia de Regulación y Control de Electricidad. Balance Nacional de
M.A. Ponce-Jara et al.
Energía [WWW Document]. URL 〈http://www.regulacionelectrica.gob.ec/
estadistica-del-sector-electrico/balance-nacional/〉 (Accessed 13 May 2017).
ARCONEL, 2017b. Agencia de Regulación y Control de Electricidad. Pérdidas anuales de
energía eléctrica en los sistemas de distribución (GWh) [WWW Document]. URL
〈http://www.regulacionelectrica.gob.ec/estadistica-del-sector-electrico/perdidas/〉
(Accessed 30 March 2017).
ARCONEL, 2017c. Agencia de Regulación y Control de Electricidad. Resoluciones
Directorio [WWW Document]. URL 〈http://www.regulacionelectrica.gob.ec/
resoluciones-directorio/〉 (Accessed 11 September 2017).
Bale, C.S.E., Varga, L., Foxon, T.J., 2015. Energy and complexity: new ways forward.
Appl. Energy 138, 150–159.
BCE, 2017. Banco Central del Ecuador [WWW Document]. URL 〈https://www.bce.fin.ec/
〉 (Accessed 10 August 2017).
Beate, B., Urquizo, M., 2015. Geothermal Country Update for Ecuador: 2010–2015
Bernardo. World Geothermal Congress 2015 14.
BP, 2016. Statistical Review of World Energy, BP Statistical Review of World Energy.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2013.06.172.
CELEC.EP, 2017a. Corporación Electrica del Ecuador. Infraestructura del Sistema
Nacional de Transmisión [WWW Document]. URL 〈https://www.celec.gob.ec/
transelectric/index.php?Option=com_content&view=article&id=276&Itemid=
557&lang=es〉 (Accessed 20 April 2017).
CELEC.EP, 2017c. Corporación Electrica del Ecuador. Sistema de transmisión de extra alta
tensión de 500 mil voltios [WWW Document]. URL 〈https://www.celec.gob.ec/
transelectric/index.php?Option=com_content&view=article&id=481&Itemid=
534&lang=es〉 (Accessed 25 March 2017).
CELEC.EP., 2017b. Corporación Electrica del Ecuador. Reseña Histórica [WWW
Document]. URL 〈https://www.celec.gob.ec/quienes-somos/resena-historica.html〉
(Accessed 28 April 2017).
CNEL.EP, 2017a. Corporación Nacional de Electricidad. ¿Quienes somos? [WWW
Document]. ¿Quienes somos? URL 〈http://www.cnelep.gob.ec/quienes-somos/〉
(Accessed 28 April 2017).
CNEL.EP, 2017b. Medidores inteligentes para el norte de Guayaquil [WWW Document].
URL 〈https://www.cnelep.gob.ec/2017/06/medidores-inteligentes-norte-guayaquil/
〉 (Accessed 23 July 2017).
CONELEC , 2007a. Consejo Nacional De Electricidad. Evaluación Y Perspectivas Para El
Sector 2007–2016 [WWW Document]. URL 〈http://www.regulacionelectrica.gob.ec/
plan-maestro-de-electrificacion-2007–2016/〉 (Accessed 7 February 2017).
CONELEC, 2008. Consejo Nacional De Electricidad. Atlas solar del Ecuador [WWW
Document]. URL 〈http://www.conelec.gob.ec/archivos_articulo/Atlas.pdf〉
(Accessed 10 January 2016).
CONELEC, 2013. Consejo Nacional De Electricidad. Pla Maestro de Electrificación
2013–2022. Quito.
CONELEC, 2007b. Consejo Nacional De Electricidad. Plan Maestro de Electrificación
2007-2016.
CONELEC, 2009. Consejo Nacional de Electricidad. Plan Maestro de Electrificacion 2009-
2020.
Creamer, B., Becerra, R., Consideraciones, A., 2016. Cuantificación de los subsidios de
derivados del petróleo a los hidrocarburos en el Ecuador. Petróleo Bol. Obs. Estad.
Sect. Hidrocarb. 2, 1–42.
Ecuador, 2008b. Suplemento – Registro Oficial No. 449, 20 de Octubre de 2008,
Constitución de la República del Ecuador.
Ecuador, 2015. Tercer Suplemento – Registro Oficial N°418, de 16 de enero de 2015, Ley
Orgánica Del Servicio Público De Energía Eléctrica.
Ecuador, 2006. Suplemento – Registro Oficial No. 364, de 26 de septiebre de 2006, Ley
Reformatoria de la LRSE. Quito.
Ecuador, 2008a. Suplemento – Registro Oficial No. 223, de 15 abril de 2007, Mandato
Constituyente No.15.
ELECAUSTRO, 2017. Proyecto Eólico Minas de Huascachaca [WWW Document]. URL
〈http://www.elecaustro.com.ec/index.php?Option=com_content&view=article&
id=65&Itemid=80〉 (Accessed 8 May 2017).
Escribano, G., 2013. Ecuador's energy policy mix: development versus conservation and
nationalism with Chinese loans. Energy Policy 57, 152–159. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.enpol.2013.01.022.
Espinoza Abad, J.L., Martínez Mosquera, P., 2015. Eficiencia energética y ahorro de
energía en el Ecuador. In: Peláez Samaniego, M.R.Y., Espinoza Abad, J. (Eds.),
Energías Renovables En El Ecuador. Situación Actual, Tendencias Y Perspectivas.
Universidad de Cuenca, Cuenca..
EU, 2013. European Union. Programa EURO-SOLAR Síntesis Final Energía renovable para
un desarrollo sostenible, Ref. Ares(2014)2463428 [WWW Document]. URL 〈http://
eeas.europa.eu/archives/delegations/mexico/documents/news/2014/20140725es_
euro-solar_brochure_web_12.01.2014.pdf〉 (Accessed 11 October 2017).
INER, 2015. Instituto Nacional de Eficiencia Energética y Energías Renovables. Plan de
líneas de investigación para el desarrollo de la geotermia [WWW Document]. URL
〈http://www.iner.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2015/07/plan_lineas_
investigacion_desarrollo_geotermia.pdf〉 (Accessed 9 August 2017).
IWGIA, 2008. The International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. The Indigenous world
2008. Copenhagen.
Lloret, A., Labus, J., Geothermal development in ecuador: history, current status and
future. In: Short Course VI on Utilization of Low- and Medium-Enthalpy Geothermal
Resources and Financial Aspects of Utilization 2014 Santa Tecla, El Salvador 1 11.
MAE, 2017. Ministerio del Ambiente. Acciones lideradas por el MAE para contrarrestar el
cambio climático en Ecuador [WWW Document]. URL 〈http://www.ambiente.gob.
ec/ecuador-demuestra-acciones-concretas-contra-el-cambio-climatico-lorena-tapia-
ministra-del-ambiente/〉 (Accessed 13 June 2017).
MCPEC, 2014. Ministerio Coordinador de Producción, Empleo y Competitividad. Ecopaís:
una muestra del cambio de la matriz productiva [WWW Document]. URL 〈http://
522
Energy Policy 113 (2018) 513–522
www.produccion.gob.ec/ecopais-una-muestra-del-cambio-de-la-matriz-productiva/〉
(Accessed 2 January 2017).
MEER, 2013a. Ministerio de elecricidad y energía renovable. Plan Maest. Electrificación
2012–2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004.
MEER, 2013b. Ministerio de electricidad y energías renovables. Programa Redes Intel. En.
Ecuad. (REDIE) - Mapa Ruta 2013.
MEER , 2014a. Miniesterio de Electricidad y Energía Renovable. Plan Estrategico
Institucional 2014–2017 [WWW Document]. URL 〈http://www.energia.gob.ec/wp-
content/uploads/downloads/2014/09/PLAN-ESTRATÉGICO-2.pdf〉 (Accessed 11
October 2017).
MEER, 2014b. Ministerio de electricidad y energía renovable. Plan Maest. Electrificación
2013–2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004.
MEER, 2015. Ministerio de Electricidad y Energía Renovable. Producción de Aceite de
Piñón para Plan Piloto de Generación Eléctrica en Galápagos [WWW Document].
URL 〈http://www.energia.gob.ec/produccion-de-aceite-de-pinon-para-plan-piloto-
de-generacion-electrica-en-galapagos/〉 (Accessed 2 February 2017).
MEER, 2017a. Ministerio de Electricidad y Energía Renovable. Programas y Servicios
[WWW Document]. URL 〈http://www.energia.gob.ec/category/programas-y-
servicios/〉 (Accessed 6 December 2017).
MEER, 2017b. Plan Nacional De Eficiencia Energética - PLANEE (Versión 2016–2035)
[WWW Document]. URL 〈http://www.energia.gob.ec/biblioteca/〉 (Accessed 23
July 2017).
MEER, 2017c. Plan de reducción de pérdidas de energía eléctrica – (PLANREP) [WWW
Document]. URL 〈http://www.energia.gob.ec/plan-de-reduccion-de-perdidas-de-
energia-electrica-planrep-2/〉 (Accessed 23 July 2017).
MEER, 2017d. Ministerio de Elecricidad y Energía Renovable. Cero Combustibles Fósiles
Galápagos [WWW Document]. URL 〈http://www.energia.gob.ec/cero-combustibles-
fosiles-en-galapagos-2/〉 (Accessed 13 April 2017).
MEER, 2017e. Ministerio de Electricidad y Energía Renovable. Central Eólica Villonaco
[WWW Document]. URL 〈http://www.energia.gob.ec/villonaco/〉 (Accessed 13
April 2017).
MEER, 2017f. Ministerio de Electricidad y Energía Renovable. Cero Combustibles Fósiles
Galápagos [WWW Document]. URL 〈http://www.energia.gob.ec/cero-combustibles-
fosiles-en-galapagos-2/〉 (Accessed 14 February 2017).
MICSE, 2015. Ministerio Coordinador de Sectores Estratégicos. Balance Energético
Nacional (con base 2014).
MICSE, 2016a. Ministerio Coordinador de Sectores Estratégicos. Agenda Nacional de la
Energía 2016–2040 [WWW Document]. URL 〈http://biblioteca.olade.org/opac-
tmpl/Documentos/cg00362.pdf〉 (Accessed 11 October 2017).
MICSE, 2016b. Ministerio Coordinador de Sectores Energéticos. Balance Energético
Nacional (año base 2015) [WWW Document]. URL 〈http://biblioteca.olade.org/
opac-tmpl/Documentos/cg00366.pdf〉 (Accessed 11 November 2017).
Peláez Samaniego, M.R., García Pérez, M.B.R.A., Martí Herrero, J., Montero Izquierdo, A.,
Meyer, F.D., García Núñez, J.A., 2015. Estado de uso de la biomasa para la
producción de bioenergía, biocombustibles y bioproductos en Ecuador. In: Peláez
Samaniego, M.R.Y., Espinoza Abad, J.L. (Eds.), Energías Renovables En El Ecuador.
Situación Actual, Tendencias Y Perspectivas. Universidad de Cuenca, Ecuador,
Cuenca.
Pelaez-Samaniego, M.R., Riveros-Godoy, G., Torres-Contreras, S., Garcia-Perez, T.,
Albornoz-Vintimilla, E., 2014. Production and use of electrolytic hydrogen in
Ecuador towards a low carbon economy. Energy 64, 626–631. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.energy.2013.11.012.
Peláez-Samaniego, M.R., Garcia-Perez, M., Cortez, L.A.B., Oscullo, J., Olmedo, G., 2007.
Energy sector in Ecuador: current status. Energy Policy 35, 4177–4189. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.enpol.2007.02.025.
Ponce-Jara, M.A., Moreano, M., Cano, C., 2015. Vehículos Propulsados por Hidrógeno:
barreras Técnicas y No Técnicas. In: Energía, Gobernanza Y Sostenibilidad.
Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Juarez, Estado del Durango, México, pp.
335–364.
Ponce-Jara, M.A., Moreano Alvarado, M., Gutierréz Lino, J.I., 2016. Ciudades compactas
y difusas: el crecimiento de Manta y su relación con la movilidad humana. Anál. Corp.
Desarro. Finanz. México 129–172.
Ponce-Jara, M.A., Ruiz, E., Gil, R., Sancristóbal, E., Pérez-Molina, C., Castro, M., 2017.
Smart Grid: assessment of the past and present in developed and developing coun-
tries. Energy Strateg. Rev. 18, 38–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.esr.2017.09.011.
Posso, F., Espinoza, J., Sánchez, J., Zalamea, J., 2015. Hydrogen from hydropower in
Ecuador: use and impacts in the transport sector. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy J. Hydrog.
Energy. (doi:15432-15447).
Sanchez, J.E., 2015. El Sector Energético del Ecuador y la Diversificación de la Matriz
Energética: El caso de Manta, 1ra ed. Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango,
Durango, Méjico.
Vásquez Calero, F., Urdiales Flores, L., Espinoza Abad, J.L., GarcíaRenté, M., 2015.
Energía Solar en el Ecuador. In: Peláez Samaniego, M.R.Y., Espinoza Abad, J.L. (Eds.),
Energías Renovables En El Ecuador. Situación Actual, Tendencias Y Perspectivas.
Universidad de Cuenca, Ecuador, Cuenca.
Vasudevan, J., Sekkappan, K., Yashwant, K., Jay, D., Swarup, K.S., 2012. Research issues
in Smart Grid - application to automation, renewable energy sources and demand
response. In: 2012 Annual IEEE India Conference (INDICON). pp. 1132–1137.
〈http://doi.org/10.1109/INDCON.2012.6420787〉.
Vela, M. de la P., 2013. Plan maestro de electrificación 2010–2020. Promesas Cargadas
Energy Opcion. Crecer Gest. Econ. Soc. 224, 9.
WEF, 2017. World Economic Forum. The Future of Electricity: New Technologies
Transforming the Grid Edge [WWW Document]. URL 〈https://www.weforum.org/
reports/the-future-of-electricity-new-technologies-transforming-the-grid-edge〉
(Accessed 6 May 2017).