1.

CRIME CAUSATION: SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES

This entry focuses on the three major sociological theories of
crime and delinquency: strain, social learning, and control
theories. It then briefly describes several other important theories
of crime, most of which represent elaborations of these three
theories. Finally, efforts to develop integrated theories of crime are
briefly discussed.
All of the theories that are described explain crime in terms of the
social environment, including the family, school, peer group,
workplace, community, and society. These theories, however,
differ from one another in several ways: they focus on somewhat
different features of the social environment, they offer different
accounts of why the social environment causes crime, and some
focus on explaining individual differences in crime while others
attempt to explain group differences in crime (e.g., why some
communities have higher crime rates than other communities).

2. strain theory

Why do people engage in crime according to strain theory? They

experience strain or stress, they become upset, and they
sometimes engage in crime as a result. They may engage in
crime to reduce or escape from the strain they are experiencing.
For example, they may engage in violence to end harassment
from others, they may steal to reduce financial problems, or they
may run away from home to escape abusive parents. They may
also engage in crime to seek revenge against those who have
wronged them. And they may engage in the crime of illicit drug
use to make themselves feel better.
 3. Social learning theory

Why do people engage in crime according to social learning

theory? They learn to engage in crime, primarily through their
association with others. They are reinforced for crime, they learn
beliefs that are favorable to crime, and they are exposed to
criminal models. As a consequence, they come to view crime as
something that is desirable or at least justifiable in certain
situations. The primary version of social learning theory in
criminology is that of Ronald Akers and the description that
follows draws heavily on his work. Akers's theory, in turn,
represents an elaboration of Edwin Sutherland's differential
association theory (also see the related work of Albert Bandura in
psychology).

4. the imitation of criminal models. Behavior is not only a

function of beliefs and the reinforcements and punishments
individuals receive, but also of the behavior of those around
them. In particular, individuals often imitate or model the
behavior of others—especially when they like or respect
these others and have reason to believe that imitating their
behavior will result in reinforcement. For example, individuals
are more likely to imitate others' behavior if they observe
them receive reinforcement for their acts.
Social learning theory has much support and is perhaps the
dominant theory of crime today. Data indicate that the people one
associates with have a large impact on whether or not one
engages in crime, and that this impact is partly explained by the
effect these people have on one's beliefs regarding crime, the
reinforcements and punishments one receives, and the models
one is exposed to.

5. Control theory
Control theories describe the major types of social control or the
major restraints to crime. The control theory of Travis Hirschi
dominates the literature, but Gerald Patterson and associates,
Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi, and Robert Sampson and
John Laub have extended Hirschi's theory in important ways.
Rather than describing the different versions of control theory, an
integrated control theory that draws on all of their insights is
presented.
6. Direct control. When most people think of control they think
of direct control: someone watching over people and
sanctioning them for crime. Such control may be exercised
by family members, school officials, coworkers,
neighborhood residents, police, and others. Family members,
however, are the major source of direct control given their
intimate relationship with the person. Direct control has three
components: setting rules, monitoring behavior, and
sanctioning crime.
7. Stake in conformity. The efforts to directly control behavior
are a major restraint to crime. These efforts, however, are
more effective with some people than with others. For
example, all juveniles are subject to more or less the same
direct controls at school: the same rules, the same
monitoring, and the same sanctions if they deviate.
 8. Internal control. People sometimes find themselves in
situations where they are tempted to engage in crime and the
probability of external sanction (and the loss of those things
they value) is low. Yet many people still refrain from crime.
The reason is that they are high in internal control. They are
able to restrain themselves from engaging in crime. Internal
control is a function of their beliefs regarding crime and their
level of self-control

9. Labeling theory

The above theories examine how the social environment causes

individuals to engage in crime, but they typically devote little
attention to the official reaction to crime, that is, to the reaction of
the police and other official agencies. Labeling theory focuses on
the official reaction to crime and makes a rather counterintuitive
argument regarding the causes of crime

10. Social disorganization theory

The leading sociological theories focus on the immediate social

environment, like the family, peer group, and school. And they are
most concerned with explaining why some individuals are more
likely to engage in crime than others. Much recent theoretical
work, however, has also focused on the larger social environment,
especially the community and the total society.
11. Critical theories
Critical theories also try to explain group differences in crime rates
in terms of the larger social environment; some focus on class
differences, some on gender differences, and some on societal
differences in crime. Several versions of critical theory exist, but
all explain crime in terms of group differences in power.
12. Marxist theories. Marxist theories argue that those
who own the means of production (e.g., factories,
businesses) have the greatest power. This group—the
capitalist class—uses its power for its own advantage.
Capitalists work for the passage of laws that criminalize and
severely sanction the "street" crimes of lower-class persons,
but ignore or mildly sanction the harmful actions of business
and industry (e.g., pollution, unsafe working conditions).
13. institutional anomie theory. Steven Messner and
Richard Rosenfeld's institutional anomie theory draws on
control and social learning theories to explain the high crime
rate in the United States. According to the theory, the high
crime rate partly stems from the emphasis placed on the
"American Dream." Everyone is encouraged to strive for
monetary success, but little emphasis is placed on the
legitimate means to achieve such success: "it's not how you
play the game; it's whether you win or lose." As a
consequence, many attempt to obtain money through
illegitimate channels or crime. Further, the emphasis on
monetary success is paralleled by the dominance of
economic institutions in the United States.
14. Feminist theories. Feminist theories focus on gender
differences in power as a source of crime. These theories
address two issues: why are males more involved in most
forms of crime than females, and why do females engage in
crime. Most theories of crime were developed with males in
mind; feminists argue that the causes of female crime differ
somewhat from the causes of male crime.
 15. Situations conducive to crime

The above theories focus on the factors that create a general

willingness or predisposition to engage in crime, locating such
factors in the immediate and larger social environment. People
who are disposed to crime generally commit more crime than
those who are not. But even the most predisposed people do not
commit crime all of the time. In fact, they obey the law in most
situations. Several theories argue that predisposed individuals are
more likely to engage in crime in some types of situations than
others.

16. The rational choice theory

Miller (2009) asserts that this theory assumes that crime is a

rational action undertaken by people and aimed towards an
expected outcome. Therefore, crime is a matter of choice and is
orchestrated with due diligence to the risks and benefits that may
be accrued upon the undertaking of such actions.

17. The social structure theory

Akers (2009) affirms that there is a solid relationship between

poverty and crime. The social structure approach to crime
assumes that people commit crimes due to social, political,
cultural and economic structures that govern them. To further
understand the relationship between these structures and crime,
Labeling and Reintegrative Shaming Theory
18. Decriminalization. Removing of status offenders from the
jurisdiction of the juvenile justice system
19. Disintegrative Shaming. The process by which an individual
is punished, labeled, and made to feel shame for committing a
deviant act in a manner that degrades and devalues the individual
20. Diversion Movement. This refers to all those efforts to divert
individuals, primarily youth but also adults who are suspected of or
have been charged with minor offenses, from the full and formal
process of the juvenile or adult justice system.
21. Faith-Based Programs. These are religiously based
programs which can be operated within the institution or the larger
community.
22. Labeling Theory. The theory that the formal and informal
application of stigmatizing and deviant “labels” or tags applied to
an individual by society will not deter, but rather instigate future
deviant or criminal acts.
23. Net-Widening. A problem that occurs when offenders who
would have been released from the system are placed in a program
simply because a program exists.
24. Pre-Trial Intervention or Delayed Adjudication. Programs
for first-time, nonviolent adult offenders. Those who agree to
specific conditions may avoid trial or sentencing altogether.
25. Primary Deviance. Deviant acts that are committed in the
absence of or preceding the 25 application of a deviant label for the
acts. While it may or may not be the first crime a person has
committed
26. Radical Non-Intervention. The belief that it is better to
simply tolerate minor offenses rather than risk labeling the
offender.
27. Reintegrative Shaming. The process by which an individual
is punished, labeled, and made to feel shame for committing a
deviant act
 28. Restorative Justice. This refers to programs which are
designed to make offenders take responsibility for their actions and
restore them and their victims, as much as possible, back to things
as they existed before the offense. Often offenders will apologize to
the victims and to the community, and attempt to financially
compensate the victims for their losses.
29. Secondary Deviance. Criminal or deviant acts that are
committed in response to, or because of, a label that has been
applied to an individual
Social Disorganization Theory: Social Structure, Communities, and
Crime
30. Chicago Area Projects. This was the first large-scale urban
delinquency prevention program. Started by Shaw and McKay in
the 1930s, it used their social disorganization theory as a core
31. Collective Efficacy. This refers to the actual or perceived
ability of the residents of a given neighborhood to maintain
informal social control over the criminal or deviant behavior of
other residents.
32. Concentrated Disadvantage. This looks at a variety of
factors including percent of families below the poverty level,
percent of female headed households, the percent of families on
welfare,
33. Concentric Zone Theory. Refers to the work of Burgess.
Looks at a city with the graph of a target depicting a series of
concentric zones. The zones and their occupants are used to
understand crime in a city.
34. Social Capital. This refers to investment in the community,
and looks at things like club and organization membership,
volunteer activities, political activities, and general community
engagement.
 35. Social Disorganization. Social disorganization refers to the
breakdown in traditional social control and organization in the
society, community, neighborhood, or family so that deviant and
criminal activity result.
36. Structural Theories. This refers to macro-level theories that
account for differences in crime rates across communities by
looking at variations in structural characteristics and conditions of
each community.
37. Urban Ecology. A theory that views a city as analogous to
the natural ecological community of plants and animals. This
relationship is understood through the use of concentric zones that
spread from the center to the outer regions of a city.
Anomie and Strain Theories
38. Anomie. A state of normlessness or norm confusion within a
society. The term was coined by Durkheim to explain suicide in
French society, and later applied by Merton and others to other
forms of deviance and crime in American society.
39. Aspirations and Expectations. This refers to anomie strain
theory. Aspirations refer to what one hopes to achieve in life,
and expectations refer to what the individual believes is realistic
40. Cohen’s Anomie Strain. This version of anomie theory
examines juveniles. Though Cohen is in agreement with Merton
that blocked goals produce strain, his theory looks at status as
opposed to material gain. Under this perspective, juveniles are
measured against the standard of the middle class. Lower-class
kids who cannot meet the middle-class standards of dress, talk,
and manners are, in a sense, deprived. This “status deprivation”
leads to “status frustration,” which in turn causes deviant and
criminal acts. Instead of five groups like Merton proposes,
Cohen sees only one group—a conflict group that values
toughness, fighting, and respect
41. Decommodification. The belief that a government can
provide social welfare programs to protect vulnerable members
of society from market forces.
42. Differential Opportunity. A theory that draws from anomie
and the work of Merton and Cohen; the social disorganization
theory of Shaw and McKay; and the differential association
theory of Sutherland. This view says that although one may be
denied legitimate opportunity, that does not mean that one has
access to illegitimate opportunity. Although deprivation and
strain can and do play a role, one learns a good or bad response
43. Focal Concerns of the Lower-Class Culture. The list of
focal concerns or values believed to be prevalent among lower-
class males was developed by Miller to describe the behavior of
street corner groups or gangs
44. Agnew’s General Strain Theory of Crime and
Delinquency. A micro-level social psychological revision of
strain theory
45. Institutional Anomie. This theory was created by Messner
and Rosenfeld. The premise of the theory is that American
society is set up to give prestige and priority to economic
institutions. This means that the accumulation of wealth and
individual success are people’s highest priorities.
46. Merton’s Anomie Theory. This version of anomie theory
looks at American society, and what happens when an
individual realizes that not everyone can achieve the American
dream of equal opportunity for economic success.
47. Conflict Theory
48. Conflict Theory. The view that society is divided into two or
more groups with competing ideas and values. The group(s)
with the most power makes the laws and controls society.
Groups lacking the formal power to make the rules still maintain
 their own group norms, and continue in their behavior, which is
now viewed as criminal by the larger society
49. Consensus Theory. In general, this theory states that laws
are a result of, and a reflection of, general agreement in society
50. Functionalist Theory. Similar to consensus theory, but this
theory also looks at how the law acts to resolve everyday
disputes in society, and how it acts to serve everyone, not just
the powerful.
51. Interest Groups. These groups form and act in such a
manner so as to influence the political system in ways that will
provide the greatest benefits to members of the group. They are
also referred to as pressure groups.
52. Law. Rules and regulations backed with the coercive power
of the state. Depending upon one’s view, law is either formed
with the agreement of the majority of society and designed to
promote order, or formed by the powerful in society to keep
control of the masses.
53. Mechanical Solidarity. A type of less complex society
where members share common beliefs and values. In these
societies, law is repressive and punitive.
54. Pluralistic Conflict. A type of conflict perspective which
emphasizes that instead of one centralized, all-powerful group
making the rules, there are several power groups, both formal
and informal and often with overlapping interests, that wrestle
for control and power.
55. Political Crimes. Crimes committed by radical groups to
overthrow a government or overturn a government action, or
crimes committed by government officials to control groups
seen as a threat. Which side in any given conflict is labeled
radical depends upon which side one supports and which side
wins the dispute.
 56. Racial Profiling. Actions taken by the police based solely on
the race of an individual.
57. Social Control. A normative system with rules concerning
the way people should and should not behave. This is combined
with a formal and informal system to encourage and 34 promote
conformity,
58. Informal social control is exhibited by the family, church,
and school, while formal social control is exhibited by the police
and the courts.
59. Social Threat Hypothesis. This hypothesis states that
criminal and deviant acts will increase as the number of people
opposed to the interests of the powerful increases.
60. Socialization. A process of learning and teaching expected
norms and values of a society. This teaching and learning is
reinforced through positive and negative social sanctions.
61. Bourgeois. The ruling-class elite in a capitalist system; those
with the power.

62. Capitalism. A system of economic organization in which the

means of production
are held privately in the hands of a few. Late Stage Capitalism

63. Crimes of Accommodation and Resistance. Crimes

committed by the lower class
against the upper class, or the capitalist system.

64. Crimes of Control. Crimes committed by criminal Justice

personnel.

65. Crimes of Domination and Repression. Crimes committed

by the ruling class against
the lower class.
 66. Crimes of Government. Crimes committed by both
appointed and elected officials.
67. Instrumental Marxism. The political state (including the
law and the criminal justice
system) is always and only a tool of the capitalist class to oppress the
working class.
68. Marxist Theory. This theory explains both law and criminal
justice, and focuses upon
the division between the ruling-class elite and the laborers. In a capitalist
society, the
ruling-class elite (bourgeoisie) control the means of production, which
allows them to
control the political state as well. They use this control to manipulate the
laborers
(proletariat) and keep them in a
69. Socialism. A system of economic organization in which the
means of production are
held by the state for the benefit of all.

70. Structuralist Marxism. While close to the view of

Instrumental Marxism, this
perspective states that the political state is not under the total control of
the ruling elite;
that from time to time, laws may be passed that harm the ruling elite; and
that their
members, on occasion, may be subject to state control.
71. Constitutive Criminology. A variation of critical
criminology, which recommends
that we search for the cause of criminal activity. It examines how the
relationships
between criminals, victims, and agents of control act and react to form
our
understanding of crime.
 72. Critical Criminology. An extension of Marxist theory that
goes beyond the
examination of the effects of capitalism on crime. It takes a critical
stance against
mainstream criminology.

73. Cultural Criminology. Looks at all of the cultural forces in

and around the crime, the
ffender, and the criminal justice system.

74. Hegemony. A perspective that seeks modern scientific

thought and testable
explanations for the causes of crime. The postmodern movement wants
to replace this
view with a linguistically based non-scientific approach that recognizes
disadvantaged
people in society.
75. Left Idealism. Overlooking the pain caused to victims as the
result of criminal
activities.

76. Left Realism. A variation of critical criminology. While this

perspective examines the
role capitalism plays in society, it also recognizes the impact, damage,
and fear caused
by traditional street crime. It proposes reforms to the system that would
deal with these
crimes, assist the victims, reduce the use of prisons, and reduce crime as
a whole. This
perspective rejects both the conservative and choice perspective of the
right, and the
tendency of the left to overlook or disregard the true damage caused by
crime
.
 77. Peacemaking Criminology. This perspective is often viewed
as a philosophy as opposed
to a theoretical perspective, and it may or may not contain a religious
core. In essence, it
is an attempt to get all players in society (victims, offenders, and
criminal justice agents)
to recognize and reduce the violence that is at the heart of the society and
the system. The
violence can then be replaced with non-violent solutions.

78. Postmodernism. Closely related to critical criminology, this

perspective seeks to
discover and eliminate the power of language and text that is used to
give power and
privilege to specific groups, while denying it to others. This perspective
also seeks to
eliminate reliance on testable scientific explanations of criminology, and
replace it with a
language-based perspective that recognizes and advances the cause of
disadvantaged
individuals.
79. Bootstrapping. Refers to the practice of charging girls with
criminal offenses once
status offenses have been eliminated. This allows the system to maintain
control over
young girls.

80. Chivalry Hypothesis. The view that male police officers,

prosecutors, and judges tend to
have traditional views of women and girls. As a result, the officials are
more lenient on
the females for committing criminal acts than on their male counterparts.
81. Economic Marginalization Hypothesis. The belief that
economic pressures put on
women to support themselves and their dependent children, along with
the stepping
back of men from their roles of financial support of women and children
has pushed
women into criminal activity for economic gain.
82. Egalitarian Family. Part of Hagan’s power-control theory. A
family in which the
mother and father occupy similar roles in the workplace and share power
and control
in the family.
83. Feminist Theory. This theory attempts to define criminology
and criminal justice based
upon the experiences, understanding, and view of the world as perceived
by women. It
tries to counter most theories of criminology that have been developed,
tested, and
applied by men to men, which have incorporated women only as an
afterthought.
84. Gendered Context Approach. This approach examines the
different opportunities
males and females have to commit criminal acts, and how males and
females respond
differently to similar situations and events.
85. Gendered Pathways Approach. A descriptive approach that
gives voice to and
acknowledges the physical and sexual abuse common to many female
offenders.
86. Liberation Hypothesis. This view states that as men and
women become more equal
in society in terms of family, politics, and education, their crime rates
will begin to
equalize as well.
87. Masculinities. A trait shared by all men, but one that changes
and evolves depending
upon the race, economic status, and sexual orientation of any particular
man. Crime
may be viewed as an attempt to claim, reclaim, or prove the very
qualities that make
one a man.
88. Masculinity thesis. The view that as women become more
equal in society with men,
their crime rates will increase.
89. Opportunity hypothesis. The view that as women increase
their numbers in corporate
America, their rates of white-collar and corporate crime will increase
along with this
increased opportunity.
90. Paternalism. This view claims that men act in a manner
designed to keep women and
girls in a subservient position in society. While women and girls may be
treated less
42
severely as indicated under the chivalry hypothesis, they may also be
treated more
harshly in an attempt to keep them from achieving equality with men.
91. Patriarchal Family. Part of Hagan’s power-control theory.
In a patriarchal family, the
father is typically in a command position in the workplace and runs the
family. Mothers
are more likely to supervise daughters more closely than sons and
encourage risk-taking
in sons, more than in daughters.
92. Patriarchy. A manner of societal organization where the
rights and privileges of men
are more important and trump the rights and privileges of women.
93. Power-Control Theory. A theory proposed by Hagan in
which patriarchal and
egalitarian families are examined. In patriarchal families, sons are more
likely than
daughters to be delinquent because sons receive less supervision than
daughters. In
egalitarian families, the delinquent behavior of sons and daughters
becomes more
similar.
94. Selectivity hypothesis. The belief that chivalry in the
criminal justice, in other
words, lenient sentencing, is extended primarily to white, middle-class,
privileged
women.
95. Transinstitutionalization. In this process, status offenders
are being placed into
private residential psychiatric facilities by their own families as opposed
to the
criminal justice system. Most of the time, the juvenile justice system
would not
have made these same referrals.
96. Typicality hypothesis. The belief that chivalry in the
criminal justice, in other words,
lenient sentencing, is extended primarily to women who commit crimes
consistent with
the stereotypical view of women, and to women who can still be viewed
as “feminine.”
Integrating Criminological Theories
Terms
97. Conceptual Absorption. Concepts from one theory are
subsumed as special cases of the
phenomena defined by the concepts of another theory.
98. Conceptual Integration. Concepts from one theory are
shown to overlap in
meaning with concepts from another theory.
99. Control Balance Theory. The ratio of how much the
individual is liable to control to
how much he or she is able to control. It operates in the context of four
main variables:
predisposition, provocation, opportunity, and constraint.
 100. Interactional Theory. This theory integrates elements of
social structure, social
bonding, and social learning theory into an “interactional theory” of
delinquency. A
child is more likely to commit delinquent acts when his or her underlying
bonds to
society are weakened.
101. Life-Course Theories. These theories attempt to explain
better the stability and
changes in criminal and deviant behavior through time and at different
life stages.
102. Network Analysis. An explanation of delinquency that draws
on social learning and
social bond theories. It connects the structural characteristics of social
networks and
interactional processes.
103. Population Heterogeneity. This refers to the stability in
criminal behavior when
compared to others over the life course.
104. Propositional Integration. This explains how two or more
theories make the same
predictions about crime or make propositions that can be put together,
even though
each may begin with different concepts and assumptions.
105. Self-Derogation Theory. A theory in which delinquency and
drug use are explained
through the use of social learning theory, control theory, strain theory,
and labeling
theory. In this perspective, delinquency is viewed as the result of the
weakening of one’s
self-esteem.
106. Social Support. Social integration in a group relationship in
which emotional,
material, and social assistance is provided to each group member.
107. State Dependence. Changes in criminality over the course of
one’s life are
dependent on the occurrence, or lack of occurrence, of a variety of other
factors.
108. Theoretical Elaboration. A term coined by Thornberry in
which he states that one
begins with a particular theory and extends it as far as one can.
109. Theoretical Integration. This occurs when two or more
theories are combined in such a
manner so as to make the new theory explain criminal activity in a more
comprehensive
46
manner. It can also be used to combine two competing theories which,
upon reflection,
were not as incompatible as once thought.
110. Theory Competition. Logical, conceptual, or empirical
comparison of two or more
theories to determine which offers the better or best explanation.
111. CRIMINOLOGY THEORIES The scientific study of the
causes of delinquency and crime has been historically guided by
theory. A good theory is said to provide a foundational lens
through which to interpret and understand the manifestation
of a behavior. In the field of criminology, the theoretical lens
has been primarily guided by concepts germane to the fields of
sociology, psychology, and biology,
112. biological theories of crime attempt to explain
behaviors contrary to societal expectations through
examination of individual characteristics. Criminal Justice
Theories
113. Criminal Justice Theories
What are criminal justice theories? Strangely, few academics in
criminal justice studies would have a clear answer. Despite the
large number of academic programs and scholarly works
dedicated to studying criminal justice, the field has hardly asked,
let alone answered, this fundamental question
114. Cultural Transmission Theory

This research paper delineates the leading perspectives in the

field of criminology on subcultural processes, namely, cultural
transmission. It also highlights the empirical evidence pertaining to
these theories and briefly discusses the current state and future of
subcultural research.
115. Labeling Theory and Symbolic Interaction Theory
In the early 20th century, the Chicago School of sociology
transformed the landscape of sociology and set the standard for
future criminologists. Two primary lines of inquiry came from this
school: (1) human ecology and (2) symbolic interactionism. The
different assumptions that underlie each of these theoretical
models and the different focuses of each (the macro vs. the micro,
respectively) would lead each theory to grow in its own directions.
Human ecology would be applied to crime almost immediately in
the form of social disorganization research, but it would not be
until the 1960s that research applying symbolic interaction theory
to criminality would occur in the form of the labeling theory.
116. psychological Theories of Crime

When examining psychological theories of crime, one must be

cognizant of the three major theories
117. first is psychodynamic theory, which is centered on
the notion that an individual’s early childhood experience
influences his or her likelihood for committing future
crimes.
118. The second is behavioral theory. Behavioral theorists
have expanded the work of Gabriel Tarde through
behavior modeling and social learning
119. The third is cognitive theory, the major premise of
which suggests that an individual’s perception and how it
is manifested (Jacoby, 2004) affect his or her potential to
commit crime.
120. Rational choice theory (RCT) likely finds its modern
home in an article written by the Nobel-Prize-winning
economist Gary Becker (1968). The position of RCT is that
criminal behavior is no different from noncriminal behavior
in that it is conduct that persons intentionally choose to
undertake (i.e., they are not compelled or forced to do
crime), and the reason that they choose to commit crime is
that they think it will be more rewarding and less costly for
them than noncriminal behavior.
121. Routine activities theory is a theory of crime events.
This differs from a majority of criminological theories,
which focus on explaining why some people commit
crimes—that is, the motivation to commit crime— rather
than how criminal events are produced. Although at first
glance this distinction may appear inconsequential, it has
important implications for the research and prevention of
crime. Routine activities theory suggests that the
organization of routine activities in society create
opportunities for crime.
122. What is Self-control theory? Self-control theory—
often referred to as the general theory of crime—has
emerged as one of the major theoretical paradigms in the
field of criminology. This is no small feat, given the
diversity of criminological perspectives that exist in general
 and the ever-growing roster of recently sprouted control
theories in particular.
123. The social construction of crime, through its
amplification by social reaction, can produce the real
consequence of career criminals as the offender becomes
engulfed in coping with the stigma of a criminal identity
that ultimately might lead to his or her embrace of that
socially constructed identity through identity
transformation.
124. Social control theory assumes that people can see
the advantages of crime and are capable of inventing and
executing all sorts of criminal acts on the spot—without
special motivation or prior training. It assumes that the
impulse to commit crime is resisted because of the costs
associated with such behavior. It assumes further that a
primary cost of crime is the disapproval of the people
about whom the potential offender cares.
125. social disorganization theory had largely died out in
its original form. It was replaced with (a) research paying
tribute to the theory but straying from its original intent, (b)
research focused on collective efficacy, and (c) research
focused on neighborhood characteristics but using a
different theoretical base (including the variety of research
conducted under the term environmental criminology).
126. social learning theory is that the same learning
process in a context of social structure, interaction, and
situation, produces both conforming and deviant behavior.
The difference lies in the direction . . . [of] the balance of
influences on behavior.
127. Strain theories state that certain strains or stressors
increase the likelihood of crime. These strains involve the
inability to achieve one’s goals (e.g., monetary or status
 goals), the loss of positive stimuli (e.g., the death of a
friend, the loss of valued possessions), or the presentation
of negative stimuli (e.g., verbal and physical abuse).
Individuals who experience these strains become upset,
and they may turn to crime in an effort to cope. Crime may
be a way to reduce or escape from strains.
128. A. THEORY AND CRIME.
Theory as an explanation.
Scientific theory as one kind of explanation.
Scientific theories can be falsified through research.
Criminology has a large number of scientific theories.
Are these theories supported by fact?

129. B. BROAD THEORIES OF CRIME

(a) Spiritual explanation:
(Not observable)
- Belief in influence from other worldly powers
- Example of feudal criminal justice system
Private affair between families (blood feuds)
Trial by battle.
Trial by ordeal.
- Attribution of crime to the devil
Limitation of this approach
130. Natural explanations
Uses objects and events in the material world to explain.
Hobbes, Desecrates and other studied human affairs as
physicist study matter impersonally and quantitatively.
Scientist seeks their explanations within observable
phenomena in physical and material world.
 This approach also limitations depending on ways of thinking
about crime.
131. CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY
Criminal behaviour is freely chosen
Intelligence and rationality are fundamental human
characteristics and each person master of his fate.
Crime defined as from a strict legal point of view.
Task is to design and test a system of punishment that
would result in minimal occurrence of crime
132. THE NEO – CLASSICAL SCHOOL
The classical conceptions of justice involved an exact
scale of punishment for equal acts without reference to the
individual involved or circumstances of crime.
First offendes were treated same as repeat, adult, miners
under code of 1791.
The neo-classical theories were efforts to revise and refine
the application of classical theory of free will and complete
responsibility.
133. Contemporary examples of this theory in the legal
system

1. The legal doctrine that emphasizes conscious intent

(notice of men’s rea: the guilty mind)
2. In sentencing principles (the idea of culpability or
responsibility)
3. In the structure of punishment (e.g. gradation of
penalties according to seriousness of offence)
4.philosophically – supports of “just deserts” approach to
sentencing
134. CRITICISM OF CLASSICAL THEORIES
 · They represent the beginning of the scientific search
for causes of criminal behaviour.
· The problems of fairness in individual cases still
remains where a system focuses on the offence not the
offender.
· Theory provides no insight into how to deal with
cases were offending results from an in capacity to
reason.
135. POSITIVE ASPECTS OF THE THEORY

1) Promotes open, systematic system of justice

compared to arbitrary system.
2) Argues for the rights of an individual within the
system
3) Places limits on judicial discretion.
136. POSITIVIST CRIMINOLOGY (BIOLOGICAL AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL POSITIVISM)

· Classical and positivist viewpoint often seen as counter

posed.
· Positivists explain crime by references to forces and
factors outside the decision-making ability of the
individual.
· Rise of positivism represents hands on; science
bases approach rather than theorising.

137. Positivist Approaches

Definition of crim Natural
Violation of social consensus
Extends beyond a legal definition.
 Deviant behaviour with respect to social norms.
Focus of analysis The offender
Characteristics of offender.
138. THEORIES RELATED TO PHYSICAL APPEARANCE.
· Explanation of is biological defectiveness and inferiority.
139. (a) Physiognomy and phrenology (appearance of face and
external shape of the skull)
· Franz Joseph Gall (1758 – 1828) developed doctrines of
phrenology.
· Crime involves the lower propensities of the brain, which
can be restrained by moral sentiments or intellectual facilities.
140.Criminal Anthropology: Lombroso to Goring.
· Lombroso studied all anatomical features of the human
body and linked certain physical characteristics to crime.
· Charles Goring. Advanced theory of hereditary inferiority.
141. Body type theories: Shield to Cortes.
· High degree of correspondence between the physical
appearance of the body and temperature of the mind.
· 142. William Sheldon: studied relationship between
mesomorphy (large muscle, heavy chest) and delinquency,
especially among delinquent youth.
·143. Gluecks: mesorphs more aggressive with tendency to
criminal behaviour.
· Coupled with traits not normally found in mesomorphy.
· Cortes: found that mesomorphy was associated with need
for achievement and with need for power.

144. THEORIES RELATED TO INTELLIGENCE.

· Idea emerged after the physical appearance theory, that criminal
less intelligent than law-abiding people.
· Through natural selection inferior strains would be characterized
by undesirable traits.
145. Richard Dugdale (1874) studied “degenerate families”.
Intelligence testing and crime.
146 Alfred Binet (1857 – 1911) applied intelligence testing to the
problem of retardation in Panis schools.
147. H.H. Goddard – American, used Binet tests to sort out people into
appropriate social roles, and to identify ‘subnormal’ for
institutionalization.
· Used test in jails and determined most criminal were feeble
minded.

148. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS AND CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR.

· Role of genetic and inheritance.
· Family studies: inheritance of appearance, mannerisms and
disposition.
· Goring Charles: used these techniques to conclude that crime is
inherited.
· He established connection between imprisonment of parents and
that of children, and not that of spouses.
· He did not measure environmental influences adequately.
· Ellis Lee (1982) crime runs in the family.

149.Twin and Adoption studies

· Johannes Lange (1929) found a relationship between
imprisonment between of one twin and the other.
· Studies show greater similarity of criminal behaviour among
identical twins than fraternal.
 150.Neurotransmitters:
· Underlie behaviour including anti – social.
· Scerbo and Raine: studied relationship between neurotransmitters
levels and antisocial behaviour.

151.Hormones
· Effects of hormones levels on human behaviour.
· Role of testosterone and aggressive behaviour.
· Booth and Os good (1993) testosterone may reduce social
integration, and reduced social integration associated with higher
deviance levels.
· Links between hormonal changes and female irritability and
hostility.

152.The Central Nervous system.

· New brain imaging procedures have been used to detect structural
and functional abnormalities.
· Repeat offender have abnormal EEG.

153.The Automatic Nervous System (ANS)

· ANS active in flight or fight situations.
· Eysenck (1964) Psychopaths are extreme extroverts and fail to
develop adequate consciences because at the way their ANS function.

154.Environmentally induced biological components of behaviour.

· Drug and alcohol abuse.
· 1980 research showed hypoglycemia common in habitually violent
criminals.
· Further research on linkages between lead exposure and negative
behaviour consequences.
· Relationship between head injury and anti social behaviour.
· Pregnancy and birth complications.

155.THE PERSONALITY OF THE OFFENDER.

· Personality refers to complex set of emotional and behavioural
attributes.
· Psychological and Psychiatric theories on criminal behaviour.
· Psychoanalytic theories causes of criminal behaviour found in
unconscious elements of the personality.
· Personality inventory research on the conscious personality.

156.Impulsivity and Crime.

· Wilson and Hernstern study
· The key individual level factor associated with criminality is the
tendency to think in terms of short term rather than long-term
consequences.
· Impulsivity is an enduring personality characteristic of criminals.
· Crime proneness associated with a combination of impulsivity and
negative emotionality (anger, anxiety, irritability).
157.Critique: Research linking personality to crime has a lot of
methodological problems.
· More meaningful to analyze the situation people find themselves
rather than the personalities?

158.. CRIME AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS.

· Theories with non – individual orientation and explain criminal
behaviour in terms of economic differences or influence.
· Focus on economic conditions and crime rates relationship
between crime rates and unemployment rates, crime and economic
inequality.
· Research on crime and economic conditions are inconsistent and
have contradictory results.
· Crime and unemployment. Contradictions between juvenile
delinquency and unemployment and adult crime and employment.
· However there is a positive relationship between crime and
unemployment, especially property crimes.

159.Problems of interpretating Research on crime and economic

conditions
· Lack of clear definition of poverty and unemployment.
· The theoretical assumptions are contradictory (inverse and
negative or direct or positive)
· Specifying the amount of time before economic changes have
effect on criminality.
· Contribution of other factors to crime in high crime communities.

160.DURKHEIM; ANOMIE AND MODERNIZATION

· Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917) viewed inequality as a natural and
inevitable human condition.
· Breakdown of this normal condition (crime) is anomie.
· Society is divided into those who confirm to collective conscience
and solidarity and those who don’t.
· Crime is normal in society because there is no clear line between
criminal and non-criminal behaviour.
· The abnormal or pathological state of society would be one in
which there was no crime.
· Durkheim argues that as society develops a greater variety of
behaviour would be tolerated and punishment becomes less violent
(from repression to restitution).
· He was concerned about the role that social forces play in
determining human conduct and the role of modernization.

161. THE ECOLOGY OF CRIME.

· Chicago School of Human Ecology (1920), study to pinpoint the
environmental factors associated with crime and determines the
relationship among those factors.
· What disturbs the social balance and equilibrium?
· Clifford Shaw (1920) study on delinquency areas in Chicago
concluded that delinquency and other social problems closely related to
the process of invasions, dominance and succession (rapid shift of
populations, social disorganization, immigration).
· Answer to delinquency is organization of the neighbourhood
residents.
· Neighbourhoods cause of crime and should be focus of crime
prevention programs.
· Situational context of crime.
· Immediate setting – people will commit crime if given a chance
(opportunity theories) e.g. looting.
· Crime cannot be understood unless you understand the context in
which it occurs.
162.STRAIN THEORIES
· Robert Merton (1938) these are certain relatively stable social
conditions associated with higher crime rates (social structural strain)
· Many human appetites are “cultural” whereas the society limits
ability of certain groups to satisfy those appetites.
· Result: pressure on certain persons to engage in non-conformist
conduct.
· Cultural goal – acquisition of wealth, using any means.
· This causes strain in lower classes, especially those who cannot
achieve wealth.
· Crime in American society explained by cultural imbalance, leading
rebellion and to innovation (in crime) as a response.
· Strain theories led to passing of Juveline Delinquency Prevention
and Control Act (1961) to improve access to education and work for
lower classes.
· However the law did not succeed because change cannot occur
without change in social structural arrangements?

163.Criticism of Theory.
1) Strain is evenly distributed in society and is not greater among
poor? Even rich people want to get more.
2) Is the desire for economic success a natural desire not requiring
cultural supports?
3) (American) culture does not value monetary success it values hard
work and honesty?
4) Social structuring more appropriate term than strain?
5) Strain theories focus on changing the social machinery that
produces the criminal after they are produced.
164. LEARNING THEORIES
· The role of normal learning in the generation of criminal
behaviour.
· These theories focus on the content of what is learned and process
by which that learning takes place.
· Aristotle (384 – 322 BC) all learning and knowledge by association
and experience.
· Learning through association (classical conditioning (Pavlov)
operant conditioning (rewards and punishment; and social learning
theory watching what happens to other people).
165. Tarde (1843 – 1904 Law of Imitation.
· Criminal’s normal but brought up in an atmosphere where they
learnt crime as a way of life.
· Crime begins, as fashion then becomes custom like any other
social phenomenon.
· Inferiors imitate superiors.
· Newer fashions displace order ones (murder by knifing down, by
shooting up)
166. Sutherland Edwin (1883 – 1950) Differential Association Theory.
· Criminal behaviour is learned both in content and process by
association with other people.
· Key factor determining whether people violate the law is the
meaning they give to social conditions rather than conditions.
· Divergent differential social organizations will inevitable have
some law abiding and some criminals.
167.The content of learning: cultural and sub cultural theories
· Causes of criminal behaviour are ideas of behaviour values norms
and expectations).
·168. Walter Miller (1958) (cultural theory in explanation of gang
delinquency.
·169. M. Wolfgang and F. Ferracuti (1981) “ subculture of violence”
arising in the past for specific historical reasons and transmitted from
generation to generations.
170 Lynn Curtis (1975) Sub cultural theory of violence among
American Blacks, central mechanism an exaggerated view of manliness.
· Sub culture of violence tied to general social conditions that
generate it.
These social conditions must be addressed in addition to attempts to
modify the subculture of violence

171.THE MEANING OF CRIME.

· Human actions are best understood in terms of the meaning that
these actions have for actor.
· People construct meaning in relation to situations and acts
towards situations in context of their meanings.
172. Meaning of crime to self: Labeling Theory.
· Self-image is constructed through interactions with other people.
· Criminals do not think of themselves as criminals although easily
recognize criminality in others.
· Criminal behaviour frequently committed by people who don’t
conceive or themselves as criminals.
· Person defines the situation to show that actions not really crimes.
· They commit crime without change in self –image.
· Criminal justice agencies play a role in process by which a person
comes to accept a criminal self- image, by labeling them criminals.

173.State power and the meaning of crime: control–ology.

· One group of theorists focus on the group who defines other
people as deviant (control–ology Ditton 1979).
· Michael Foucault (1967) prisons developed as a manifestation of
state power where state control was redefined as rehabilitation of soul
and mind of offender.
· State attempts to maintain legitimacy by packing control efforts to
appear reasonable,

174.The meaning of crime to the larger society: Deviance and social

reaction.
· Legally speaking, societies create crime by passing laws.
· Social reaction theorists view this as part of general process in
society of defining and suppressing deviance.

175.CONFLICT CRIMINOLOGY
· Based on contrasting views presented by social theorists:
consensus view of society and conflict view.
· Basic argument of conflict criminology is that there is an inverse
relation between power and official crime rates: people with less power
are more likely to be officially defined and processed as criminals
· T. Seellins culture conflict theory (1938) presented criminology
theory focused on conflict of conduct norms: law reflects conduct
norms of the dominate culture.

176.R. Quinney’s Theory of the social reality of crime

· The social reality of crime is constructed by the formulation and
application of criminal definitions, the development or behaviour
patterns related to criminal definitions and the construction of criminal
conceptions

177.A. Turk’s Theory of criminalization.

· Social order is based on a consensus – coercion balance
maintained by the authorities.
· Turks theory specifies conditions under which cultural and social
differences between authorities and subject will result in conflict and
criminalization will occur.

178.Chambliss and Seidman (1971) Analyses of the Criminal Justice

system.
· Consensus perspective and conflict perspectives provide radically
different versions of how the criminal justice system functions.
· Emergence of legal norms consistently shows the immense
importance of interest group activity not the public interest as a critical
variable.

179. McGarrell and Castellane (1999) Integrative Conflict model.

· Proposed athree level analysis of the criminal law formulation
process: structural foundations of crime, enforcement of criminal law
and enactment of criminal law.

180.John Hagan (1989) Structural criminology.

· Crime must be explained in terms of “ power relation” rather than
powerlessness it self.
· Different class types are more or less likely to perceive injustice in
the criminal justice system.
· Hayan suggests research should go beyond superficial analysis by
looking at the relations between social actors and institutions, history
and social context.

181.Donald Black (1976) Behaviour of law.

· Law is social control and will be greater where other forms of
social control are weaker.
· Conflict criminology implies that greater equality in the
distribution of power among groups should result in greater equality in
the distribution of crime rates.

182.CRITICAL CRIMINOLOGY.
· Umbrella designation for a series of emerging perspectives
(Marxists, post modernist and feminist).
· They argue that values cannot be separated from the research
agenda and the need to advance a progressive agenda favouring
disprivileged peoples.
183.POST MODERNISM AND POST MODERNIST CRIMINOLOGY.

· Believe that all thinking and knowledge are mediated by language

and language is never a neutral medium.
· Scientific thinking does not have a special position.
· Postmodernism seeks out the disparaged points of view to make
them more exploit and legitimate, so that there is diversity of views.

184.FEMINISM AND FEMINIST CRIMINOLOGY.

· Arose from critiques that argued that a number of topics related to

women offenders had largely been ignored or heavily distorted within
traditional criminology.
· Most criminology theories did not explain criminal behaviour of
woman and difference between women and men in participation in
crime.

185.Freda Adler (1975) women were becoming more aggressive and

competitive.
· Ruta Simon (1991) women were moving out of traditional
homebound roles and encounting wider variety of opportunities to
commit crime.
· Critical feminism arose to challenge the social structure within with
liberial feminism operated.

186.DEVELOPMENTAL CRIMINOLOGY.
· Different factors may have different effects on the offenders of
different ages.
· Crime explained in the context of the life course.
· Some factors explain criminal behaviour at start of childhood,
others at adulthood.

187.The great debate: Criminal careers: Relationship between Age and

Crime.
· A career criminal is a chronic offender over a long period of time.
· One view: independent of other sociological explanation, age
simply matures people out of crime and therefore no reason to attempt
to identify and selectively in capacitate career criminals.

188.Nagin and Land (1993). Efforts should be now being

directed to new challenges: developing theory of developmental
criminal with strong roots in development psychology.
· New theories that treat crimes as social events in the life course.

189.Thorn berry T: Interactional Theory.

· Combines control and social learning attempting to increase their
collective ability to explain deliquent behaviour will change over an
individual’s life course.
Poor association may affect behaviour but behaviour in turn can
influence one’s selection of peers

190.Sampson and Laub’s Age - graded theory of informal social control

(1993)
· Study aim to access the factors most related to juvenile
delinquency.
· The theory has three components: Juvenile delinquency; behaviour
transitions to adult hood; and adult criminal behaviour.

191.INTEGRATED THEORIES
· There are many theories and issues should we reduce the number
of theories by falsifying some of them?
· Or should we integrate them as a way of reduction?
· Integration is an alternative to falsification.

192. Elliot et al Integrated theory.

· Attempt to combine strain, control and social learning to explain
delinquency and drug use with greater power.
· Argue that delinquency should be highest when an individual
experiences strong strain and weak control (as a result of inadequate
socialization).
· Integrate social control and social learning by arguing that an
individual can form strong or weak bends to conventional or deviant
groups.

193. Bernard and Scripes Integrated Model.

· Chart middle course between Hirschi’s stance against integration
and integrated theories.
· Their goal is to interpret criminology theories in a way that allows
them to be both broadly integrated and readily tested.

194. A.INDIVIDUALS DIFFERENCES THEORIES:

· Lombroso’s theory on physical appearance and crime are false, but
body type (Sheldon/ cortes) seems to indicate a correlation.

195. Theories about intelligence: There is correlation between lower

the score and increased likelihood of crime.
· Question is whether there is some sense in which low intelligence
itself causes crime.
· Intelligence itself has independent casual impact on crime?
196 Biological Variables:

Sociological theories
· Association, strain, cultural theories, control and life style theories
have implications about individual differences, which increase the
probability of community criminal behavior

197. STRUCTURE/ PROCESS THEORIES

· These theories assume that there are situation that are associated
with higher crime rates.
· Theories identify variables in the situation itself that are associated
with higher crime rates.
· They are complex, descriptive and hard to locate, they have to be
tested at the individual level. Sometime there can be high levels of
variables and it becomes difficult to determine which (if any) is causally
related to the crime rate and which have no impact.

198.Economic modernization and development: are associated with

higher property crime rates.
· Since modernization is not a reversible process, strong counter
measures should involve increasing effectiveness of measure such as
surveillance, alarm systems and neighbourhood water?
· Economic modernization and development is not strongly
associated with higher rates of violence.
· Many underdeveloped societies are extremely violent, and at least
some developed societies have little violence.
· Economic development tends to be associated with great deal of
economic in equality and economic inequality is associated with higher
rates of violence.

199. THEORIES OF THE BEHAVIOUR OF CRIMINAL LAW

· Law defines the natural boundaries of the society by excluding and
punishing criminal and other deviants.
· The great expansion of incarceration is motivated by a threatened
sense of social soliclarity in the larger society, rather than by the
perceived threat of crime itself.
· State responded to the victimizing behaviours of lower class
people with criminal sanctions, but responds to the victimizing
behaviours of white-collar people with regulations and civil violations.

MAJOR CRIMINOLOGY THEORIES AND HOW THEY AFFECT POLICY

What is criminal behavior, and what causes it? How a society answers
these fundamental questions plays an essential role in how it responds
to crime, from developing crime prevention programs to designing
incarceration systems and rehabilitating criminals.

rational Choice Theory: Tough on Crime

the U.S. justice system is largely influenced by a classical
criminology theory, rational choice theory, which assumes that the
choice to commit a crime arises out of a logical judgment of cost
versus
200. Biological and Biosocial Theories: Addressing Root
CausesClassical biological theories of criminality stated that
people are "born criminals" who cannot be deterred from
committing crimes: Whether due to mental or physical disability,
criminals cannot learn to control themselves.

Social learning theory proposes that we engage in either

criminal or noncriminal behavior based on the social environment
around us, and that we’re especially influenced by how other
people reward or model behavior.
Labeling theory proposes that applying a label, whether that
means informally designating a youth as a "bad kid" or a
"troublemaker" or a more formal arrest or incarceration record,
has a long-term effect on a given person. Policies inspired by
labeling theory were popular in the 1970s, but they were
perceived as ineffective and fell out of use, replaced by "tough on
crime" rational choice approaches.
Contributing to Criminal Justice Through these and other
criminology theories, experts in many related fields, such as
psychology, law enforcement and public administration,
collaborate to create a safer, more just society. Whether you
currently work as a criminal justice professional or are looking to
enter the field