MAGNETISM AND

ELECTROMAGNETISM
INTRODUCTION
Absolute and Relative Permeabilities of a
Medium
The phenomena of magnetism and
electromagnetism are dependent upon a certain
property of the medium called its permeability.
Every medium is supposed to possess two
permeabilities.
i. Absolute permeability (μ0)
ii. Relative permeability (μr)

For measuring relative permeabilty, vacuum

or free space is chosen as the reference medium.
It is allotted an absolute permeability of
μ0 = 4л x 10-7 in Henry/meter.
 Obviously, relative permeability of vacuum
with reference to itself is unity. Hence, for free
space,

Absolute permeability μ0 = 4л x 10-7 in H/m

Relative permeability μr = 1

Now, take any medium other than vacuum. If

its relative permeability, as compared to vacuum is
μr , then its permeability is
μ = μ0 μr in H/m.
Joseph Henry
(December 17, 1797 – May 13, 1878) ,

He discovered the electromagnetic phenomenon

of self-inductance. He also discovered mutual
inductance independently of Michael Faraday,
(1791–1867), though Faraday was the first to
make the discovery and publish his results.

Henry developed the electromagnet into a

practical device. He invented a precursor to the
electric doorbell (specifically a bell that could be
rung at a distance via an electric wire, 1831) and
electric relay (1835).The SI unit of inductance,
the henry, is named in his honor. Henry's work on
the electromagnetic relay was the basis of the
practical electrical telegraph, invented by Samuel
F. B. Morse and Sir Charles Wheatstone,
separately.
Laws of Magnetic Force
Coulomb was first to determine experimentally the
quantitative expression for the magnetic force between two
isolated point poles. It may be noted here that, in view of
the fact that magnetic poles always exist in pairs, it is
impossible, in practice, to get an isolated pole. The concept
of an isolated pole is purely theoretical. However, poles of a
thin but long magnet may be assumed to be point poles for
all practical purposes
 For example, if m1 and m2 represent the
magnetic strength of the two poles, r the distance
between them, and the μ the permeability of the
surrounding medium, then the force F is given by

or
12 12
F 2 F k 2
r r
 In the S.I. system of units, the value of the
constant k = 1/4л

12
F
4r 2

12
F 2 in medium,
4o  r r
12
F
4o r 2 in air
If in the above equation,
Φ1 = Φ2 = Φ; r = 1 meter;
1
F N
4o
Then
Φ2 = 1 or Φ ±1 weber
Hence, a unit magnetic pole may be defined
as that pole which placed in vacuum at a
distance of one meter from a similar and equal
pole repels it with a force of 1/4лμo newtons.
Magnetic Field Strength (H)

Magnetic field strength at any point within a

magnetic field is numerically equal to the force
experienced by a N-pole of one weber place at
that point. Hence, unit of H is N/Wb.
Suppose, it is required to find the field
intensity at a point A distant r in meters from a pole
of m webers. Imagine a similar pole of one weber
placed at point A. The force experienced by this
pole is

 1 
F N H  in N/Wb or A/m or oersted
4o r 2
4o r 2
Wilhelm Eduard Weber
24 October 1804 – 23 June 1891)

German physicist and, together with Carl

Friedrich Gauss, inventor of the first
electromagnetic telegraph.
Nikola Tesla
10 July 1856 – 7 January 1943)

Serbian-American inventor,
electrical engineer,
mechanical engineer,
physicist, and futurist who is
best known for his
contributions to the design of
the modern alternating
current (AC) electricity supply
system.
Johann Carl
Friedrich Gauss
(30 April 1777 – 23 February
1855)

German mathematician
who contributed
significantly to many fields,
including number theory,
algebra, statistics, analysis,
differential geometry,
geodesy, geophysics,
mechanics, electrostatics,
astronomy, matrix theory,
and optics.
Hans Christian
Oersted
14 August 1777 – 9 March
1851)

Danish physicist and

chemist who discovered that
electric currents create
magnetic fields, which was
the first connection found
between electricity and
magnetism.
Note:
It would be helpful to remember that
following terms are sometimes
interchangeably used with field intensity :

 magnetising force,
 field strength,
 magnetic intensity and
 intensity of magnetic field.
Magnetic Potential

The magnetic potential at any point within a

magnetic field is measured by the work done in
shifting a N-pole of one weber from infinity to that
point against the force of the magnetic field. It is
given by


M in Joule/Weber
4o r
Flux per Pole (ϕ)

A unit N-pole is supposed to radiate out a

flux of one weber. Its symbol is ϕ. Therefore, the
flux coming out of a N-pole of m weber ( named
after German physicist Wilhelm Edward Weber) is
given by :

ϕ = m Wb
Flux Density (B)

It is given by the flux passing per unit

area through a plane at right angles to flux.
It is usually designated by the letter B and is
measured in weber per meter2.
If ϕ in Wb is the total magnetic flux
passing normally through as area or A in m2,
then
B = ϕ/A in Wb/ m2 or Tesla (T)
Absolute Permeabilty (μ) and Relative Permeabilty (μr)
In figure below is shown a bar of a magnetic material, say,
iron placed in a uniform field strength H in N/Wb. Suppose,
a flux density B in Wb/ m2 is developed in the rod.

Then, the absolute permeability of the material of the

rod is defined as
μ = B/H in Henry/meter
B = μ H = μoμr H in Wb/m2
When H is established in air ( or vacuum), then
corresponding flux density developed in air is
Bo = μ0 H
 It is found that whenever a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a force which acts in a direction
perpendicular both to the direction of the current
and the field.
The magnitude of the force experienced is
given by:

F=BIL
 It should be noted that no force is exerted on a
conductor when it lies parallel to the magnetic field. In
general, if the conductor lies at an angle ϴ with the
direction of the field, then B can be resolved into two
components B cosϴ parallel to and Bsinϴ perpendicular
to the conductor. The former produces no effect while the
latter is responsible for the motion observed.

In that case, force is expressed as:

F=BILsinϴ
Where:
F = force in Newton
B = flux density in Weber/meter2
I = current in Ampere
L = length of the conductor in meter
ϴ = angle from which the flux is being cut in degree
The direction of this force may be easily found by

Fleming’s left-hand rule.

Hold out your left hand with forefinger, second finger and
thumb at right angles to one another. If the forefinger represents the
direction of the field and the second finger that of the current, then
thumb gives the direction of the motion.
 Relationship Between
Magnetism and Electricity
 It is well known that whenever an electric
current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is
immediately brought into existence in the space
surrounding the conductor. It can be said that when
electrons are in motion, they produce the magnetic
field.
The converse of this is also true. i.e. when a
magnetic field embracing a conductor moves relative
to the conductor, it produces a flow of electrons in the
conductor. This phenomenon whereby an emf and
current hence (i.e. flow of electrons) is induced in any
conductor which is cut across or is cut by a magnetic
flux is known as electromagnetic induction.
After the discovery (by Oersted) that electric current produces a
magnetic field, scientists began to search for the converse
phenomenon from about 1821 onwards. The problem they put to
themselves was how to convert magnetism into electricity.

It is recorded that Micheal Faraday

was in the habit of walking about with
magnets in his pockets so as to constantly
remind him of the problem. After nine years
of continuous research and experimentation,
he succeeded in producing electricity by
converting magnetism.

In 1831, he formulated basic laws underlying the phenomenon

of electromagnetic induction (known after his name) upon which is
based the operation of most of the commercial apparatus like motor,
generators and transformers etc.
Production of Induced E.M.F and Current
In Fig.A. is shown an insulated coil whose terminal are connected to a
sensitive galvanometer G. It is placed close to a stationary bar magnet initially
at position AB (shown dotted). As seen, some flux from the N-pole pole of the
magnet is linked with or threads through the coil but, as yet, there is no
deflection of the galvanometer.

Now, suppose that the magnet is suddenly brought closer to the coil in
position CD ( see figure). then, it is found that there is a jerk or a sudden but a
momentary deflection in the galvanometer and that his last so long as the
magnet is in motion relative to the coil, not otherwise.
The deflection is reduced to zero when the magnet becomes again
stationary at its new position CD. It should be noted that due to the approach of
the magnet, flux linked with the coil is increased.
 Next, the magnet is suddenly withdrawn away from
the coil as in Fig B. it is found that again there is
momentary deflection in the galvanometer and it persists
so long as the magnet is in motion, not when it becomes
stationary. It is important to note that this deflection is in a
direction opposite to that of Fig.A.
Obviously, due to the withdrawal of the magnet, flux
linked with the coil is decreased.
 The deflection of the
galvanometer indicates the production of
e.m.f. in the coil. The only cause of the
production can be the sudden approach
or withdrawal of the magnet from the
coil. It is found that the actual cause of
this e.m.f. is the change in flux linking
with the coil. This, emf exist so long as
the change in flux exists. Stationary flux,
how ever strong, will never induced any
emf in a stationary conductor.

In fact, the same result can be

obtained by keeping the bar magnet
stationary and moving the coil suddenly
away or towards the magnet.
 The production of this electromagnetically induced emf is
further illustrated by considering a conductor AB lying within a magnetic
field and connected to a galvanometer as shown.

It is found that whenever this conductor is moved up or down, a

momentary deflection is produced in the galvanometer. It means that
some transient emf is induced in AB. The magnitude of this induced
emf depends on the quickness of the movement of AB.
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday summed up the above facts into two laws known

as Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction.

First Law. It states:

Whenever a magnetic flux linked with a circuit
changes, an emf is always induced in it.
Or
Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an emf is
induced in the conductor.

Second Law. States that:

The magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the
rate of change of flux-linkage.
Explanation:
Suppose a coil has N turns and flux through it
changes from an initial value Φ1 webers to the final value of
Φ2 webers in time t seconds. Then, remembering that by
flux-linkages mean the product of number of turns and the
flux linked with the coil, we have

Initial flux linkages= NΦ1 and Final flux linkages = NΦ2

N  2  N 2
e  in Weber/Sec or Volts
t

Putting the above expression in its differential form, we get

d
eN in volts
dt
 Usually, a minus sign is given to the riht-
hand side expression to signify the fact that the
induced emf sets up current in such direction that
magnetic effect produced by it opposes the very
cause producing it.

d
e  N in volts
dt
Direction of induced emf and currents

Fleming’s rule (Fig. A) is used where induced emf is due

to flux cutting (i.e. dynamically induced emf) and Lenz’s when it is
used to change by flux-linkages (i.e. statically induced emf).
 Fig. B. shows another way of finding the direction of the induced emf. It
is known as Right Flat-hand Rule. Here, the front side of the hand is held
perpendicular to the incident flux with the thumb pointing in the direction of of the
motion of the conductor. The direction of the fingers give the the direction of the
induced emf and current.
Lenz’s Law

The direction of the induced current

may also be found by this law which
was formulated by Russian geologist
and physicist Heinrich Emil Lenz in
1835.

This law states, in effect, that

electromagnetically induced current
always flows in such direction that
the action of the magnetic filed set
up by it tends to oppose the very
cause which produces it.
 It is found that when N-pole of the bar
magnet approaches the coil, the induced
current set up by induced emf flows in the
anti-clockwise direction in the coil. The result
is that face of the coil becomes a N-pole and
so tends to oppose the onward approach of
the N-pole of the magnet like pole repels each
other. The mechanical energy spent in
overcoming this repulsive force is converted
into electrical energy which appears in the
coil. When the magnet is withdrawn, the
induced current flows in the clockwise
direction thus making the face of the coil
(facing the magnet) a S-pole. Therefore, the
N-pole of the magnet has to withdrawn
against this attractive force of the S-pole of
coil. Again, the mechanical energy required
to overcome this force of attraction is
converted into electrical energy.
 Lenz’s law is a direct consequence of Law of Conservation of
Energy. Imagine for a moment that when N-pole of the magnet
approaches the coil, induced current flows in such a direction as to
make the coil face S-pole. Then, due to inherent attraction between
unlike poles, the magnet would be automatically pulled towards the coil
without the expenditure of any mechanical energy. It means that we
would be able to create electric energy out of nothing, which is denied
by the inviolable Law of Conservation of Energy. In fact, to maintain the
sanctity of this law, it is imperative for the induced current to flow in
such a direction that the magnetic effect produced by it tends to oppose
the very cause which produces it. In the present case, it is relative
motion of the magnet with magnet with respect to the coil which is the
cause of the production of the induced current. Hence, the induced
current always flows in such a direction to oppose this relative motion
i.e. the approach or withdrawal of the magnet.
Dynamically induced E.M.F

In the figure, a conductor A is shown in cross-section, lying m2 within a

uniform magnetic field of flux density B in Wb/m2. The arrow attached to A
shows its direction of motion. Consider the conditions shown (a) when A cuts
across at right angle to the fux. Suppose L is its length lying within the field and
let it move a distance dx in time dt. The area by it is = Ldx. Hence, flux cut =
Ldx B in Webers.
Hence, according to Faraday’s Law the emf induced in it
(known as dynamically induced emf) is

BLdx dx
Rate of change of flux linkages =  BL  BLv in volt
dt dt
dx
where = velocity
dt
If the conductor A moves at an angle θ with the direction of flux (b),
then the induced emf is

e=BLv sinθ
Where:
e = induced emf in volts
B = flux density in Weber/meter2
L = length of the conductor in meter2
v = velocity in meter/ second
ϴ = angle from which the flux is being cut degree