Psychology - study of behavior and mental process.

behavior - overt (non-verbal, observable, communication)

mental process - covert (thoughts, memory, mental process)

HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

Philosophy - how to explain, understanding of man.

Physiology - bodily functions “study”
Psyche - MIND
Logos - STUDY

RUDOLF GOCLENIUS - scientific study; mental process and behavior.

HEGEL - German social philosopher , provides logical/realistic method to explain evolution of

historical development, ideas evolve in a cyclical way.

ARISTOTLE - human knowledge can be attained in two ways, concrete and tangible objects.

1. Human senses 2. Introspective awareness (exp and self “ know yourself to

improve yourself ” )

RENE DESCARTES - Dualistic Features separates us from non-humans (reasoning,

consciousness etc. )

JOHN LOCKE - Tabula Rasa ( BLANK STATE)

GUSTAV FECHER - did the first scientific experimentation on perception.

- knowledge can be attained in 2 ways (senses & intro perspective awareness)

WILHELM WUNDT (1879) - Father of scientific psychology.

BEHAVORISM

JOHN B WATSON - Nature vs Nurture

1. NATURE ( heredity, genes) 2. NURTURE (environment)

LITTLE ALBERT - Phobia , conditioned response “trauma to a certain person/thing”

HUMANISM - theoretical orientation that emphasize qualities of humans, esp freedom and
potential growth

CARLOS ROGERS - sense of self / self concept.

ABRAHAM MASLOW / CARLOS ROGERS - human drive for personal growth.

self - actualization
self-esteem
love, belongingness
safety, security
physiological needs (food, water, sex)

COVERT - more about thinking, mental process.

OVERT - something observable, non-verbal
NERVOUS SYSTEM

ENVIRONMENT —> STIMULI —> SENSES —> NEURON ( receives ,transmits ,interpret ) —>

BRAIN —> ACTION

GLIAL CELL - supports neuron (3:1)

INFO —> DENDRITES —> SOMA —> NUCLEUS —> MYELIN —> AXON TERMINAL —>

PRE-SYNAPTIC —> SYNAPTIC CLELF —> POST SYNAPTIC —> DENDRITES (REPEAT)

pre/post synaptic - neuro transmitters

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - acts as a body control center, coordinates body activities.

1. BRAIN - controls everything , 10 billion nerves

3 MAIN PARTS

1) CEREBRUM (largest, most important)

- controls thinking, memory, speaking, movement, identify
info gathered

2) CEREBELLUM - controls balance and posture

3) THE BRAIN STEM - connects brain to spinal cord, controls heartbeat, breathing
blood pressure

FOUR LOBES OF THE BRAIN

1) FRONTAL - memory, learning

2),TEMPORAL - hearing
3) OCCIPITAL - vision
4) PARIETAL - senses

AMYGDALA - controls “FEAR”

2. SPINAL CORD - sends messages to the brain. Connects brain to N.S

2 TYPES OF PERIPERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

1) AUTONOMIC N.S
a) sympathetic (increase vital signs) , para sympathetic (decrease VS)

2) SOMATIC N.S
PROBLEMS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

1.Concussion - temporary disturbance of the brain’s ability to function due to a hard blow to the
head.

2. Paralysis - loss of sensation and movement.

3. Parkinson’s Disease - does not produce enough neurotransmitter that transmits messages from
brain to the muscles.
4. Alzheimer’s Disease - gradually shrinking of the brain.
5. Epilepsy - abnormal transmission of messages between neurons in the brain.

TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS

1. INHIBITORY - balance mood and are easily depleted when the excitatory neurotransmitter
are overactive.
2. EXCITATORY - they are what stimulates the brain.
3. ACETYLCHOLINE - sleep, stimulation of muscles, memory
4. SERATONIN - finds in banana, stables mood / good mood; hormone that causes us to sleep
5. GAMMA AMINO BUTRYIC ACID (GABA) - nature’s VALIUM - like substance
6.HISTAMINE - allergic reaction
7. GLUTAMITE - involve in learning and memory
8. ENDORPHINS - chocolates , responds to stress
9. DOPHAMINE - control of voluntary movement
10. HYPOTHALAMUS - loves, sexual pleasure

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - partner of the brain (N.S)

- composed of glands that produced body hormones

N.S —> ENDOCRINE —> CONTROL & COORDINATE ALL OTHER SYSTEM OF THE BODY

EXOCRINE - OUT ; presence of ducts/tubes to carry secretions away from the gland.
ENDOCRINE - IN ; duchess glands that secretes substances called hormones.

FUNCTIONS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (reproductive function and control)

10 tyes:
1) WATER BALANCE - regulates water balance by controlling the solute concentration of
blood.
2)UTERINE CONTRACTION & MILK RELEASE
3)GROWTH, METABOLISM & TISSUE MATURATION
4)ION REGULATION - regulates sodium, potassium and calcium
5)HEART RATE & BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION - helps prepare body for physical
activity
6)BLOOD GLUCOSE CONTROL - regulates blood glucose levels & other nutrients in blood
7)IMMUNE SYSTEM REGULATION - helps control production of immune cells
8)REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS & CONTROL - controls development and function of the
reproductive system in males and females.
9)BODY HORMONES - fluids that are secreted by endocrine glands

10)PITUITARY GLAND - bridge between brain and endocrine system.

- bridge between N.S and other endocrine glands.

PROLAC - binds ; in breast

INSULIN - increase blood sugar

GLUCAGON - decrease blood sugar
2 DIVISION

1. ANTERIOR PITUITARY

a) GROWTH HORMONE - stimulates growth (muscles, bones) by increasing protein.

b) LUTENIZING HORMONES in males (testosterone) in females (estrogen & progesterone)

c)ANDRENOCORTROPIC HORMONES - hormones from adrenal cortex.

d)THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE - metabolism

e)PROLACTIN HORMONE - binds to membrane bound receptors in cells of the breast

2. POSTERIOR PITUITARY

a)ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE - not allows body to flush fluid ; keeps body hydrated

b)OXYTOCIN - helps contractions during labor to help expel baby successfully

c)PINEAL GLAND -

d)MELATONIN - keep skin intact with enough moisture

e)THYROID GLAND - for metabolism

f)APARATHYROID - calcium

GONADS - sex hormones

PANCREAS - blood sugar (insulin and glucagon)

SENSES AND PERCEPTION - brain receives info about “outside world” ; giving stimuli to
neuron to brain.

STIMULUS - triggers your senses

SENSATION - process through which the senses pick up visual, auditory and other sensory and
transmits them to to the brain

PERCEPTION - actively organized and interpreted by the brain (stimulus and sensory information)

INTROCEPTIVE - physical environment

EXTROCEPTIVE - outside environment

2 MAJOR GROUP

SPECIAL - SMELL, TASTE, SIGHT, HEARING & BALANCE

GENERAL - TOUCH , PRESSURE , PAIN , TEMPERATURE , VIBRATION , ITCH ,

PROPRIOCEPTION ( sense of movement & position of the body and limbs)

SENSE OF VISION

1. CONJUCTIVA - thin transparent mucous membrane cover inner surface of the eyelids
and anterior surface of the eye
2. EYEBROWS - protects eye from perspiration
3. EYELIDS - protects eye from foreign objects
4. LACRIMAL APPARATUS - where teardrops comes from
ANATOMY OF EYE

1.The Electromagnetic Spectrum - perceive only small portion

2. Eyeball
a) Sclera - white portion
b) Cornea - permits light to enter eye
c) Retina - for color; keep from reflecting light
d) Rods - allow to see black and white in dim light (20-30mins)
e) Cones - enable to see color and fine detail in adequate light (2-3mins)
1) Scones (sensitive to blue)
2) Mcones (sensitive to green)
3) Lcones (sensitive to red)
3. Compartments of the eye
a) Anterior Compartment - between lens and cornea is filled with
aqueous humor (watery fluid) that helps maintain pressure within
eye holds lens and retina in place.

b) Posterior Compartment - filled with vitrous humor (transparent

substance that helps holds lens and retina in place.

NORMAL VISION 20 FEET

SENSE OF HEARING 3 DIVISION

1. EXTERNAL EAR

a) AURICLE - fleshy part of the external ear

b) EXTERNAL AUDITORY MEATUS - passageway that leads to eardrum
c) CERUMINOUS GLANDS - glands (earwax)
d) EARDRUM - separates the external from middle ear (receives soundwaves)

2. MIDDLE EAR

hammer , anvil & stirup

AUDITORY TUBE - enable pressure to be equalized

3. INTERNAL EAR

a) COCHLEA - involved in hearing ; snail-like structure involved in balance

MECHANISM OF HEARING

a) ORGAN OF CORTI - composed of hearing receptors.

SOUNDWAVES —> 3 SMALL BONES —> COCHLEA —> SEMI CIRCULAR CANALS —>

ORGAN OF CORTI —> AUDITORY NERVE

cochlea to hearing receptors to auditory nerves

SENSE OF TASTE

4 PROPERTIES ( sweet , bitter, sour & salty)

- about 50 to 150 receptor cells are contained in each of the 10,000 taste buds.

1) TIP OF THE TONGUE - react more strongly to SWEET & SALTY

2) BACK OF TONGUE - react more strongly to BITTER TASTE
3) SIDE OF TONGUE - react more strongly to SOUR TASTE
SENSE OF SMELL - olfaction occurs in response to airborne molecules “odor” that enter the nasal
cavity

a) OLFACTORY NEURONS - send to nerve —> transmits to brain —> send to brain nerve
OLFACTORY NERVE - transfer smell information to the brain

POSITION AND BALANCE

MECHANICS OF EQUILIBRIUM

a) Vestibular apparatus - equilibrium receptors of the inner ear, that are divided into 2
functional arms ( STATIC and DYNAMIC equilibrium)

2 KINDS OF EQUILIBRIUM

1) STATIC - provides info which way is up & down (helps head to be erect)

2) DYNAMIC - responds to angular, rotary movement of the head (kinetic)

SENSE OF TOUCH

1) SKIN - largest bodily organ

a)EPIDERMIS (OUT) - KERATINOCYTES contains keratin
b) DERMIS (IN)
2) CONCEPT OF TOUCH - temperature, pain & pressure
3) INTEROCEPTIVE SYSTEM - involves the process of receiving info from within bodies
4) EXTEROCEPTIVE SYSTEM - refers to the process (senses outside environment) of
receiving info from the physical environment

MELANOCYTES - produce melanin; responsible for skin color (too much - dark too less - light)

SENSE OF PRESSURE - located in the subcutaneous tissue near joints, muscles & other tissue

SENSE OF TEMPERATURE (2 NERVE RECEPTORS)

a) cold b) heat

SENSE OF TOUCH
1) PAIN - group of unpleasant perceptual of emotional experience

3 TYPES OF PAIN
1) SHARP - ex. Kurt
2) SUPERFICIAL - sudden force ex. Sample
3) DEEP/VISCERAL PAIN - ex. stab of a knife

LEARNING - any relative permanent change in behavior brought about by exp or practice

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - a phenomenon in which one stimulus, through pairing with another
stimulus, produces a similar response

- developed by IVAN DAVLOV (ex. responding to recess)

ELEMENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

1) Unconditioned Stimulus - initial stimulus; what expected to happen; effect of conditioned
response ( ex. bell)
2) Unconditioned Response - support the initial stimulus (ex. Food)
3) Conditioned Stimulus - automate behavior
4) Automate Response
Stimulus Generalization - tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original
conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response.

Stimulus Discrimination - tendency to stop making a generalized response to a stimulus that is

similar to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar stimulus
because the similar stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned
stimulus.

Extinction - disappearance or weakening of a learned response following the removal or

absence of the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery - reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred.

High-order Conditioning - occurs when a strong conditional stimulus is partial with a neutral
stimulus causing the neutral stimulus to become a second conditioned
stimulus. ( 2 response)

Phobia - could be learned through classical conditioning ( John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner )

Operant Conditioning - the kind of learning applies to voluntary behavior.

- studied by Edward Thorndike (law of effect)
- (behavior become automate bec. of reward system or punishment)

BF Skinner - main proponent of operant conditioning; developed the concept of reinforcement.

Negative Reinforcement - avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus. (removing unpleasant)

Positive Reinforcement - followed by the presentation of a pleasurable stimulus.(add; offering)

Cognitive Learning Theory - learning requires cognition on the influence of an organism’s

thought processes.
- studied by Edward Tolman and Martin Seligman
- changed way of a person’s thinking

Edward Tolman - latent learning ; learning by exposure/experience

Martin Seligman - learned helplessness; failure/frustration

Observation Learning - learning through watching others perform or model certain actions.
- proponent : Albert Bandura

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT - changes that occur in people as they age from conception to death.
- physical, mental and emotional changes.

1) Nature - inherited characteristic (physical, addiction, personality, growth, social interaction)

2) Nurture - adjusting environment; influence of environment ; outside

DNA - responsible for characteristics and traits inherited.

ERIK ERIKSON PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY

1) TRUST vs MISTRUST - occurs between birth and 1 yr old. Developed depending on the quality of care a
child receives from his caregivers.
2) AUTONOMY vs SHAME and DOUBT - toddler; sense of independence.
3) INITIATIVE vs GUILT - fantasize stage; preschool; success lead to feel more capable of lead.
4) INDUSTRY vs INFERIORITY - grade school ; developed feeling of pride & accomplishment.
5) IDENTITY vs CONFUSION - sure about image vs role confusion; establishment of identity
- child is discovering their individuality and independence.
6) INTIMACY vs ISOLATION - meaningful relationship vs not having meaningful relationship
 - starting to discover intimate relationship (family, friends etc)
7) GENERATIVITY vs STAGNATION - improvement in life vs no change in life ; adulthood
- focus is on career, family and community life.
8). INTEGRITY VS DESPAIR - contented on what you have earned; sharing his achievements
- occurs during old age as the person begins to look back.

YOUNG ADULTHOOD - 20’s - 40’s

MIDDLE - 41 - 65
OLD - 65 +

MEMORY - an active system that receives info from the senses, organize and alters info sit stores
and then retrieves the info from storage.

PROCESS OF MEMORY
1) ENCODING - selecting ; set of mental operators that perform on a sensory info to
connect that info into a from.
2) STORAGE - holding info for a period of time; already on mind
3) RETRIEVAL - getting info out; use info

INFORMATION - processing model

1) SENSORY MEMORY - info enters the nervous system (N.S) through the sensory system

a) ICONIC - visual, sensory memory

b) ECHOIC - brief memory of what is heard, auditory

2) SHORT-TERM MEMORY - info that we attend to or focus on

- works through the process of selective attention or the ability
to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input
- AKA working memory

3) LONG-TERM MEMORY - info stored permanently

a) Retrieval Memory - skills, habits, conditioned responses

b) Declarative Memory - general facts and personal experiences
c) Episodic Memory - daily activities and events

4) RETRIEVAL by SIGMUND FROID (hypnotism)

a) Retrieval Cues - words, meaning, sounds and other stimulus that are encoded at
at the same time as a new memory.

b) Encoding Specificity - physical surroundings (use), become retrieval cues for

specific memory.

c) State - dependent Leaning - when the physiological or physiological states

become encoded as retrieval cues for memories formed while
in those state.

d) Recall - a type of memory retrieval in which the info to be retrieved must be

“pulled” out of memory with few or no cues.

e) Recognition - involves matching information with stored images or facts.

d) Serial Position Effect - when first and last times in a list on info are recalled more
efficiently than items in the middle of the list.

1) PRIMARY EFFECT - info at the beginning is better remembered.

2) RECENCY EFFECT - info at the end is better remembered.
HERMANN EBBINGHAUS - curve of forgetting - info is mostly lost within one hour after learning

e) Memory Trace - physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed

d) Decay - lose of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is
not used. (not using that memory)

f) Memory Trace Decay Theory - memory decays with disuse overtime.

FORGETTING

a) Procative Interference - older info prevents or interferes with the retrieval of newer info
(refuse to replace old info)

b) Retroactive Interference - newer info prevents or interferes with the retrieval of older info
c) Encoding Failure - info is not attended to and fails to be encoded

MEMORY AND THE BRAIN

1) Cerebellum - procedural memory

2) PREFRONTAL and TEMPORAL LOBES OF THE CORTEX - short-term memory
3) FRONT and TEMPORAL LOBES - semantic and episodic memories
4) AMYGDALA - fear of objects
5) HIPPOCAMPUS - new long-term memory

AMNESIA - a condition in which one’s memory is lost.

a) Retrograde Amnesia - memory of the past (prior to the injury) is lost.

b) Anterograde Amnesia - memory for anything new becomes impossible, although old
memories may still be retrievable

CONSCIOUSNESS - the person’s awareness of everything that is going on around; capabilities

ALTERED STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS - shift in quality or pattern of mental activity as

compared to waking consciousness

- we experience this when we use drugs, when we

daydream, sleep when we are being hypnotized or when we are meditating, trauma

SLEEP - one of the human body’s biological rhythm, natural cycles of activity that the body must
go through

a) Circadian Rhythm - biological rhythm or cycle that occurs over 24-hour period

SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEUS (SCN) - sends signals throughout the body in response to

light and dark

BODY TEMPERATURE - the higher the body temp. the more alert we are; the lower the temp the
sleepier we get.

MICROSLEEP (power nap)

SLEEP DEPRIVATION

THEORIES OF SLEEP

a) Adaptive Theory - sleep is product of evolution

b) Restorative Theory - sleep is necessary to the physical health of the body and serves to
 replenish chemicals and repair cellular damage.

KINDS OF SLEEP

a) REM (rapid eye movement) - active type of sleep when dreaming takes place.
b) NON-REM (non- rapid eye movement) - much deeper, more restful kind of sleep; snoring

STAGES OF SLEEP

1) 1st Stage - drowsy sleep; may exp vivid visual events called hypnogogic images and
hypnic jerks.
2) 2nd Stage - more stable sleep; the body temp continues to drop
3) 3rd Stage - deep sleep; night terrors and sleepwalking occurs (brain is active but
between rem and non-rem)
4) 4th Stage - deepest stage of sleep; the body is at its lowest level of functioning;
growth hormones are released

SLEEP DISORDERS

a) Insomnia - inability to fall asleep, stay asleep and get enough sleep
b) Sleep Apnea - breathing stops for about 1/2 minute
c) NACROLEPSY - a genetic disorder causing a collapse into REM sleep (microsleep)

THEORIES OF DREAMS

a) Freud - dreams are symbolic forms of the past

b) Activation Information Mode Model - dreams may have more meaning which first in with
past and present emotional concerns of the dreamer

HYPNOSIS - state of consciousness in which a person is especially susceptible to suggestion

PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS - drugs that are after thinking, perception and memory
- drug tolerance occurs as the user’s body becomes unconditioned
to the level of the drug.
- physically addictive that cause the user’s body to crave the drug

TYPES OF THE DRUGS

a) Stimulants - drugs that increase the functioning of the nervous system

b) Depressants - drugs that decrease the functioning of the nervous system
c) Narcotics - para-relieving drugs that are deprived from the opium poppy and
which bind to endorphin receptors of the nervous system
d) Hallucinogens / Psychogenic Drugs - stimulants that alter the brain’s interpretation of
sensations, creating hallucinations (ex. Ecstasy)

1) Synthetic Hallucinogens
LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)
PCP ( Phenyl Cyclohexyl Piperidine)
MDMA ( Ecstasy)

2) Natural Hallucinogens
Mescaline
Psilocybin
Marijuana

Stimulants
1) Amphetamines 2) Cocaine 3) Nicotine 4) Caffeine

Depressants
1) Barbituates 2) Benzodiasepines 3) Alcohol 4) Narcotics