Glossika Introduction to

Lithuanian
Verbs, Nouns and
Indo-European Etymology
 CONTENTS

4 Introduction to Lithuanian

6 Verb Conjugation
Constructions, Modals, Perfective/Imperfective, Verb-
Noun Relations, Embedded Clauses, Start a Process

16 Verb Lists
Stative Verbs
Process Verbs: intransitive, transitive
Action Verbs: intransitive
Dative Verbs: Predicate, Process, Action
Directional Verbs: Predicate, Process, Action

39 Nouns
Case Endings: Nominative, Genitive, Accusative,
Instrumental, Locative

40 Prepositions

41 Indo-European Etymology

52 Extend Your Learning with Glossika

59 Glossika Free Resources

60 References
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3
 Our Lithuanian Content
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Šiandien puikus oras.

ʃʲɪˈändʲiən pʊɪ̯ˑkˈʊs ˈoːrɐs.

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 Quick Intro to Lithuanian

1 History and Background

Languages such as Bengali and Sinhalese spoken far to the east, to languages such as Irish

and Icelandic spoken on the far western islands of Europe all share one thing in common:

they belong to the Indo-European family.

It may be difficult to see any resemblance between these disparate languages, but at their

core they share the same lexical and grammatical structure.

When the Indo-European language family was still in its infancy, it started to branch into

the separate dialects of Greek, Armenian, Avestan, Sanskrit, Tocharian, and the proto-

languages of Balto-Slavic, Germanic, Italic, and Celtic.

One language would eventually emerge from the Balto-Slavic group of dialects that

remained almost unchanged for millennia: Lithuanian. As far as what linguists can tell

today, Lithuanian is the closest to our original Indo-European ancestor and is very much

worthy of study, especially among linguists.

4
Like early languages such as Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, modern Lithuanian retains a

complex grammar. While our goal is not to teach grammar, but to acquire it naturally

through the use of frequent constructions, it is still worth your effort to understand the

basics of the grammar.

(From Wikimedia)

The Indo-European family

5
 Introduction to Lithuanian

2 Grammar

Verb Conjugation
The present and past appear to be very similar to each other. Think of the past tense

as having an extra vowel:

1) present -a- + past -u- causes a change to -o- (like French pronunciation of 'au')

2) present -ia- + past -e- causes a change to -ė-

3) future: insert -s- before the ending.

English I you he/she/it We you they

Lithuanian endings -u -i -a -ame - ate a

Compare with Russian -u -iš -it -im - i te - at

Compare with Persian -am -i -ad -im -id -and

Compare with Latin -o -as - at -amus - ati s - a nt

Compare with Hindi -ū ̃ -ai -ai -a͠i -o -a͠i

6
Sample verb constructions:

He works-he
He works.
Jis dirba.

He worked-he
He worked.
Jis dirbo.

He work-used-to-he
He used to work.
Jis dirbdavo.

He work-will-he
He will work.
Jis dirbs.

He work-would-he
He would work.
Jis dirbtu.

He is-he worked
He has worked.
Jis yra dirbęs.

He be-was-he worked
He had worked.
Jis buvo dirbęs.

be-used-to-he worked
He had worked at intervals.
Jis budavo dirbęs.

He be-will-he worked
He will have worked.
Jis bus dirbęs.

He be-was-he working
He was still working.
Jis buvo bedirbąs.

7
 He be-used-to-he working
He used to be still working.
Jis būdavo bedirbąs.

He be-will-he working
He will be working.
Jis bus bedirbąs.

He be-would-he worked
He would have worked.
Jis būtų dirbęs.

He be-would-he working
He would still be working.
Jis būtų bedirbąs.

That may-it to be true

It may be true.
Tai gali būti tikra.

That might-it to be true

It might be true.
Tai galėjo būti tikra.

8
Modal Auxiliaries

want norėti

wish/desire geisti, pageidanti

should/must turėti

can/may galėti

I want-I to learn Lithuanian

I want to learn Lithuanian.
Aš noriu išmokti lietuviškai.

You should-you to be careful-er

You should be more careful.
Jūs turėtute būti atsargesni.

want-you to go home
Do you want to go home?
Norite eiti namo?

Yes want-I
Yes, I want to.
Taip, noriu.

I alone not-want-I to go
I don't want to go alone.
Aš vienas nenoriu eiti.

You not-may-I that to know

They might not know that.
Jie negalėjo tai žinoti.

9
Perfective (finished) and Imperfective (unfinished)
Actions

As in Slavic languages, Lithuanian also has pairs of perfective and imperfective verbs. As

an English speaker, the easiest way to ease yourself into this way of thinking is to think of

the base form of the verb in English compared to the past participle, for example: be and

been, go and gone, teach and taught.

In Old English, all verbs had a prefix and you can still see this ge- prefix in surviving sister
languages Dutch and German. For example: write and written in German is schreiben and

geschrieben.

It is not an exact comparison with how perfectives work in Balto-Slavic languages, but

it can be helpful at the beginning to help you understand. In these languages, there is

not just one prefix that can be attached to a word, but rather many different kinds. This

is similar to how we can prefix German verbs such as geben 'to give' in many different

ways to create different meanings (like English phrasal verbs): vergeben, begeben,
ergeben, stattgeben, angeben, untergeben, widergeben, weggeben, vorgeben, zugeben,

ausgeben, eingeben, wiedergeben, etc. Each of these verbs in turn have a past participle.

10
In Lithuanian, let's take 'to write' as an example and compare:

He is writing (writes) rašo

He was writing (wrote) rašė

He'll be writing (will write) rašys

He has finished writing (has written) parašo

He had finished writing (had written) parašė

He'll have finished writing (will have written) parašys

Lithuanian prefixes you will encounter among others are: pa-, iš-, nu-, su-, ap-, at-.

These prefixes change the meanings of verbs slightly:

he speaks kalba

he slanders apkalba

he runs bėga

he runs out of išbėga

11
Verb - Noun Relations

Central to the sentence is the subject (Nominative), verb, object (Accusative), and indirect

object (Dative). All other information in the sentence filling in details of time, place,

circumstances show up as adverbs, or modal cases.

These are optional in the sentence, and display different word endings in Lithuanian

depending on the purpose. Though there are numerous circumstances, the word endings

fall into three distinctive patterns, labeled "Instrumental", "Locative", and "Genitive" by

grammarians.

Abbreviations:

Nominative NOM

Accusative ACC

Dative DAT

Instrumental INST

Locative LOC

Genitive GEN

Singular SG

Plural PL

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Instrumental:

This.NOM.SG key.NOM.SG opened-he doors.ACC.PL

This key opened the door.
Šis raktas atidarė duris.

opened-he doors.ACC.PL key.INST.SG

John opened the door with this key.
Jonas atidarė duris šiuo raktu.

used-he this key.ACC.SG to open doors.ACC.PL

John used this key to open the door.
Jonas vartojo šį raktą atidaryti duris.

The Lithuanian word "su" (with) may be omitted as a redundancy since the noun has been

marked with instrumental case endings.

Locative:

I.NOM work-I post-office.LOC.SG

I work at the post office.
Aš dirbu pašte.

Time is usually expressed using the accusative:

He worked-he all.ACC.SG day.ACC.SG

He worked all day.
Jis dirbo visą dieną.

We go-will-we there other Wednesday.ACC

We'll go there next Wednesday.
Mes eisime ten kita trečiadienį.

Every week.ACC.SG drive-I home

Every week I drive home.
Kas savaitę važinėju namo.

13
Embedded Clauses

My friend asked-he that I it do-should-I

My friend asked that I do it.
Mano draugas prašė , kad aš tai padaryčiau.

I know-I man.ACC-SG who.NOM.SG speaks-he

I know the man who is speaking.
Aš žinau žmogų kuris kalba.

14
Verbs that start a process
Abbreviations:

Masculine M

Feminine F

For other abbreviations, please refer to page 12.

You can turn adjectives into verbs, sometimes requiring a verbal prefix:

He is fat.NOM.M.SG
He is fat.
Jis yra riebus .

He fattened-he
He got fat.
Jis riebėjo .

is cold.NOM.M.SG
The food is cold.
Valgis yra šaltas .

Food cools-it
The food is getting cold.
Valgis atšala .

Days.NOM.F.PL are short.NOM.F.PL

Days are short.
Diẽnos yrà trum̃pos .

Days.NOM.F.PL shorten-they winter.ACC

Days shorten in winter.
Diẽnos sutrumpeja žiẽmą .

15
Verb Lists
Stative Verbs

A "state" is usually what we consider the predicate in English: a 'be' verb followed by

an adjective "state" complement. The adjective and the verb have a close relationship

in languages around the world, and this is apparent in English for example when an

adjective may become a verb (short > shorten), or a verb may become an adjective (to

close > a closed door / closing time).

But more importantly, notice how the 'be' verb is obligatory in the English predicate,

where no such verb exists in many languages (e.g. Japanese, Korean). In such cases, the

adjective itself is conjugated and treated like a verb. In languages that use a helping verb

like 'be', the conjugation happens on the verb rather than the predicate adjective. Some

languages like Russian have neither:

the predicate adjective declines to match the subject and there is no helping verb (in the

present tense).

Note! Not all English adjectives can be translated directly as stative verbs in other

languages. Especially for emotional states, such as "be nervous" or "be angry", where the

person can be considered a recipient of such emotions, you will find these verbs listed

under State Dative Verbs below.

So, treat the following Lithuanian predicate adjectives as verbs:

to be / exist būti

to be alive būti gyvam

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to be bad būti blogam

to be beautiful būti gražiam

to be cold būti šaltam

to be dark būti tamsiam

to be dry būti sausam

to be excellent būti puikiam

to be expensive būti brangiam

to be fat būti storam

to be good būti labam

to be healthy būti sveikam

to be hot būti karštam

to be kind būti maloniam

to be long būti ilgam

to be mean būti baisiam

to be old būti senam

to be open būti atviram

to be quiet būti ramiam

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 to be rich būti turtingam

to be short būti trumpam

to be sick būti nesveikam

to be small būti mažam / nedideliam

to be strong būti stipriam

to be stingy būti šykštiam

to be sweet būti saldiam

to be warm būti šiltam

to be weak būti silpnam

to be white būti baltam

to be wide būti platiam

to be young būti jaunam

Here is a sample transformation of 'white':

John's teeth are white. Jono dantys yra balti.

John whitened his teeth. Jonas baltino savo dantis.

John's teeth whitened (themselves). Jono dantys balo.

18
Predicate Nouns (e.g. somebody is something)

to appoint skirti, paskirti

to be būti

to be equal to būti lygiam

to be similar to būti panašiam į ACC

to become tapti (role.INSTR)

to cost kainuoti

to elect išrinkti (someone.ACC as role.INSTR)

to name vadinti, išvadinti (someone.ACC as role.INSTR)

to pretend to be dėtis

to translate išversti

to turn into virsti, pavirsti

19
Process Verbs (intransitive: no object)

In some cases, even the subject can be omitted:

It is raining. Lietus lyja. > Lyja.

It is snowing. Sninga.

to be born gimti

to become Lithuanian sulietuvėti

to begin prasidėti (compare with pradėti below)

to break down sugesti

to change pasikeisti

to come to an end pasibaigti

to die mirti, žūti

to die out išmirti

to fall asleep užmigti

to get dressed apsirengti

to get prepared pasiruošti

to get ready rengti, išsirengti

20
to get sick/ill sirgti, susirgti

to get up/rise atsikelti

to get well/better pasveikti

to grow augti, išaugti

to grow old pasenti

to grow up užaugti

to happen atsitikti

to oversleep pramiegoti

to rain lyti (no subject)

to rise kilti, pakilti

to sleep miegoti

to smoke rūkti

to stop sustoti

to wake up išsibudinti

to warm up sušilti

to work dirbti

21
Process Verbs (subject and accusative object)

to allow leisti

to arrest suimti

to attack pulti

to begin pradėti

to blame peikti

to build statyti

to call paskambinti

to celebrate švęsti

to clean valyti

to close uždaryti

to cure gydyti, pagydyti

to cut kirpti, pakirpti (as with scissors)

to destroy išnaikinti

to do/make daryti, padaryti

to fight kovoti

to finish baigti

to hit mušti

22
to hurry (sb) paskubinti

to kill užmušti

to make use of pasinaudoti

to meet sutikti

to open atidaryti

to play pažaisti

to raise kelti, pakelti

to repair pataisyti

to repeat kartoti

to return grąžinti, sugrąžinti

to spend (time) praleisti

to study thoroughly išstudijuoti

to touch liesti, paliesti

to turn (towards) užsukti

to unify suvienyti

to visit aplankyti

to wear nešioti

to work dirbti

23
Action Verbs (intransitive)

Example:

to bathe maudytis

to begin pradėti (optional object)

to bend linkti

to cry saukti

to dine pietauti

to drink gerti (optional object)

to eat pavalgyti (optional object)

to err klysti

to fly away nuskristi

to fly out išskristi

to laugh juoktis

to read skaityti (optional object)

to rest ilsėti, pailsėti

to return/come back pareiti

24
to run bėgti

to shout sušukti

to sing dainuoti (bird: čiulbėti)

to sit down susesti

to sit for a while pasėdėti

to smile nusišypsoti

to smoke rūkti

to snack užvalgyti

to stand up stoti

to take a walk pasivaikščioti

to try stengtis (optional object)

to turn užsukti

to wait laukti (optional object)

25
Some verbs are not marked (for ergativity) when subject and object are reversed:

cooks-she
Mother is cooking breakfast.
Mama verda pusryčius.

cooks-it
Breakfast is cooking.
Pusryčiai verda.

Mother bakes cakes. Mama kepa pyragus.

The cakes bake. Pyragai kepa.

Pay attention to other verbs that explicitly take an object (transitive) or don't (intransitive):

begin-will-it
The work will begin.
Darbas prasidės.

begin-will-we
We'll begin work.
Mes pradėsime darba.

John melted the glass. Jonas tirpino stiklą.

The glass melted. Stiklas tirpo.

The farmer grows potatoes. Valstietis augina bulves.

Potatoes grow. Bulvės auga.

26
Dative Verbs with a predicate state

The object of this kind of verb undergoes a psychological state of sensation, emotion,

cognition, possession of an object. In English, these verbs take subjects, not objects.

The "state" part of the sentence is the predicate adjective.

to belong to priklausyti

to fear bijoti

to forget užmiršti

to have turėti

to hear girdėTI

to hear/perceive išgirsti

to intend ketinti

to know mokėti

to like mėgti, patikti (present: patinka, past: patiko)

to love mylėti

to need reikėti

to please patikti

27
 to remember atsiminti

to see matyti, pamatyti

to smell suuosti

to think/believe manyti

to understand suprasti

to want norėti

Without the dative subject:

to be clear that... būti aiškiam, kad...

to be difficult that... būti sunkiam, kad...

to be easy that... būti lengvam, kad...

to be inconceivable that... būti neimanomam, kad...

to seem that... atrodyti, kad...

Without the predicate object:

to be angry būti linksmam

to be happy būti laimingam

to be jealous pavydėti

28
Dative Verbs with a process (something happening)
The subject with these verbs is in the dative case:

to catch pagauti

to dream sapnuoti

to find/discover atrasti, rasti

to lose netekti, prarasti

to receive gauti

to suffer vargti

to worry rūpintis

to win laimėti

to win (fight) sumušti

The subject with these verbs is in the dative case, and they may or may not take

an object:

to become afraid išsigąsti

to become tired (of) nusibosti

to feel sorry for gailėti

to get angry (with) supykti

to get nervous būti nervintiam

29
Dative Verbs with an action

The following verbs have both direct and indirect objects:

to advise patarti

to announce pranešti

to explain aiškinti, išaiškinti

to lend paskolinti

to notify pastebėti

to request prašyti

to show rodyti, parodyti

to wish linkėti

The following verbs may or may not have an object:

to ask klausti

to teach išmokyti

to write rašyti

The following verbs do not require an object:

to accept priimti

to borrow pasiskolinti

30
 to buy pirkti

to deliver pristatyti

to give duoti

to learn išmokti

to lend paskolinti

to say sakyti, pasakyti

to sell parduoti

to send atsiųsti

to speak kalbėti

to steal vogti

to teach išmokyti

to tell (story) pasakoti

TThe following verbs may or may not have a dative subject:

to answer atsakyti

to help padėti

to question klausinėti

to thank padėkoti

31
Directional Verbs

The directional manifests itself in various case endings in Lithuanian, which should more

or less match the same patterns in other nearby languages if you are familiar with them:

Locative case endings are not directional, but rather limited to "in/at" a location.

Accusative case endings indicate direction towards, across, through, over, and around.

Genitive case endings indicate direction (leaving) away from, off of, approaching,going
behind something.

32
Directional Verbs with a predicate state

to be behind būti už

to be near būti apie

to be on būti ant

to be sitting sėdeti

to be standing stovėti

to be under būti po

33
Directional Verbs with a process (something happening)

to come ateiti

to disappear into skęsti

to fall kristi

to go eiti

to go (vehicle) važiuoti

to move persikelti

to return sugrįžti

to run bėgti

34
Directional Verbs with an action
The following verbs have both an object and a directional case:

to carry nešti

to deliver pristatyti

to hang kabinti

to mail išsiųsti

to move/transfer perkelti

to place dėti

to plant pasodinti

to push prastumti

to put padėti

to return grąžinti

to send atsiųsti, pasiųsti

to throw mesti

The following verbs may or may not have a directional case:

to bring atnešti

to print išspausdinti

to take / pick up imti

35
The following verbs have a directional case, but no object:

to arrive atvykti

to bring atnešti

to bring along (vehicle) parsivezti

to climb lipti

to climb down nulipti

to climb in įlipti

to climb out islipti

to come ateiti

to come together (vehicle) suvažiuoti

to crawl šliaužti

to cross pereiti

to depart (for) isvaziuoti

to fly skristi

to get somewhere nuvykti

to go eiti

to go (vehicle) važiuoti

to go away from iškeliauti

36
to go in įeiti į

to go out išeiti

to go up lipti

to jump šokti

to leave (for another place) isvykti

to lie atsigulti

to lower nuleisti

to move (some place) persikelti

to return sugrižti

to rise atkopti

to run bėgti

to run out of išbėgti

to sail from/to nuplaukti

to settle down įsikurti

to study (at some university) studijuoti

to swim plaukti

to take paimti

37
 to take someone along (vehicle) nuvezti

to travel keliauti

to visit aplankyti

to walk pasivaikščioti

The following verbs do not require an object:

to paint dažyti

to water laistyti

38
Nouns
Identifying Nominative Case Endings
Singular most of these end in -s, unless feminine

Plural dropped -s and lengthened vowel, feminine adds -s

Identifying Genitive Case Endings

Singular usually ending in -s, except some masculine words in -o

Plural almost all nouns end in -ų

Identifying Dative Case Endings

Singular usually ending in a vowel and -i, masculine adjectives -am

Plural usually ending in a vowel and -ms

Identifying Accusative Case Endings

Singular usually ending in -ą, -į, -ę

Plural usually ending in a vowel and -s

Identifying Instrumental Case Endings

Singular many endings look like Dative without the final -i

Plural many endings look like Dative (with -m-) but ending in -is

Identifying Locative Case Endings

Singular most endings include -j- and a vowel, masculine adjectives -ame

Plural most endings include -ose or -yse

39
Prepositions
añt + GEN on

apiẽ + ACC about

artì + GEN near

be + GEN without, besides

dėl for

iki to, until, by, over, previous to, against

iš + GEN from, out of, through

nuõ + GEN away from, from, since, due to, against, on behalf of

pas + ACC by, with, at

per + ACC through, during

põ + GEN after, following, one "after" another

põ + ACC around, throughout

põ + DAT until, up to a time

põ + INST under, beneath, beside, along

sù + INST with

tarp + GEN between, among, amid

tol until

už + ACC for

už + GEN behind

į + ACC into, to, toward

For other abbreviations, please refer to page 12.

40
Indo-European Etymology

The following etymological data shows the relationship that Lithuanian has with Proto-

Indo-European. The data also shows the cognate words in other languages where

applicable.

Note that where a cognate exists, meanings frequently change. English words only

include words that descended directly from Germanic roots. By looking at the Latin data,

you will also be able to extrapolate many more modern English words.

For example, under the Lithuanian entry for "lìkti" (stay, remain), the Russian cognate is л

ишний (excess, spare), the English cognate is "loan", and the Latin cognate is linquō,

from which you can extrapolate the modern English word "relinquish".

Abbreviations in the following entries include: PIE (Proto-Indo-European), PBS (Proto-

Balto-Slavic), PS (Proto-Slavic), Lv (Latvian), OCS (Old Church Slavonic), S (Sanskrit), G

(Greek), L (Latin), PGc (Proto-Germanic), E English.

41
Lithuanian Definition Proto Indo-European Proto Balto-Slavic Latvian Proto Slavic Old Church Slavonic Russian Sanskrit Greek Latin Proto Germanic English

abù both *h₂nt-bʰoh₁ *obo abi *oba оба (oba) о́ ба (óba) उभ (ubhá-), अ�भ (abhí) ἀμφό (amphó) ambo *umbi ymbe > umb

akìs eye *h₃ekʷ- *ak acs *oko око (oko) о́ ко (óko) अ�� (ákṣi) ὤψ (ṓps) oculus *augô ēaġe > eye

akmuõ stone *h₂éḱmō *ak-mō akmens *kamy камꙑ (kamy) ка́ мень (kámenʹ) अ�म� ् (aśman) ἄκμων (ákmōn) *hamaraz hamor > hammer

*h₂el- > *h₂élyos > ollus, olle, ille, uls,

aliái every ἄλλος (állos) *allaz eall > all
*h₂ol-io- ulter, ōlim

alùs ale *h₂elut- *alu *olъ олъ (olŭ) ол (ol) *alu ealu > ale

angis viper *h₂éngʷʰis *angi(o)s, *angi(a)s odze *ǫžь уж (už) anguis

anglìs charcoal *h₁ongʷ-ōl- > *h₁ongʷ-l- *anglis ogle *ǫ̀ glь ѫгль (ǫglĭ) у́ голь (úgolʹ) अ��ा� (áṅgāra)

angnæġl > agnail >

añkštas tight *h₂enǵʰ- > *h₂emǵʰ-u- *anź-(u)- *ǫzъkъ ѫзъкъ (ǫzŭkŭ) у́ зкий (úzkij) अंहु (áṃhu-) ἄγχω (ánkhō) angustus *anguz
hangnail

ántis duck *h₂énh₂t- > *ənət- *ǫty утка (útka) anas *anudz enid > ennet / ende

añtras second *wi-tero- > *ánteros otrais *vъtorъ второй (vtoroj) अ�� (anya) δεύτερος (défteros) *anþeraz other

о (o), об (ob), объ о (o), об (ob), обо

apiẽ about *h₃ebhi > *h₂n̥-bʰi *o(b) अ�भ (abhí) ἀμφί (amphí) ambo *umbi ymbe > umb
(obŭ) (obo)
अपाका (apākā́ ), उलूक​
apúokas owl *h₂epó > *h₂epo-h₃kʷ- *ȍpakъ
(úlūka-, “owl”)
рало (ralo), орати ра́ ло (rálo), орать
árklas ard plough *h₂erh₃- > *h₂(e)rh₃-tlom *árˀtla ar̂ kls *òrdlo, *orati ἄροτρον (árotron) arātrum *arþrą ard
(orati) (oratʹ)
ἄρτιος (ártios), (ἁμ)
artì near *h₂er- > *h₂er-t- ऋत (ṛtá) artus
αρτή ((ham)artḗ)
оумъ (umŭ), явити ἀΐω (aḯō), αἰσθάνομαι
aumuõ mind *h₂ew- > *h₂ew-m- आ��स ् (āvís) audiō
(javiti) (aisthánomai)

ausìs ear *h₂ows- *auš- auss *uxo оухо (uxo) у́ хо (úxo) उ�स (usi) οὖς (oûs) auris *ausô ēare > ear

оутро (utro), ютро ἠώς (ēṓs), αὔριον ēast > east, ēastre >
aušrà dawn *h₂eus- àustra, aũstra *utro у́ тро (útro) उषस ् (uṣás), उ�ा (usrā́ -) aurōra, auster *Austrǭ
(jutro) (aúrion) Easter, ere > early

ãvinas ram *h₃éwis *awinas àuns *ovьnъ овьнъ (ovĭnŭ) овен (ovén) अ�� (ávi) ᾱ̓ετός (āetós) avis *awiz ēowu > ewe

avìs sheep *h₃éwis > *h₂ówis *awis *ovьca овьца (ovĭca) овца (ovcá) ὄϊς (óïs) ovis

avýnas maternal uncle *h₂ewh₂- > *h₂ewh₂yos *ujь уй (uj) avus, avunculus *awô

avė́ti wearing shoes *h₃eu- *aw- > *owtei aut *uti, *jьzuti обути (obuti) обуть (obút’) ex-uere

àš I h₁eǵ-, *h₁eǵHom *eś > *eˀź-um es *(j)azъ азъ (azŭ) я (ja) अहम ् (aham) ἐγώ (egṓ) egō, nōs, noster *ek, *ik, *wīz iċ > ik > I, wē > we

ãšara tear *dr̥ḱ-h₂eḱru- > *h₂eḱru- asara अ�ु (aśru) δάκρυ (dákru) dacrima > lacrima *tahrą tēar > tear

aštrùs sharp *h₂ḱrós *aśras *ostrъ ἄκρος (ákros) ācer

aštuoni eight *oḱtṓw aḱtō- astoņi *osmь осмь (osmĭ) восемь (vósemʹ) अ�� (aṣṭa) ὀκτώ (oktṓ) octō *ahtōu eahta > eight

ašvà mare *h₁éḱwos अ�� (áśva), आशु (āśú) ἵππος (híppos) equus *ehwaz, *ehwaraidō eoh, ēored

ą́žuolas oak *h₂eyǵ-

blāw / blēo > blow /

báltas white *bʰel- balts *bělъ бѣлъ (bělŭ) бе́ лый (bélyj) भ�� (bharga) flāvus *blēwaz
blue

bar̃nis quarrel *bʰorH-n-i- *bor-n-i-

Lithuanian Definition Proto Indo-European Proto Balto-Slavic Latvian Proto Slavic Old Church Slavonic Russian Sanskrit Greek Latin Proto Germanic English

barzdà beard *bʰardʰeh₂ *bardā bārda *borda брада (brada) борода́ (borodá) barba *bardaz beard

barzdótas bearded *bʰardʰeh₂tos *bordatъ борода́ тый (borodátyj) barbatus barbatus

bãsas bare *bʰosós *bosós bass босо́ й (bosój) *bazaz bær > bare

бобр (bobr), бобёр

bẽbras beaver *bʰébʰrus, *bʰibʰrus *bebrus, *bibrus bebrs *bebrъ бебръ (bebrŭ) ��� (babhru) fiber, beber *bebruz beofor > beaver
(bobjór)
भर�� (bhárati), भ�र��� φέρω (phérō), φορέω
ber̃ti strew, scatter *bʰer- *ber- bḕrt *bьrati бьрати (bĭrati) брать (bratʹ) ferō *beraną beran > bear
(bhāráyati) (phoréō)

béržas birch *bʰerHǵs *berźas, *berźā bȩ̃rzs, bẽrze *berza брѣза (brěza) берёза (berjóza) भ�� � (bhūrja) fraxinus *birkijǭ beorc > birch

bitė bee *bʰei-, *bʰī- bite пчела́ (pčelá) φῦκος (phûkos) apis, fūcus *bijō bēo > bee

blusà flea *bʰluseh₂ *blúšaH

brìnkti to swell *bʰrnk-

брести́ (brestí),
brìsti to wade *bʰrdʰ- > *pértus *bred-, *bird- brist *bresti бродъ (brodŭ) portus *ferþuz, *furduz ford
броди́ ть (brodítʹ)

brólis brother *bʰréh₂tēr *bráH-t(e)r- brālis *bratrъ братръ (bratrŭ) брат (brat) ���� (bhrā́ tṛ) φρᾱ́τηρ (phrā́ tēr) frāter *brōþēr brōþor > brother

burnà mouth *bʰer- φάρυγξ (phárunx) frūmen

bū́ti to be *bʰuh₂- > *h₁es- *būtei būt бꙑти (byti)

dainà song *dih₁- daĩn̨ a द���� (dīyati) δίω (díō)

dantìs tooth *h₃dónts *dęsna десна́ (desná) द�� (dánta) ὀδούς (odoús) dēns *tanþs

debesìs cloud *nébʰos debess *nebo нєбо (nebo) не́ бо (nébo) नभस ् (nábhas) νέφος (néphos) nebula *nebulō, *nebulaz nuel

dègti to burn *dʰegʷʰ- *deg-tei degt *žeťi жєщи (žešti) жечь (žečʹ) द��� (dáhati) τέφρα (téphra) foveō, febris *dagaz dæġ > day

degùtas tar *dʰegʷʰ-. *degut(i)os deguts *degъtь дёготь (djógotʹ) deguts

deñgti cover, clothe *dʰengʰ-, *dʰn̥gʰ- *dungō dung

dė́rva chip of wood *dóru *derʔuom darva дрѣво (drěvo) дерево (derevo) द�� (dā́ ru), �� (drú) δόρυ (dóru) dūrus *trewą trēow > tree, true

derėti suited, bargain, agree *dʰer- �र�� (dharati) firmus

devyni nine *h₁néwn̥, *newin- deviņi *devętь дєвѧть (devętĭ) девять (devjatʹ) नवन ् (návan) εννέα (ennéa) novem *newun niġon > nine

dešimt ten *déḱm̥t *dešimtis desmit *desętь дєсѧть (desętĭ) де́ сять (désjatʹ) दश (daśa) δέκα (déka) decem *tehun tīen > ten

dešinė right *deḱs- *desьnъ дєснъ (desnŭ) द��� (dákṣiṇa) δεξιός (dexiós) dexter *tehswô

*dʰēygʷ- :*dʰōygʷ- :
díegti to prick *dьgna дьгна (dĭgna), дегна (degna) fīgō *dīkaz
*dʰīgʷ-
*dyew-, *dyeu- > *déi-
dienà day *dein- diena *dьnь дьнь (dĭnĭ) день (denʹ) �दन (diná) Ζήν (Zḗn), Ζεύς (Zeús) diēs *tīnaz lencten > Lent
no-

dieverìs brother-in-law *dayh₂wḗr diẽveris деверь (déver’) दे वर (devara) δᾱήρ (dāḗr) levir *taikuraz tācor

dìrginti to irritate *drHǵʰ- дёргать (djórgatʹ)

dirvà soil, land *dr(H)-u- dirva дере́ вня (derévnja) द�व�� (dū́ rvā-)
Lithuanian Definition Proto Indo-European Proto Balto-Slavic Latvian Proto Slavic Old Church Slavonic Russian Sanskrit Greek Latin Proto Germanic English

draũgas friend *dʰrowgʰos *draugas dràugs дроугъ (drugŭ) *druhtinaz drihten

du two *dwóh₁ *duwō divi *dъva дъва (dŭva) два (dva) �व (dvá) δύω (dúō) duo *twai two

duktė daughter *dʰugh₂tḗr *duktē *dъťi дъщи (dŭšti) дочь (dočʹ) ������ (duhitṛ) θυγάτηρ (thugátēr) *fuɣtēr *duhtēr dohtor > daughter

dùmti blow *dʰ(o)mH- *domʔtei, *dumʔtei धम�� (dhámati)

dúona bread *dʰoHnéh₂ *dōˀnāˀ धाना (dhānā)

dúoti give *deh₃- *dōtei dot *danь �ध� (dhita) δοτός (dotós) datus

*dʰwer-, *dʰwor- >

dùrys door dùrvis, duris *dvьrь двьри (dvĭri) дверь (dverʹ) �वा�� (dvā́ r) θύρα (thúra) foris *durz duru > door
*dʰur

dvõkti stink *dʰweH- > *dʰuh₂mós dūmi *dymъ дꙑмъ (dymŭ) дым (dym) धूम (dhūmá) θῡμός (thūmós) fūmous

dū́mas smoke *dʰweH- > *dʰuh₂mós dūmi *dymъ дꙑмъ (dymŭ) дым (dym) धूम (dhūmá) θῡμός (thūmós) fūmous

ẽglė spruce *h₁edʰ-l-i *edli- egle ebulum

eĩti to go *h₁ey- iet *jьti ити (iti) идти́ (idtí) ��� (eti) εἶμι (eîmi) eō *ijjē ēode > yode

élnias deer *h₁elh₁ēn *(j)elenь ѥлєнь (jelenĭ) оле́ нь (olénʹ) ἔλαφος (élaphos)

erẽlis eagle *h₃érō ērglis *orьlъ орьлъ (orĭlŭ) орёл (orjól) ὄρνῑς (órnīs) *arô earn > erne

ἐχῖνος (ekhînos)E igil >

ežỹs hedgehog *h₁eǵʰis ezis *ežь ёж (jož), ёжик (jóžik)
ile

ė́sti eat *h₁ed- *ḗstei ēst *ěsti ꙗсти (jasti) есть (jestʹ) ��� (átti) ἔδω (édō) edō *etaną etan > eat

ganýti to herd, drive *gʷʰen-, *gʷʰon- ganît *gonìti гони́ ть (gonítʹ) �ि�� (hánti) θείνω (theínō) -fendō *banô bana > bane

garnỹs heron, egret *gerh₂- > *gorh₂-n- gar̂ nis γέρην (gérēn) geranium *kranaz cran > crane, cranberry

जन�� (jánati), जा��

gentis tribe, genus *ǵenh₁- > *ǵénh₁tis *zętь зѧть (zętĭ) зять (zjatʹ) γένεσις (génesis) gēns *kinþiz cynd > kind
(jāti)
пожрѣти, пожьрѫ
gerti drink *gʷerh₃- *gerˀtei dzer̂ t *žьrati нажраться (nažratʹsja ����� (giráti) βορά (borá) vorō, dēvorō *kwerraną acworren
(požrěti, požĭrǫ)

gèsti extinguish *(s)gʷes- оугашѫ (ugašǫ) जा�य�� (jāsáyati) σβέννῡμι (sbénnūmi)

gìlė acorn *gʷelh₂- *gīlˀē zīle *želǫdь жёлудь (žóludʹ) желѫдь (želǫdĭ) βάλανος (válanos) glāns

giñti drive, chase *gʷʰen- dzīt *gъnati �ि�� (hánti) θείνω (theínō) -fendō *banô bana > bane

girià forest *gʷrH- *gor-/*gir- *gora гора́ (gorá) ���� (girí-) δειράς (deirás) ?

���ा�� (gṛṇā́ ti), �ू� �

gìrti praise *gʷerH- dzir ̃u *žьrti жрьти (žrĭti) жрать (žratʹ) grātus
(gūrtá)
��ा�� (glāti), ��ाय��
gul̃ti lie, sick, wilt *legʰ- *legti лечь (lečʹ) λέχομαι (lékhomai) *leɣō *ligjaną licgan > lie
(glāyáti)

gurklỹs chin, neck *gʷr̥h₃-dʰlom *gurˀdla *gъrdlo

gýsla vein, thread *gʷiHl- *giʔ(s)laʔ dzīsla *žila жила (žila) жи́ ла (žíla) िजया (jiyā́ ), �या (jyā́ ) βιός (biós) filum

gývas alive *gʷih₃wós *gīˀwas dzīvs *živъ живъ (živŭ) живо́ й (živój) जीव (jīva) βίος (bíos) vīvus *kwikwaz cwic > quick
Lithuanian Definition Proto Indo-European Proto Balto-Slavic Latvian Proto Slavic Old Church Slavonic Russian Sanskrit Greek Latin Proto Germanic English

gyvénti to live *gʷeih₃w- *gīw- dzīvot *žiti жити (žiti) жить (žitʹ) ��व�त (jīvati) βίοτος (bíotos) vīta

-ias masc nom sg *-yós *-ios *-ь -εῖος (-eîos), -ιος (-ios) -eus, -ius

-idė place to put animals *dʰeh₁- *dētei *děti дѣти (děti) деть (det') अधात ् (ádhāt) ἔθεμεν (éthemen) -dō *dōną dōn > do

дльгъ (dlĭgŭ), длъгъ

ilgas long *dl̥ h₁gʰós *dilˀgas ilgs *dь̀lgъ до́ лгий (dólgij) ���� (dīrghá) δολιχός (dolikhós) longus, indulgeō *tulguz tulge
(dlŭgŭ)

-ìnis of, made from *-iHnos ains *-inъ -ьнъ (-ĭnŭ) -ин (-in) -ινος (-inos) -īnus *-īnaz -en

ir̃ and, too *h₂r̥- *ir ir *i अरम ् (áram) ἄρα (ára) reor, rītus

ìš from, out *h₁eǵʰs, *eǵʰs *jьz из (iz) из (iz) ἐξ (ex) ex

-ский (-skij), -ско́ й (-

-iškas adj formation *-iskos *-iškas -isks *-ьskъ -ьскъ (-ĭskŭ) -ισκος (-iskos) *-iskaz -isc > ish
skój)

į in *h₁én / *h₁n̥ ìe- *vъ (n) въ (vŭ) в (v), во (vo) ἐν (en) in *in in

jáunas young *h₂yuh₁en- *jauˀnas jauns *junъ юнъ (junŭ) ю́ный (júnyj) युवन ् (yúvan) iuvenis *jungaz ġeong > young

jóti ride horseback *ieh₂- *jaʔ- jāt या�त (yāti)

jungas yoke *yewg- > *yugóm *juga- jūgs *jь̑go иго (igo) иго (igo) युग (yugá), योग (yoga) ζυγόν (zugón) iugum *juką ġioc > yoke

jùngti to connect *yunégti ~*yungénti jūgt यु��त� (yuṅkte) ζεύγνυμι (zeúgnumi) iungō

kàd that, when *kʷod

kaina price *kʷoyneh₂ ποινή (poinḗ)

колесо́ (kolesó), ко́ ло

kaklas neck, collar *kʷékʷlos *kaklas kakls *kȍlo коло (kolo) च� (cakrá) κύκλος (kúklos) *hwehwlą hweohl > wheel
(kólo)

kalbà language, speech *kele- उषःकाल (uṣaḥkāla) κλήση (klḗsē) calō *hlōaną hlowan > to low

kalnas hill, mountain *kelH- > *kl̥ Hnís *kalˀnas kal̂ ns *xъlmъ хлъмъ (xlŭmŭ) холм (xolm) κολώνη (kolṓnē) collis, columen *hulliz, *hulmaz hyll > hill, holm

kálti hammer, strike *kolH- *kolʔ- kalt *kolti коло́ ть (kolótʹ) calamitās

karas war *ker- > *kóryos karš κοίρανος (koíranos) *harjaz here

�कम ् (kim), कः (kaḥ), hwenne > when, hwā >

kàs who, what *kʷis *kas kas *kъto, *kъjь къто (kŭto) кто (kto) ποῖος (poîos) quis, quī *hwannē, *hwaz who, hwæt > what,
�कः (kiḥ) hwȳ > why, hū > how

kasa braid *kes- *kosa коса́ (kosá)

káulas bone *keh₂ulós *káuˀlas kauls कु�या (kulyā) καυλός (kaulós) cāl > cole

kẽlias road, way *kel- κέλευθος (kéleuthos)

kèpti bake *pekʷ- cept печь (pečʹ) �च�त (pacati) πέσσω (péssō) coquō *kukaz cook

kẽras bush, shrub *k(ʷ)er(H)- cȩrs *kory корєнь (korenĭ) ко́ рень (kórenʹ)

keturi four *kʷetwóres *ketur- četri *četyre чєтꙑрє (četyre) четы́ре (četýre) चतुर ् (catur) τέσσαρες (téssares) quattuor *fedwōr fēower > four

червь (červʹ), червя́ к

kirmis worm *kʷr̥mis *kirmis cirmenis *čьrvь чрьвь (črĭvĭ) क� �म (kṛmi)
(červják)

kir̃snas black (horse) *kr̥snós *kirsnos *čьrnъ чрънъ (črŭnŭ) чёрный (čórnyj) क� �� (kṛṣṇá)
Lithuanian Definition Proto Indo-European Proto Balto-Slavic Latvian Proto Slavic Old Church Slavonic Russian Sanskrit Greek Latin Proto Germanic English

klausýti listen, hear *ḱlew- klausīt *slyšati слꙑшати (slyšati) слышать (slyšatʹ) �ो��त (śróṣati) κλαίω (klaíō) clueō *hlusjaną hlysnan > listen

���� � (kravis), ���

kraũjas blood *krewh₂- *krowjos *kry крꙑ (kry) кровь (krov') κρέας (kréas) cruor, crūdus *hrawaz hrǣw, > raw
(kravyá)

krušà hail *krus- krusa кроха (kroxa) κρούω (kroúō)

kurti kindle, to light *kʷr̥- > *kerh₃- kur ̃t кури́ ть (kurítʹ) कृ �ो�त (kṛṇóti) κοίρανος (koíranos) carbō *herþaz heorþ > hearth

kūšỹs vulva *kuḱis kūsis कु�� (kukṣí)

flōd > flood, flōwan >

laĩvas ship *Heh₃l- > *ley-w, *plew- laiva *pluti плоути (pluti) плыть (plytʹ) πλέω (pléō) pluit *flawją, *flōduz, *flōaną
flow

laižýti lick *leyǵʰ- laizīt *lizati лиза́ ть (lizátʹ) lingō *likkōną liccian > lick

lãpė fox *h₂wl(o)p ~*h₂ulp *lapē lapsa ἀλώπηξ (alṓpēx vulpēs

लोक (loká-), रोक (roká), λευκός (leukós),

laũkas field, outside *lewk- > *lówkos lauks *lučь лучь (lučĭ) луч (luč) lūcus, lūx *lauhaz lēah > lea, lēoht > light
रोचते (rocate) λύχνος (lúkhnos)

lazdà stick *lazdā-

líeti to pour *leh₁i- *leʔi- liet *liti лить (litʹ) λείβω (leíbō)

liežùvis tongue *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s *inźūˀ *(j)ęzykъ ѩзꙑкъ (językŭ) язы́к (jazýk) ����ा (jihvā) *dingua > lingua *tungǭ tunge > tongue

lìkti stay, remain *leykʷ- likt, lìeku отлѣкъ (otlěkŭ) лишний (lišnij) रे च�त (recati) λείπω (leípō) linquō *līhwaną, *laihną lēon, lǣn (loan)

lìnas flax *lino- лён (ljon) λίνον (línon) līnum

liū̃dnas sad *lewd- > *lud- *lȗdъ луд (lud) *lūtaną lūtan > lout

лава (lava) > лавка

lóva bed *lewH- *lawˀaˀ lâva लु�ा�त (lunā́ ti)
(lavka)
*moyḱ- > *moyḱ-éye- , μίγνυμι (mígnumi), māsc > mesh, mæscre
maišyti mix, blend *maiś-ei- màisît *měsiti мѣсити (měsiti) меси́ ть (mesítʹ) �म���त (miśráyati) misceō *maską, *maiską
*meyǵ-, *meyḱ- μίσγω (mísgō) > mash
μύλη (múlē), μέλᾱς
malti grind, mill *melH- malt моло́ ть (molótʹ) मृ�ा�त (mr̥ṇā́ ti) molere *malaną mylen > mill
(mélās)

mãrios sea *mor-i- *morjo, *morjaʔ *morje морѥ (morje) мо́ ре (móre) म�ा��ा (maryādā) mare *mari mere

mãžas small *meǵʰ-, *moǵʰ- *maźas mazs

medus honey *médʰu *medu- medus *mȇdъ мєдъ (medŭ) мёд (mjod) मधु (mádhu) μέθυ (méthu) *meduz medu > mead

melžti to milk *h₂melǵ-

mielas nice, sweet *meyǝ- mītis

*h₃meyǵʰ- >
miglà mist *miglāˀ, *migláH migla ομίχλη (omíchli) mēiō, mingō *mihstuz mist
*h₃migʰleh₂

mintìs thought *méntis *mintis *pamętь памѧть (pamętĭ) па́ мять (pámjatʹ) म�त (máti) αὐτόματος (autómatos) mēns *mundiz mynd > mind

мрѣти, мьрѫ (mrěti, умереть, умру मर�त (marati), ���ते

mir̃ti die *mer-, *mr̥- *mer-, *mir- mirt *merti morior
mĭrǫ) (umeretʹ, umru) (mriyáte)
*mer- > *mr̥-t-wós, мрьтвъ (mrĭtvŭ), myrþrian, morþor >
mirtìs death *mirtis *mьrtvъ > *sъmьrtь мёртвый (mjórtvyj) मृ��ु (mṛtyú) βροτός (brotós) mortuus, mors *mŕ̥trom > *murþrą
*mér-tis мрътвъ (mrŭtvŭ) murther > murder
mōdor > mother,
mótina mother *méh₂tēr *māˀtē *mati мати (mati) мать (matʹ) मातृ (mā́ tṛ) μητέρα (mitéra) māter *mōdēr
mither
Lithuanian Definition Proto Indo-European Proto Balto-Slavic Latvian Proto Slavic Old Church Slavonic Russian Sanskrit Greek Latin Proto Germanic English
mōdor > mother,
mótė mother, wife *méh₂tēr *māˀtē māte *mati мати (mati) мать (matʹ) मातृ (mā́ tṛ) μητέρα (mitéra) māter *mōdēr
mither

mȳžti urinate *meiǵʰ- mīzt *mižati, *mьzěti म���त (méhati) ὀμείχω (omeíkhō) *mīganą

mōna > moon, mōnaþ

mė́nuo month *mḗh₁n̥s *meʔn-(e)s- mēnesis *mě̋sę̄cь мѣсѧць (měsęcĭ) ме́ сяц (mésjac) मास (mā́ sa), मास ् (mā́ s) μήνας (mínas) mensis *mēnô, *mēnōþs
> month
нога (noga), ногъть нога́ (nogá), но́ готь
nãgas nail *h₃nogʰ- > *h₃nogʷʰ-eh₂ *nogaʔ *noga, *nogъtь नख (nakhá) ὄνυξ (ónux) unguis *naglaz næġel > nail
(nogŭtĭ) (nógotʹ)
न��त (nákti), न�त νύχτα (nýchta), νύξ
naktìs night *nókʷts *naktis nakts *noťь нощь (noštĭ) ночь (nočĭ) nox > noctis *nahts næht > night
(nákta) (núx)

nãmas house *dṓm nams *dȏmъ домъ (domŭ) дом (dom) दम (dáma-) δόμος (dómos) domus

naũjas new *néwos *nawjas *novъ новъ (novŭ) новый (nóvyj) नव (náva) νέος (néos) novus *niwjaz nīwe > new

स (sá), सा (sā́ ), त�
nès because, since *so, *séh₂, *tód *tъ sī *sa
(tád)
*h₁neḱ- > *h₂nōḱ-ós / *ganōgaz, *nēhwaz,
nèšti carry, bring *neś-, *nestei nest *nestì нєсти (nesti) нести́ (nestí) न��त (naśati) ἤνεγκον (ḗnenkon) nancīscor ġenōg > enough
*h₂nḗḱ-wos *ganuganą

niẽkas nobody, nothing *ne + *kʷos *neikas *nikъto, *ničь, *ničьto никъто (nikŭto) никто (niktó) न (na) ne *ne, *ni

nóras wish, desire *h₂nḗr *norvъ нравъ (nravŭ) норов (norov) नृ (nṛ́), नर (nára) ἀνήρ (anḗr) neriōsus

nósis nose *néh₂s- nass *nosъ носъ (nosŭ) нос (nos) नासा (nā́ sā) naris, nāsus *nasō, *nusō nasu, nosu > nose

núogas nude, naked *negʷ- > *nogʷós *nōˀgas न�न (nagná-) γυμνός (gumnós) nūdus *nakwadaz nacod > naked

-õ G N SG. *-ā -a *-a -आत ् (-āt) ὄπ-ω (óp-ō) -ō

obuolỹs apple *h₂ébōl *āˀbōl ābols *a̋blo > *ablъko аблъко (ablŭko) яблоко (jábloko) *aplaz æppel > apple

óras air *h₄orh₂-on-

ožỹs goat *h₂eiǵ-

πέλᾱς (pélās), -παλτος

pelė mouse *pel- > *pl-ēn- pele пелена (pelena) пелена (pelená) (-paltos), -πλάσιος (- pellis, -plus *fellą, *falþaną fell, faldan > fold
plásios)

penki five *pénkʷe pieci *pętь пѧть (pętĭ) пять (pjatʹ) प��न ् (páñcan) πέντε (pénte) quīnque *fimf fīf > five

pérsti fart *perd- pirst *pьrděti перде́ ть (perdétʹ) पद�त� (párdate) πέρδομαι (pérdomai) *fertaną *feortan > fart

πατέομαι (patéomai), *fōdijaną, *fadōną, fēdan > feed, fad, fōdor

piemuõ shepherd *peh₂- > *poh₂-i-mn̥ *pasti пасти (pasti) पायु (pāyú) pāscō, pāstor
ποιμήν (poimḗn), *fōdrą, *fōdô > fodder, fōda > food
*piH- > *poyHnos,
píenas milk piẽns पयस ् (páyas)
*peyHnos
писа́ ть (pisátʹ),
пьсати (pĭsati), пьсъ
piẽšas freckle *peyḱ- *pьsа̀ ti, *pь̀strъ, *pьsъ пёстрый (pjóstryj), �प��� (piśáṅga) πῐκρός (pikrós) pingō *faihaz fāh, fāg
(pĭsŭ)
пёс (pjos)
писа́ ть (pisátʹ),
пьсати (pĭsati), пьсъ
piẽšti draw *peyḱ- *pьsа̀ ti, *pь̀strъ, *pьsъ пёстрый (pjóstryj), �प��� (piśáṅga) πῐκρός (pikrós) pingō *faihaz fāh, fāg
(pĭsŭ)
пёс (pjos)

pilìs castle, palace *pl̥ h₁- pils पुर (pura) πόλις (pólis)

pilnas full *pl̥ h₁nós *pilˀnas pilns *pьlnъ пльнъ (plĭnŭ) по́ лный (pólnyj) प�� � (pūrṇá) πλέως (pléōs) plēnus *fullaz full

pìnti to plait *(s)pnH- pinʔ- pīt πένομαι (pénomai)

Lithuanian Definition Proto Indo-European Proto Balto-Slavic Latvian Proto Slavic Old Church Slavonic Russian Sanskrit Greek Latin Proto Germanic English
πρῶτος (prôtos),
pirmas first, primary *per- प�� (pári) πρότερος (próteros), prīmus, prior, prō, *furi, *furai, *furistaz for, fore, fyrst>first,
πέρᾱ (pérā), περί (perí)

pir̃štas finger *pr-sth₂-o- pirksts प��� (pṛṣṭhá-)

πλέω (pléō), πλύνω flōwan > flow, flōd >

plaũkti swim, flow *plew- *plaviti, *plyti плыть (plytʹ) *flōaną, *flōduz
(plúnō) flood
*h₂pó, *h₂epó > *h₂epo-
põ after, up *po по (po) по (po) अप (ápa) ἀπό (apó) ab *after, *ab æfter > after, æf > of
tero-

rasa dew *Hroseh₂ *rasāˀ *rosa роса (rosa)

ràsti find, discover *Hreh₁dʰ-, *wr̥-edʰ- *rad- rast *rodìti

rãtas wheel *(H)roth₂os rota *raþą

raudónas ruddy, reddish *h₁rowdʰós > *h₁rewdʰ- рудъ (rudŭ) ���� (rudhirá) ἐρυθρός (eruthrós) *raudaz rēad > red

*HrewdH- > *HrowdH-

raudóti sob, weep raudāt рыда́ ть (rydátʹ) �� (rud) rūdō *reutaną rēotan
eh₂-ye-ti

ráuti pull out *(H)ruH- *ruʔ- raut *rъvati, *ryti

rudas brownish red *h₁rewdʰ- *rudas ruds

rugỹs rye *wrugʰyo- *rugis rudzi *rъžь рожь (rožʹ) *rugiz ryġe > rye

secġan > say, sēon >

sakýti say *sekʷ- > *enskʷé- sacīt सचते (sácate) ἕπομαι (hépomai) sequor, inquam *sagjaną, *sehwaną
see

saldùs sweet *sh₂el-d-u- *salHdus salds *soldъkъ сладъкъ (sladŭkŭ) соло́ дкий (solódkij)

sãpnas dream *súpnos, *swépnos sapnis сънъ (sŭnŭ) ���न (svapna) ὕπνος (húpnos) somnus

*sōwulą, *sōwulō,
sáulė sun *sóh₂wl̥ *saul, *saulē saũle *sъlnьce слъньцє (slŭnĭce) со́ лнце (sólnce) ���� (svàr) ἥλιος (hḗlios) sōl siġel, sunne > sun
*sunnǭ

sègti fasten *se(n)g- *se(n)ʔg- स��त (sájati) seges *sankilaz

senas old *sénos *senas sens सन (sána) ἕνος (hénos) senex *sinīgaz

senis old man *sénos *senas सन (sána) ἕνος (hénos) senex *sinīgaz

septyni seven *septḿ̥ *septin septiņi *sedmь сєдмь (sedmĭ) семь (semʹ) स�तन � (saptán) ἑπτά (heptá) septem *sebun seofon > seven

sesuõ sister *swésōr *s(w)esō *sestra сєстра (sestra) сестра́ (sestrá) ��स� (svasṛ) ἔορ (éor) *swezōr > soror *swestēr sweostor > sister

sintėti think *sent- *sęťь сѧщь (sęštĭ) sentire *sinnaną sinnan

siū́ti sew *syuh₁- *sjūtei *šiti шить (šitʹ) स����त (sīvyati) suō *siwjaną sīwian > sew

skaitýti read *(s)kʷeyt-, *(s)kʷoyt- *(s)keit-, *(s)koit- *čitati читать (čitatʹ) चेत�त (cétati)

skýstas thin liquid *skidtos *skīstas šķîsts *čistъ чистъ (čistŭ) чистый (čistyj)

smẽgenys brain *mosgʰ-o- *mozg-o- *mozgъ мозгъ (mozgŭ) мозг (mozg) *mazgą, *mazgaz mearg > marrow

sniẽgas snow *snóygʷʰos *snaigas snìegs *sně̑gъ снѣгъ (sněgŭ) снег (sneg) �ने� (snéha) *snaiwaz snāw > snow

spalvà colour *(s)p(h)el- *spalwā spalva

stóras thick, fat *steh₂-ro- *starъ старъ (starŭ) ста́ рый (stáryj) ���� (sthira) *stōraz stōr > stour
Lithuanian Definition Proto Indo-European Proto Balto-Slavic Latvian Proto Slavic Old Church Slavonic Russian Sanskrit Greek Latin Proto Germanic English
ὁδός (hodós), ἕζομαι
sėdė́ti sit *sed- *sēdētei sēdēt *sěděti сѣдѣти (sěděti) сиде́ ть (sidétʹ) सदस ् (sádas) sedeō *sitjaną sittan > sit
(hézomai)

sūnùs son *suHnús *sūˀnus *synъ сꙑнъ (synŭ) сын (syn) सूनु (sūnú) *sunuz sunu > son

sūris cheese *suH-ro- *súʔr(i)os *syrъ сыр (syr)

hām > home, -ham,

šeima family *ḱey- > *ḱoy-m- sàimе *sěmьja семья (semʹja) ��म (kṣéma) κώμη (kṓmē) cīvis *haimaz
ham(let)

šerys bristle *keres- *sьrstь шерсть (šerstʹ) *hērą hǣr > hair

šeši six *swéḱs *seš- seši *šestь шєсть (šestĭ) шесть (šestʹ) षष ् (ṣáṣ) έξι (éxi) sex *sehs sex > six

šiáurė north, night, evening *ḱeh₁wer-o- *śéʔwer-, *śjóʔur- *sěverъ се́ вер (séver) caurus *skūrō scūr > shower

šimtas hundred *ḱm̥tóm *śimta- simts *sъto съто (sŭto) сто (sto) शत (śatá) εκατό (ekató) centum *hundą, *hundaradą hund, hundred

срьдьцє (srĭdĭce), се́ рдце (sérdce), καρδία (kardía), κῆρ

širdìs heart *ḱḗr sirds *sьrdьce, *serda �द� (hṛdaya), �� (hṛd) cor *hertô heorte > heart
срѣда (srěda) среда́ (sredá) (kêr)

širmas grey *ḱey- > *ḱHoy-ro- sirms *śěrъ сѣръ (sěrŭ) се́ рый (séryj) κιρρός (kirrhós) *hairaz hār > hoar

širšė hornet *ḱerh₂- *śiršō crābrō *hurznutō hyrnet > hornet

šlaunìs hip, thigh *ḱlowni- ���� (śroṇi) clunis

šlovė̃ fame, honour *ḱlēw- slava *slava слава (slava) сла́ ва (sláva)

*ḱwey- > *ḱwoytos / ���त (śveta), ����

šviesà light *śwoit- *svě̑tъ свѣтъ (světŭ) свет (svet) *hwītaz hwīt > white
*ḱweytos (śvitra)

tãkas path, track, lane *tokʷ-o- *tokos

tamsà darkness *temH-*temH-(e)s-ro- तमस ् (tamas) tenebrae, temere *þemaz ?, *þimistraz

taukaĩ grease, fat *touHk-o- *touʔkós tauki тук (tuk)

tauras aurochs, ox *táwros *turъ тоуръ (turŭ) тур (tur) ταῦρος (taûros) taurus *steuraz, *þeuraz stēor > steer,

tautà land, country *tewtéh₂ tàuta *toutā *þeudō þēod > thede

tekė́ti flow *tekʷ- *tek-, *tektej tecēt त��त (tákti)

tingùs lazy *tn̥gʰ- *ting- *tęžьkъ тѧжькъ (tęžĭkŭ) тя́ жкий (tjážkij) *þunguz

trỹs three *tréyes *triyes, *trijes trīs *trьje три (tri) три (tri) �� (trí) τρεῖς (treîs) trēs *þrīz þrī, þrīe > three

tvìrtas firm, tough *tuōrH- *twōr(ʔ)- tvir̂ ts *tvьrdъ тврьдъ (tvrĭdŭ) твёрдый (tvjórdyj)

tvorà fence *tuōrH- *twōr(ʔ)- *tvarь

тꙑсѫщи (tysǫšti),
tūkstantis thousand *tuHsont-, *tuHsenti- *tuHsontis tūkstotis *tysǫti, *tysęti ты́сяча (týsjača) *þūsundī þūsend > thousand
тꙑсѧщи (tysęšti)
огн҄ь (ognʹĭ), огнь
ugnis fire *h₁n̥gʷnis *ugnis uguns *ògnjь ? ого́ нь (ogónʹ) ���न (agní-) ignis
(ognĭ)

ùlbauti warble, coo, sing *olbʰ-

ungurỹs eel *h₂engʷʰ-ur-io *angurio- *ǫgorjь ѫгорищь (ǫgorištĭ) у́ горь (úgorʹ) ἔγχελυς (énkhelus) anguilla *angaraz

úosis ash *h₃osk- я́ сень (jásenʹ) ὀξύα (oxúa) ornus *askaz æsc > ash
Lithuanian Definition Proto Indo-European Proto Balto-Slavic Latvian Proto Slavic Old Church Slavonic Russian Sanskrit Greek Latin Proto Germanic English

úostas harbour, port *h₁oh₁s-

úosti smell, sniff, scent *h₃ed- *ōdtēy ost *adati ὄζω (ózō) olō, oleō, odōs, odor

ū́dra otter *udreh₂ *ūˀdrāˀ ûdrs *vỳdra ὕδρα (húdra) lutra

west, westerne >

vãkaras evening *wekʷsperos *wekeras vakars *večerъ вєчєръ (večerŭ) вечер (večer) ἕσπερος (hésperos) vesper *westraz, *westrōnijaz
western

valaĩ horse-tail hair *wel- > *wolḱos *volsъ власъ (vlasŭ) во́ лос (vólos) वाल (vāla) adulare

vanduõ water *wódr̥ *wondōr ûdens *vodà вода (voda) вода́ (vodá) उदन ् (udan) ὕδωρ (húdōr) unda *watōr wæter > water

var̃das name *werdʰo- > *wr̥dʰom *warda- vārds verbum *wurdą word

var̃nas crow, raven *worn-

वसर् (vasar), वस�त

vãsara summer *wésr̥ *vesna вєсна (vesna) весна́ (vesná) ἔαρ (éar) vēr > verano *wasrą
(vasanta)

vaškas wax *wokso-, *woḱskom *waśkas vasks воскъ (voskŭ) *wahsą wæx > wax

व���त (vámiti), व��त *wammaz,

vémti vomit *wemh₁- vem̃ t ἐμέω (eméō) vomitus, vomō wemman > wem
(vamati) *wammijaną

�ववृ��� (svávṛṣṭi), έργο (érgo), ὄργανον wyrċan/worhte >

vergas slave *werǵ- *vьrša ве́ рша (vérša) *werką > *wirkijaną
वृ��त� (vṛjyáte) (órganon), ἔρδω (érdō) work/wrought

*gawissiz, *wadją, >

vèsti to lead *wedʰ- *wed- vest *vesti вести (vesti) вести́ (vestí) वधू (vadhū) vas wedd(ian) > wed
*wadjōną, *gawedaną
*h₁ey- > *éyno- /
*éynos, *edinъ, *(j)edinъ, *(j) ѥдинъ (jedinŭ), ѥдьнъ оди́ н (odín), еди́ ный οἶος (oîos), οἶνος
vienas one *eynos viêns एक (éka) ūnus *ainaz ān > one / an
*óy > *óynos, *h₁ed- edьnъ (jedĭnŭ) (jedínyj) (oînos)
(H)iHnos

vilkas wolf *wĺ̥ kʷos *wilkas vilks *vь̑lkъ влькъ (vlĭkŭ) волк (volk) वृक (vṛka) λύκος (lúkos) lupus *wulfaz wulf > wolf

*wulnō > *wullō, wull > wool, wyllen >

vìlna wool *h₂wĺ̥ h₁neh₂ *wilˀnāˀ vilņa *vьlna вльна (vlĭna) во́ лна (vólna) ��ा� (ū́ rṇā) λῆνος (lênos) lāna, vellus
*wullīnaz woolen
-weard > -ward,
vir̃sti turn, become, change *wert- *wirt- *vьrtě̀ ti врьтѣти (vrĭtěti) вертеть (vertetʹ) वत���त (vartayati) vertō, versus *warþaz > *wardaz
weorþan > worth

viršùs head, top *wers- *wiršus virsus *vьrxъ врьхъ (vrĭxŭ) верх (verx) ἕρμα (hérma) verruca

voverė̃ squirrel *wer- > *wewer- vāvere *věverica, *věverъka вѣверица (věverica) веверица (veverica) vīverra

výras man *wiHrós *wīˀras vīrs वीर (vīrá) vir *weraz, *weraldiz wer, worold > world

ἀτμός (atmós), αὔρα

вѣтръ (větrŭ), вѣꙗти ве́ тер (véter), ве́ ять वा (vā), वा�त (vā́ ti), वात
vėjas wind *h₂weh₁- + *-trъ *ueʔtr- vētra *větrъ, *vějati (aúra), ἀήρ (aḗr), ἄημι ventus *wēaną, *windaz, wāwan, wind
(vějati) (véjatʹ) (vā́ ta) (áēmi)

vėtra storm *h₂weh₁- *wetrā vētra *větrъ вѣтръ (větrŭ) ве́ тер (véter)

žalia green *ǵʰelh₃-. *źelʔ- zalš *zelenъ зєлєнъ (zelenŭ) зелёный (zeljónyj) ह�र (hari) χλωρός (khlōrós helvus *gelwaz ġeolu > yellow

camb > comb, cemban

žam̃bas sharp edge *ǵómbʰos zobs *zǫ̑bъ зѫбъ (zǫbŭ) зуб (zub) ��� (jámbha) όμφος (gómphos) gemma *kambaz, *kambijaną
> kemb/unkempt
γνάθος (gnáthos),
žándas cheek *ǵénu-, *ǵénus zods हनु (hánu) γνάθος (gnáthos), gena *kinnuz ċinn > chin
γένυς (génus)

žẽmė land, earth *dʰéǵʰōm > *ǵʰðʰem-, *źemē zeme *zemlja зємлꙗ (zemlja) земля́ (zemljá) � (kṣa), �� ् (kṣám) χθών (khthṓn) humus

χιών (khiṓn), χειμών

žiemà winter *ǵʰéyōm > *ǵʰéy-mn̥- *źeimāˀ ziema *zima зима (zima) зима (zimá) �ह� (himá) hiems
(kheimṓn)
Lithuanian Definition Proto Indo-European Proto Balto-Slavic Latvian Proto Slavic Old Church Slavonic Russian Sanskrit Greek Latin Proto Germanic English
cnāwan > know,
*knēaną, *kunnaną,
*ǵneh₃- > *ǵn̥h₃sḱéti > γιγνώσκω (gignṓskō), cunnan > can, cennan
žinóti know *žin-tey/ti zinât *znàti знати (znati) знать (znatʹ) ������ (jānāti) gnōscō > nōscō *kannijaną, *kōniz,
*ǵiǵneh₃-, γνωρίζω (gnōrízō) > ken, cēne > keen,
*kunþaz
cūþ > couth

žìrnis pear *ǵerh₂- > *ǵr̥h₂nóm *źirnja-, *źirˀna- zirnis *zьrno зрьно (zrĭno) зерно́ (zernó) grānum *kurną corn

žuvìs fish *dʰǵʰu- *źuˀs ἰχθῡ́ς (ikhthū́ s)

fax < faciēs, facētus,

žvãkė candle *ǵʰwak-, *bʰeh₂- φαίνω (phaínō)
focus

žvìrblis sparrow (s)werbʰ- +ulis zvirbulis *vorbъlь, *vorbьjь

žvėrìs beast *ǵʰwer- *źwēris zvērs *zvě̑rь звѣрь (zvěrĭ) зверь (zverʹ) θήρ (thḗr) ferus

žąsìs goose *ǵʰans- *gansis / *źansis zùoss *gǫsь гѫсь (gǫsĭ) гусь (gus') हं स (haṃsa) χήν (khḗn) ānser *gans gōs > goose
3 Extend Your Learning
with Glossika

Glossika delivers fluency in foreign languages

Lithuanian

Where is it? (message)

Kur ji?
kˈ ur jˈɪ ?

52
Most learners traditionally spend a lot of time on a single sentence trying to get it

right, trying to figure out the grammar or the patterns, even memorizing all its parts

and vocabulary. This requires lots of memorization and written puzzles and quizzes.

This doesn’t necessarily lead to fluency because all of this work doesn’t automatically

internalize into an audio pattern that you can recognize or even say.

It comes down to getting enough exposure to the spoken sounds of the language. This

is a trees vs forest problem. Instead of seeing the big patterns (the forest) you may be

stuck on analyzing a single leaf on one of the trees. Why spend so much time on a single

anomaly?

If you look at hundreds and thousands of leaves in a forest, you begin to see patterns,

you begin to differentiate old vs young leaves, you even get an idea of the kinds of trees

they grow on. And then you start to wonder how to explain the details you often see in

common among all the leaves, things you may have never noticed by just looking at a

single or even a dozen leaves. The more you do, the more of the general patterns become

obvious, and the more you want to know about the details.

This becomes a positive feedback loop fulfilling your desire to fill in the details of your

knowledge. You become more and more of an expert without having to memorize

anything.

53
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Guaranteed 3-Step Method to Fluency

Imagine a situation where all the patterns in a foreign language have already been

prepared and laid out for you in an easy to learn order. You’d be hard pressed to find this

in a grammar book or even a publication with thousands of examples.

1
Now even if you did find such a resource, you’d definitely want to have all the

examples ordered by difficulty in a way that it would make it easy for you to

pick up. Once you have all the data entered into a computer you could either

pick apart the grammar of each sentence or do some other tricks and try to

program it yourself. But this may be way too much work, especially if you just

want to get started with the basics.

2
Once you’ve got all the data in the right order, you’ll want a native speaker

who could sit patiently and train you to say each sentence until you could

say them equally as fluently. But finding such a person with this amount of

patience is not easy, not to mention downright expensive.

You could ask your tutor or teacher to say all of the examples so that you

could record them for later practice. You’d want to get the recordings done

in a professionally recorded environment, which can also be very expensive.

3
Next, you’d want a really advanced spaced repetition program that could

deliver this content to you at the right pace, the right speed, and could even

adjust to your specific needs by adding and deleting content as you provide

feedback. You’d probably want it all available on your mobile device so that

you could take the audio training anywhere you go.

54
If the foreign language is written in a different script like Chinese, you have extra hurdles

to deal with: how do you get all of the text transcribed into its exact pronunciations? Is

there a way to learn the correct pronunciations?

This is the solution that Glossika has already built. Glossika has thought about every pitfall

you may encounter along the way. Not only have we curated and recorded all the content

across dozens of languages, but we have machine learning algorithms sorting the data,

delivering the data through spaced repetition, and adjusting to your learning speed.

55
Speak First, Read Later

The amazing part is, with Glossika you can actually learn how to speak a language before

even learning how to read it. We can train you to speak everything completely through

audio. Besides, learning how to read is a breeze once you already know how to speak a

language. It’s much more of a challenge to learn how to speak by reading first.

If you’re about to start a college course, or start working with a teacher, you’d be at a

considerable advantage of getting lots of audio training done on your own time. The next
time you meet for class, you can spend that time wisely by getting great explanations

from your teacher about the tough parts you don’t understand yet, or just plain getting

lots of conversation practice. The best part about having a real person talk to you is that

it’s real life conversation. And that drives better results than a teacher explaining so much

grammar that you’re not likely to remember anyway.

56
Speak First, Grammar Falls into Place Naturally

So how does Glossika deliver grammar then? If you’re used to speaking a certain way,

then the grammar flows naturally. Let’s take for example the last sentence: “if you’re used

to speaking”. How do you know that “used to” has “ed” or is past tense, or why don’t you

say “if you’re use to spoken” -- why do you say that one particular way and no other way?

Does it come out naturally when you speak English, or do you think about adding the “ed”

and the “ing”? How do you know these things. Ask a six or seven year old child. How do

they know? And do they say it right? Every time? So what is grammar?

Grammar is simply describing something that already happens: how people already talk.

Grammar didn’t come first. The talking did. Everybody speaks a certain way, therefore we

can write down grammar rules to describe what’s happening.

What Glossika does is introduce you to phrases like “used to speaking” in foreign

languages and you practice saying that to the point where you say it naturally and easily

with all the grammar intact. In fact, you didn’t even have to learn any grammar to say it
correctly. All you need to do is mimic.

Eventually the patterns emerge out of hundreds and thousands of these examples to the

point where you have complete control and manipulation over every sentence you want

to say in the foreign language.

These are the results that Glossika delivers.

57
Start Saving Your Valuable Time

You could think about going back to your classes and doing everything the old way.

Memorizing lots of vocabulary and having your teachers explain all the concepts one by

one. It really does take years of such classes.

Or you could make a decision to focus on audio patterns and learning how to say each

one until you’re comfortable. It really only takes a few months of your time practicing for a

few minutes every day.

Think about the massive difference this could make in your life, and how soon you could

be achieving your goals with Glossika. It’s so easy to get started. Sign up now and get

1000 reps (sentence practice) and 7-day access to premium features for free!

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59
 References

• Anderson, John M. 1969. The Grammar of Case: Toward a Localistic Theory.

Cambridge University Pres.

• Chafe, Wallace L. 1970. Meaning and the Structure of Language. The University of

Chicago Press.

• Chomsky, Noam. 1964. "Current Issues in Linguistics," in The Structure of Language.

Prentice-Hall.

• Chomsky, Noam. 1965. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambrdige, Mass.: MIT Press.

• Cook, Walter A., S.J. 1979. Case Grammar: Development of the Matrix Model (1970-

1978). Georgetown University Press.

• Dambriūnas, Antanasa Klimas and William H. Schmalstieg. 1972. Introduction to

Modern Lithuanian. Franciscan Fathers Press.

• Fillmore, Charles J. 1971. "Some Problems for Case Grammar," in Monograph Series

on Languages and Linguistics. Georgetown University Press.

• Mo, Chien-Ching. 1981. Lithuanian Syntax: A Case Grammar Description.

• Wiktionary, The Free Dictionary. Date retrieved: July 14, 2016.

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