AT THE END OF THIS SECTION, YOU WILL BE ABLE TO:
•
• Explain the basic electrical principles involved in an automobile
charging system
• Define the term electromagnetic
• Describe the operation of a generator
• Describe the operation of an alternator
• List the major components
You learned previously that the automo-
bile battery is a chemical source of electri-
city. However, we cannot just keep on using
the battery as a source of electric energy
without "putting something back." There is
a. limit to how long electric current can be
drawn from a battery. When that limit is
reached, the battery can no longer produce
enough current to perform its required func-
tions. Therefore, an alternate source of
electricity is needed on the vehicle to supple-
ment and replenish the electric energy pro-
vided by the battery. This alternate source
of electricity is provided by the charging
system of the vehicle. This charging system
consists of three major components:
1. The battery
2. The generator or alternator
3. The voltage regulator
CHARGING SYSTEM
FUNDAMENTALS
In a charging system, electricity is pro-
vided by either a generator or an alternator.
Both the generator and the alternator pro-
duce electricity by applying the principle of
electromagnetism.
In both the generator and the alterna-
tor, the basic operation is the same: when a
wire moves through a magnetic field, elec-
tricity is produced in the wire. This process
induction
of an alternator
is called induction. (You will learn more
about the principle of induction later in this
text.) The wire movement is provided by the
engine by way of a belt, and the magnetic
field is provided by a battery-powered
electromagnet.
In many ways the generator and alter-
nator, Figure 53, resemble a starter motor.
For example, they operate on the principle
of electromagnetism. They have field wind-
ings, an armature (or rotor), and brushes.
The generator and alternator, however, pro-
duce electric energy, while the starter motor
is driven by electric energy. As previously
mentioned, engine power is used to drive
the generator or alternator. The unit is
mounted-on the engine by means of brack-
ets, and engine power is transferred from
the crankshaft by means of a drive belt and
pulleys, Figure 54. Through a wiring har-
ness (set of wires) and a regulator, the gener-
ator or alternator supplies electricity to the
battery and electric devices on the car, Fig-
ure 55.
Supplying Electric Energy
You can recharge a storage battery, and
keep it charged, simply by reversing the
flow of current through it. This reverses the
chemical action inside each battery cell, so
thatthe battery will be capable of deliver-
ing current "on its own" when called upon
to do so, Figure 56. To charge the battery,
37

TERMINALS
COMMUTATOR
PULLEY
END FRAME
GENERATOR
FIGURE 53 - An alternator or generator converts mechanical energy supplied by
the engine into electric energy used to maintain the storage battery in a fully
charged condition. (Courtesy of General Motors Corp.)
and to maintain it in a properly charged
condition, the generator or alternator must
provide current flow to the battery in a di-
rection opposite to that of the current flow
that is coming from the battery. There will
be times, therefore, when the battery is be-
ing charged and not delivering electric
energy to the electric devices on the car. At
such times the alternator or generator is
supplying the electric energy required by
the ignition system and other electric de-
vices, such as the lights and radio, and is
also supplying current to charge the bat-
FIGURE 54 - The alternator or gener-
ator is driven by a drive belt that is con-
nected to the engine crankshaft.
38
FIELD
BRUSH-AND-
WINDING
TERMINAL
ASSEMBLY
ROTOR
ALTERNATOR
tery. At other times the battery and genera-
tor or alternator share the job of delivering
electric energy to the car. Keep in mind that
only the battery can supply electric energy
if the engine is not running.
You have learned previously that cur-
rent flows from the battery to operate the
starter motor and other electrical units.
Then the current returns to the battery. You
also learned that there must be a completed
circuit if current is to flow.
In all our previous discussions we have
considered electric current flowing in only
one direction. This type of current is called
direct current. In most of our commonly
used household items, from lights to toaster
to ra(tio and television, a different kind of
current called alternating current, Fig-
ure 57, is used. In the automobile the bat-
tery requires direct current for charging,
and it produces direct current when called
upon for electricity. Both alternators and
generators produce alternating current. The
difference is in the way they change alter-
nating current to direct current. The genera-
tor changes its current mechanically, while
the alternator changes its alternating cur-
rent to direct current electronically. You will
learri more about this subject as we go
along.
 IGNITION SWITCH

ALTERNATOR

BATTERY BATTERY

FIGURE 55 - A typical automotive charging system consists of a generator or alter-

nator, wiring, and a battery.

Electromagnetic Induction previous section on automobile starting

systems, it was established that a current-
In order to see how the charging system
carrying conductor always creates a mag-
of the generator or alternator functions, let
netic field around itself. The reverse is also
us take a close look at what it does. In the
true; that is, a current will flow in a conduc-

ALTERNATOR
GENERATOR
OR -- -- ~ LAMP

\ 1// /
A-C
i ----
/'

t t ALTERNATOR ----
<,

~/ I \\~
t t
-+-'-
( -) .-----------, (+) (-) ,..-------c...., (+)

BATTERY

CURRENT FLOW
BATTERY
- --- t\II//
DURING DISCHARGE
REVERSED FLOW
DURING CHARGE ---
./

A-C
ALTERNATOR
t ---
<,

FIGURE 56 - During discharge, cur- I I\\~

rent flows from the negative ( - ) termi-
nal of the battery through the circuit
and back into the positive ( + ) termi-
nal. To recharge the battery, this flow
- ---
FIGURE 57 - Alternating current
t
of current is reversed as shown, restor- flows first in one direction and then in
ing the battery to its original state. the opposite direction.

39

"
tor if the conductor is moved through a mag-
netic field. This phenomenon is the basis
for the performance of an automobile gener-
ator or alternator. A changing magnetic
field creates, or induces, a voltage in a
conductor in this field. The induction of a
voltage by a magnetic field is called elec-
tromagnetic induction.
Electromagnetic induction takes place
whenever a change occurs in the number of
magnetic lines of force passing through a
conductor. Such a change is caused by a rel-
ative movement of the lines and the conduc-
tor. This relative movement may be
obtained by moving a magnet near a sta-
tionary conductor, or by moving a conduc-
tor in a stationary magnetic field, as shown
in Figure 58.
The induced voltage in a conductor de-
pends on the rate of change in the magnetic
field, or on the number of lines of force cut
by the conductor in one second. When a con-
ductor cuts 100 million lines of force per
CONDUCTOR~
MOVEMENT ~
VOLTMETER
READS VOLTAGE
Ej
a
FIGURE 58 - When conductor is
passed through a magnetic field, a volt-
age is produced in the conductor. The
induction of a voltage in a conductor
by a magnetic field is electromagnetic
induction.
40
~
second; the voltage induced in the conduc-
tor is 1 V. The voltage induced in a conduc-
tor by electromagnetic induction is
increased by increasing the strength of the
magnetic field, the speed of motion, or the
length of the conductor that is within the
field.
TYPES OF
CHARGING SYSTEMS
As previously mentioned, there are two
basic types of charging systems. They are
generators and alternators.
Both of these types of systems produce
electricity that is used to charge the vehi-
cle's battery. The difference between them
is how the electricity is produced.
Generators
Generators are no longer used in auto-
mobiles and trucks, but are-occasionally
used on stationary engines, construction
equipment, and farm equipment. The mag-
netic field in a generator is produced by
permanent magnets called pole pieces, Fig-
ure 59. These pole pieces are strengthened .
by current from the battery. This battery .
current is sent to field coil windings, which
surround the permanent magnets on either ~
side of the armature. Electricity is produced
when the armature is turned by the drive
belt, causing the armature wires to move
through the magnetic field, Figure 60. The
current produced by the generator is alter-
nating current, which is rectified - that is
changed to direct current - by the position-
ing of the brushes and commutator. All the
DIRECTION OF
ROTATION
POLE PIECE
FIGURE 59 - A simple generator hav-
ing only one loop of wire and two iron
pole pieces is shown here.

COMMUTATOR
1---- CIRCUIT
WIRE
FIGURE 60 - When the engine turns
the generator, a voltage is induced in
the loop of wire.
generator output current goes through the
brushes and commutator, which causes
them to wear out quickly.
The generator output is controlled by a
voltage regulator that consists of a series of
electromechanical relays, Figure 61. The re-
lays consist of magnetic coils that open and
.close contact points. ,There are three relays
ma.generator system:
1. Voltage regulator relay. This-relay
controls the generator output voltage
to prevent overcharging the battery.
The relay cuts off the field current
when the voltage becomes high
VOLTAGE
_CURRENT
REGULATOR
REGULATOR
RELAY
RELAY
FIGURE 61 - A typical generator volt-
age regulator consists of three relays.
enough to cause the coil to pull the
contact points open. Once voltage
drops off, the points reclose by
spring pressure.
2. Current regulator relay. This relay
controls the generator current output
to protect the generator from over-
heating. The relay cuts off the field
current when the current becomes
high enough to cause the coil to pull
the contact points open. Once cur-
rent flow drops off, the points reclose
by spring pressure.
3. Cutout relay. This relay disconnects
the generator from the battery at low
speeds so that battery current will
not flow back into the generator (re-
ferred to as generator motoring).
Once the generator speeds up, the re-
lay recloses.
Although the complete assembly is
called a voltage regulator, it also controls
current and prevents generator motoring.
The generator usually has a charge indica-
tor light that will come on if the generator
stops producing electricity.
Alternators
The alternator, Figure 62, has replaced
the generator in modern cars. There are sev- "
eral reasons for.this: the alternator's /
smaller size and lighter weight, and its abil-
ity to produce higher current output at
lower speeds than most generators, are fore-
most. The advance in automobile electric ac-
cessories; ·especially the addition of devices
such as air conditioning, radio, and power
windows, have placed an increasingly
.heavy demand on the automobile's charg-
iQ:g system. <Theneed to maintain the bat-
a
tery at high level of charge while
operating many electric devices at low en-
gine speeds, a common occurrence in stop-
and-go city driving, was the major factor in
the transition to the alternator.
In most respects the alternator is like a
generator. It converts mechanical energy
into electric energy. Also like the generator,
it produces voltage in a conductor that
passes through a magnetic field (magnetic
lines of fence). The big difference is that, in
the generator, the conductors are in motion.
.The armature loops revolve within the mag-
41

FIGURE 62 - Shown here is the rear
view of a typical automotive
alternator.
netic field. In the alternator, on the con-
trary, the conductors are stationary while
the magnetic field revolves. In either case,
regardless of whether the conductors move
through the magnetic field or the magnetic
field moves over the conductors, voltage is
produced.
As the magnetic field of the alternator
revolves, the magnetic lines of force are cut
as they move past the stationary wire loop,
inducing voltage. Since the loop circuit is
closed, current will flow, Figure 63.
---
t THE ALTERNATOR
(a)
-'
~
(b)
FIGURE 63 - In this simplified ver-
sion of an alternator, the wire loop is
connected to the charging circuit and a
load (the lamp). The wire loop is sta-
tionary, while the magnetic field is ro-
tated by the engine.
42
In Figure 63(a), the S pole of the
magnet is next to the upper part of the loop
during that half revolution. The current will
flow as shown by the arrows. Also shown is
the direction of current in the bottom loop
induced by the N pole of the magnet.
Since the direction of current flow is
from negative to positive, the polarity at
point A in view (a) is negative and the polar-
ity at point B is positive.
As the magnet continues to revolve, Fig-
ure 63(b), the N pole passes the top of the
wire loop and the S pole passes the bottom
of the loop. The bar magnet has reversed
poles, and so the direction of current flow
has also reversed. This changes the polarity
of points A and B. Point A is now positive
and point B is now negative.
With each revolution of the magnetic
field, current flows from the wire loop to the
load, first in one direction and then in the
other. This is alternating current, for which
the alternator is named.
Of course, since the car's electrical sys-
tem, including the battery, is designed to op-
erate on direct current, the output of the
alternator must be changed from alternat-
ing current to direct current before it is dis-
tributed to the electrical system.
CONSTRUCTION OF
The magnet in our elementary alterna-
tor is, in reality, an iron core with a wire
coil wrapped around it. The coil is enclosed
between two interlocking soft-iron sections,
Figure 64. The assembly, called a rotor, is
mounted on a shaft that is turned by a pul-
ley and drive belt which are driven by the
engine crankshaft.
The iron core of the rotor is not a per-
manent magnet. The magnetic field is
created by passing current from the battery
through the wire coil wrapped around the
core. The current through the coil creates a
magnetic field, which makes the rotor a ro-
tating multipole magnetic field. Each inter-
locking iron section becomes a magnetic
pole. Unlike the generator's pole pieces, the
rotor poles do not retain magnetism. Direct
current from the battery must flow through
the rotor coil to magnetize the poles before
 SOFT -IRON SECTIONS

IRON
CORE

FIGURE 64 - The rotor assembly of an alternator does the same job as the field
windings and pole pieces of a generator. It creates an electromagnetic field inside
the alternator.

the alternator will start to produce
electricity.
In order to get battery current to the ro-
tor coil for energizing or exciting the field,
and in order to maintain contact between
the battery and the rotor while the rotor is
turning during alternator operation, a set of
brushes and -slip rings is needed, Figure 65.
The small brushes ride on the slip rings.
The ends of the rotor coil are connected to
the two slip rings, which are mounted on,
and rotate with, the coil and shaft. One of
the brushes is connected to common
ground. The other is insulated and is con-
nected through a regulator and the ignition
switch to the battery. Field current enters
the rotor through the brushes and slip
rings. Since. these brushes and slip rings
carry only field current, they last much
longer than generator brushes.
Stator Assembly
The stationary wire loop would, by it-
self, produce little current. What we need
are many loops or coils of wire to satisfy the
electrical demands of the automobile. This
assembly of coils of wire is called the stator
assembly, Figure 66. The stator assembly

TO REGULATOR
AND BATTERY

4----- ----
FROM BATTERY
BRUSH
THROUGH GROUND

FIGURE 65 - The induced current in

the alternator is transferred through FIGURE 66 - The stator assembly is a
slip rings and brushes to the electrical laminated soft-iron ring with three
system of the vehicle. groups of coils or windings in the slots.

43
does the same job as the armature in a
generator. The stator, however, is fixed,
while the armature rotates.
Diode Assembly
Alternators, like generators, produce al-
ternating current. The typical stator has
three windings and produces three-phase
current similar to 220-V house current.
Since the stator cannot rotate, the alternat-
ing current must be rectified, to direct cur-
rent by some other means than brushes and
a commutator. In the alternator, rectifica-
tion is accomplished by diodes, which are
solid-state devices that act as electric
check valves.
In a typical alternator there are six di-
odes, three negative and three positive.
These diodes are connected to the stator
windings by the lead attaching nuts. The di-
odes are arranged so that current can leave
the alternator in only one direction. In all
negative ground alternator charging sys-
tems the negative diodes are pressed into
the alternator grounded end frame, and the
positive diodes are pressed into a holder
called a heat sink, Figure 67. The diodes are
plainly marked with a plus or a minus sign
on their heads to identify the polarity of the
enclosing case.
The brushes in the alternator are com-
paratively small, and they are heavier in
carbon content than those used in a genera-
tor. A typical, completely assembled alterna-
tor is shown in Figure 68.
Voltage Regulators
You have learned that current flowing
through the field coil in the rotor creates
FIGURE 67 - The positive diodes of
an alternator are pressed into a heat
sink holder similar to the one shown
here.
44
magnetic lines of force. The movement of
the lines of force across the stator windings
creates voltage in the stator, thus producing
current flow from the alternator through
any completed circuit. Passing through the
diodes, the current leaving the alternator is
rectified. Whether the current is being used
to charge the battery, or to operate the igni-
tion, lights, or other electric accessories, con-
trol of the voltage is very important. In fact,
the need to limit the voltage is highlycriti-
cal. If the voltage were not controlled, exces-
sive voltage would damage or shorten the
life of light bulbs, external wiring, relay
coils, contact points, and all other electrical
units of the vehicle. B 0 cu.t1>utrell!Y is
needed because the diodes prevent battery
llischarge through thealternatorwnen the
engine is not running. Also, the alternator
can deliver only a given (or maximum
rated) amount of current. Therefore it is not
necessary to include a current regulator in
the charging system, as we do with a
generator. . .
The question you are probably asking
yourself right now is this: Why does an al-
ternator deliver only a maximum amount of
current? To explain this fully would require .
...•
us to go deeply into the field of electricity. : '
...• :,
This is not necessary for us automotive re-
pair technicians. Instead, we will briefly
state what happens and let it go at th·at. As .
the speed of the rotor increases, the fre-
quency of positive and negative voltage
charges induced in the stator windings in-
creases. The stator windings build U'pa .
resistance against this frequency of change,
and, as a result, current output through the
windings is limited.
Older vehicles used electromechanical
alternator regulators with magnetic coils
that open or close contact points. Today's
vehicles use electronic regulators. Two com-
mon types of electronic regulators are
shown in Figure 69.
Although design and construction vary
from one manufacturer to another, elec-
tronic voltage regulators are composed basi-
cally of transistors, diodes, and resistors-
all incorporated together in one housing.
The entire assembly may be fully encased
in heat-resistant plastic for trouble-free,
long-lived service. Since these regulators
are entirely solid state, they are small in
 ADJUSTING END DRIVE-
LUG FRAME END FRAME PULLEY

BRUSH-AND-
TERMINAL
ASSEMBLY

BEARING

.IJ",-'lir---#-- HEAT SINK

ROTOR ~~-----rSTATOR
ASSEMBLY

FIGURE 68' - Shown here are the internal components of a typical alternator. (Cour-
tesy. of General Motors Corp.)

size. In fact, many electronic voltage regula-

tors are attached directly to the alternator
housing.
Most electronic voltage regulators are
preset at the factory. These regulators do
not need, nor is any provision made for, pe-
riodic adjustment. If, through testing, a reg-
ulator is found to be defective, it mustbe
replaced as a complete unit ...

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 69 - Shown here are two

common types of electronic voltage reg-
ulators: (a) which is the exiernal.regu-
lator, normally mounted to the inner
fender of the vehicle, and·Ch)the inter-
nal regulator, which is:an integral part
of the alternator.

45