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Full text of "STRUCTURES

ANALYSIS MANUAL VOL II"

STRUCTURES ANALYSIS MANUAL

SAM

VOLUME II

10.43

GENERAL DYNAMICS SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

PREFACE
This Structures Manual has been prepared by Convair and Space Systems
Division Structures Analysis Groups as a reference source of data and
procedures for use in the analysis and design of aerospace and ground
handling structures. The manual has been compiled largely from material
presented in the General Dynamics Fort Worth Structures Manual, Vol. 1.
These data have been updated and expanded to cover current materials and
construction methods.

In general, the source data reference numbers within the individual


sections of the manual have been retained. This will enable the reader to
easily locate any additional material that may be required from the
original data source.

Comments and suggestions are welcome, and should be addressed to the


Structural Analysis Group.

PREFACE - FORT WORTH DIVISION

The Fort Worth Division Structures Technology department endorses


the Convair and Space System Division Structures Analysis Manual as a
reference source of data and procedures for structural analysis at
the Fort Worth Division. The data and procedures contained in Volumes
I and II are recommended for use at the Fort Worth Division at the
discretion of each structural analysis group Engineering Chief
considering individual program guidelines. Use of all data and
procedures including those contained herein and from other sources
must be approved by the structural analysis group Engineering Chief
and documented sufficiently to support customer approval.

A. L. Stratton

Engineering Manager for Structures Technolo


General Dynamics/Fort Worth Division
page 1.0.1

GENERAL DYNAMICS

DATE 3/l/oi3 ISSUE 1

PAGE 1 of 1

Space Systems Division

STRUCTURES ANALYSIS MANUAL - NO. 10.43

I"1FD ADTMCNTAI T KKTDIIPTTnN


ULrrtK 1 MLli 1 HL 1 N J 1 KUL 1 1UW

REVISION RECORD

ArrKUVtU _ //

E.W. WOLF^ 4 -^ ^//tf


MANAGER STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS '
REVISION RECORD

CHAPTER - ISSUE

REVISION DESCRIPTION

DATE

All - 1

As noted -2

Original Issue

Deleted: Pages
14.9.3, 14.9.4,
20.0.1,

14.9.2,
14.9.5
3/88
10/89

Pages 4.8.21
4.8.22, 20.1.1
Revised: Pages 1. 1.6
Vol. 1 & 2, 1.3.4 Vol .
1 & 2, 2.1.4, 2.7.1,
4.1.3, 4.9.1, 4.9.2,
4.9.3, 6.4.7, 6.4.15,
7.1.2, 7.1.3, 7.1.4,
7.1.5, 8.11.1, 8.11.3,
10.0.1, 10.1.1, 10.2.1,
10.5.2, 10.7.1, 10.8.2,

11.2.4, 14.1.4, 14.1.5,


14.1.24, 14.1.54, 14.9.1,

17.4.5, 17.5.27, 17.6.10,


17.6.17, 17.6.18, 17.6.19,
27.1.17

GENERAL DYNAMICS
ConvMir Division and Spscs Systems Division
GENERAL DYNAMICS
PROPRIETARY DATA RESTRICTIONS
This document contains proprietary information of General Dynamics, including
trade secrets and/or privileged or sensitive commercial or financial
information. Distribution within General Dynamics shall be restricted to those
having an actual need for the information and no copies shall be sent outside
of General Dynamics without management approval.

Copyright, General Dynamics, 1988

QTRlirTllRAL ANALYS IS MANUAL


• GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

VOLUME 1
TARI. ^OF CONTENTS

PREFACE

TABLE OF CONTENTS
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
REFERENCES

SECTION PROPERTIES

GEOMETRICAL SHAPES
CIRCLES
90° BENDS
ANGLES

BEAMS

SEAM TABLES

VARIABLE CROSS SECTION

CONTINUOUS BEAMS

MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD

CURVED BEAMS

LATERAL STABILITY

SHEAR STRESSES

TENSION FIELD WEBS

CUT-OUTS

SLOTTED BEAM

ELASTIC FOUNDATION
SECTION

1.0

1.1
1.2
1.3

2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4

CENTROiD OF TRAPEZOID $.5

2.6

SHEAR CENTER 0 _
MOMENT OF INERTIA SAMPLE CALCULATION

3.0
3.1
MATERIAL PROPERTY DEFINITIONS

STRESS-STRAIN CURVE DEFINITIONS

MATERIAL PROPERTIES: DUCTILE-BRITTLE BEHAVIOR 3.2

CREEP: STRAIN RATE AND IMPACT "

•A" AND "B" MATERIAL PROPERTY VALUES 3 A

PLASTIC STRESS-STRAIN CURVES j?.5

SURFACE ROUGHNESS "


NON-DIMENSIONAL STRESS-STRAIN CURVES

RAMBERGOSGOOD CONSTANTS 3 ' a

4.0

4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5
4.6

4.7

4.8

4.9

4.10

4.11

page 1 .1 .1

cp-piJCTURA ' AKiAI VSIS MANUAL


•GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION ^

VOLUME 1
JARLE OF C0 "T CKITg 7 f^ONTINUEDl

page 1 .1 .2

SECTOH
5.2
5.3
5.4

5.0

COLUMNS 5J
THEORY

CONSTANT CROSS SECTION COLUMNS


VARIABLE CROSS SECTION COLUMNS

CRIPPLING OF SECTIONS *

BEAM COLUMNS c 6

CONTINUOUS BEAM COLUMNS ' ?

TORSIONAL INSTABILITY 5 ' 8


COLUMN ALLOWABLES

6.0

PLATES a 1

IN-PLANE STABILITY LOADING. RECTANGULAR ™


IN-PLANE STABILITY LOADING, PARALLELOGRAM
CURVED PLATES 6 4

NORMAL LOADING 6 " 5


MEMBRANES

7.0
7.1
7.2
7.2.4

STIFFENED PLATES

BUCKLING IN AXIAL COMPRESSION


ANALYTICAL METHODS

EFFECTIVE SKIN WIDTHS 7 " 3


ISOGRID STRUCTURES

8.0

SANDWICH CONSTRUCTION 8>1

GBMERAL 8 ' 2

MATERIALS 8 ' 3

METHODS OF ANALYSIS 8 ' 4

FACE WRINKLING 8 ' 5


FACE DIMPLING 8 6

EDGEWISE COMPRESSION 8 ' 7

EDGEWISE SHEAR 8 * 8

NORMAL LOADING 8 * 9

CYLJNDER TORSION Q ' 1Q


CYLINDER AXIAL COMPRESSION ^ 1

CYLINDER EXTERNALPRESSURE 8 ' 12

BEAMS a'.! 3

ATTACHMENT DETAILS 8 14

ANALYSIS METHOD REFERENCES

9.0

PRESSURE 'VESSELS AND PIPES g 1

STRESSES AND DEFLECTIONS 9 * 2

TAW GEOMETRY q* 3

PIPING SYSTEMS (ELBOWS, BELLOWS, DUCTS) ™


DISCONTINUITY ANALYSIS OF SHELLS
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

VOLUME 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)

CYLINDER AND SHELL STABILITY 1 0.0

UNPRESSUR1ZED 10.1

INTERNALLY PRESSURIZED 1 0.2

EXTERNALLY PRESSURIZED 1 0.3

TRUNCATED CONES 10.4

DOUBLY CURVED SHELLS 1 0.5

IMPERFECTIONS 10.6

POST-BUCKUNG 10.7

LOCAL LOADING ON SHELLS 1 0.8

LANGLEY SOLUTION 10.9

TORSION 11-0

TORSION OF SOLID SECTIONS 11-1


TORSION OF THIN- WALLED CLOSED SECTIONS 1 1 .2

TORSION OF THIN- WALLED OPEN SECTIONS 1 1 -3

MULTI-CELL CLOSED BEAMS IN TORSION 1 1 -4

PLASTIC TORSION 11-5

ALLOWABLE STRESSES 1 1 -6

RESTRAINED TORSION 1 1 .7

SPRINGS 12-°

COMPRESSION SPRINGS 1 2-1

EXTENSION SPRINGS 1 2.2

TORSION SPRINGS 12-3

CONSTANT FORCE SPRINGS 1 2.4

FLAT SPRINGS 12.5

CONED DISC (BELLEVILLE) SPRINGS 12.6

WORKING STRESSES 1 2.7

page 1.1.3
^TpiIHTURAL ANAL .YS1S MANUAL
- GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

VOLUME 2
T/^IF OF CONTENTS

PREFACE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS ] ^

REFERBsCES

BOLT TORQUE EFFECTS

EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS


STRAIN GAGES

SECTION
1.0
1.1

1.3

STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS \ 3.0

STATIC LOADING \^'\

REPEATED LOADING ] ™
GEOMETRIC EFFECTS

13.3

14.0
14.1

JOINTS AND FITTINGS


LUG ANALYSIS

MULTIPUE FASTENER PATTERNS ^

BEAM IN A SOCKET ] 43
INTERFERENCE FIT BUSHINGS 1 4 * 4

TENSION CUPS AND TEES ] A '\

BOLT STRENGTH \ A *

BATHTUB TYPE TENSION FITTINGS »

WELD JOINTS 14 * 8
WELD-ON BRACKETS
BONDED JOINTS
JOINT FLEXIBILITY

PRELOADED BOLTS AND SCREWS 1 4 - 1 *

14.9

14.10

14.11

14.13

EFFICIENCY OF PLATES IN TENSION JOINTS 14 - 14


15.0
15.1
15.2

ACOUSTICS, VIBRATION, FLUTTER


UN EAR SYSTEMS
FORCED VIBRATION

METHODS OF CALCULATIONS ] "

SONIC FATIGUE ]t A
FLUTTER

ACOUSTICS AND VIBRATION 1 5 - 6

16.0
16.1

PLASTIC ANALYSIS ]™
BENDING STRENGTH IN PLASTIC RANGE 1 f j\

SIMPLE BENDING \ 7 _ 2
COMPLEX BENDING \ ( '*
INTERACTION \ 7 *
PLASTIC BENDING MATERIAL PROPERTIES 1

page 1.1.4
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

VOLUME 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)

SECTI ON

BENDING MODULUS SYMMETRICAL SECTIONS 1 7.6

MINIMUM PLASTIC BENDING CURVES 1 7.7

ELASTIC-PLASTIC THEORY 1 7.8

BENDING NEAR LIMIT LOAD 17.9

BENDING MODULUS FOR ROUND TUBES 1 7.1 0

SHEAR STRESS IN ROUND TUBES 1 7.1 1

RINGS, FRAMES AND ARCHES 1 8.0

RIGID RINGS 18.1

BENTS AND SEMI-CIRCULAR ARCHES 1 8.2

RIGID AND FLEXIBLE RINGS 1 8.3

REDUNDANT FRAMES 1 8.4


THERMAL EFFECTS 19-0

GENERAL 19-1

BEAMS AND COLUMNS 1 9.2

FLAT PLATES 19-3

BOX BEAMS 19.4

BOLTED JOINTS 19-5

THERMAL BUCKLING 1 9.6

THERMAL STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS WITH MSC NASTRAN 1 9.7

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 20 -°

INTRODUCTION 20.1

DEFINITIONS 20 - 2

DISCUSSION 20.3

SAMPLE PROBLEMS 20.4

TABLES OF STATISTICAL VALUES 20.5

MECHANISMS 21.0

BEARINGS 21.1
GEARS 21.2

ACTUATORS 21 .3

COMPOSITE MATERIALS 22.0

FIBERGLASS LAMINATES, POLYESTER RESINS 22.1

FIBERGLASS LAMINATES, PHENOUC OR EPOXY RESINS 22.2

KEVLAR EPOXY DESIGN ALLOWABLES 22.3

FRACTURE MECHANICS 23.0

GENERAL 23.1

STRESS INTENSITY FACTORS 23 .2

FLAW GROWTH 23.3

APPUCATION OFTECHNOLOGY 23.4

DAMAGE TOLERANCE 23 .5

page 1 .1 .5

STRUCTURE ANALYST ? MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
VOLUME 2
JARt E OF CO MTPNTfl (CONTINUED!

senm

24.0

25.0

26.0
26.1
26.1
26.2
26.3
26.4

STANDARD ATMOSPHERE 26 .

TEMPERATURE VS. ALTTTUDE *


COEFFICIENTS OF STATIC AND SLIDING FRICTION

27.0

REPORT FORMAT ^ " 27 1

STRESS ANALYSIS REPORT STANDARDS

COMPUTERIZED METHODS
OPTIMIZATION DESIGN
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES AND CHARTS
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
SI UNITS AND PREFIXES
METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS
HARDNESS CONVERSION

page 1 . I - »

lo

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Utt of Standard Syabola and

Abbreviations

A. . .
Ratio of stress amplitude and Mca

k.

• * •

Stiffness factor; spring constant;

stress; area of croaa section

radius of gyration

a. . .


Length of panel edge: for compres-

L.

length, longitudinal grain direction;

sive or bending loads, "a" la length

edgewise shear itlffneaa for

net loaded; for aiiaar loads, "a" la


sandwich

the longer edge of pan*! .

1.

(Not used , to avoid confusion with

B. ..

Flexure! rigidity of a bee*


numeral 1 )

b. ..

Length of panel edge: for compres-

H.

...

Bending moment or couple

•It* or bending loada, "b" la the

a.

...
Hass; half width of corrugation;

length -of the loaded edge; for shear

bending sonant; number of half waves

loada, "b" la the ahorter edge of


the panel. Width of aeatlona;

M.

Load per Inch of a-lg* ; sample size

atlff ener specings.

n.

Load factor; number of half waves;

C...

-
CireumX erenee ; damping coefficient;

aprlng constant

p.

App*L<*keTW ^UeaSU 917 a wl^l ^ m-e weawi* * liW W


trr* 4 ♦ 1 afvsmd 1
Ula-fc fa aVveasmV J

c cr"

CrltloAl damping coefficient

P<

Pressure

e. . .
distance froei neutral axla to

Static moment of a cross section

extreme fiber
0..

...

Shear flow; dynamic preasur*

v-

!t±wt fa a top

K.

• . .

% t~ peal ■ M T««a #4 A
a> ■**> Wei let feJfcW

0...

-
m iMfjp' hafldliif stiffiwtaa : dlafcrl*

■pBbHm WWBS, J HiBBWl^ ■ * a amy asm) ■ «H *■ ^b>

Radius

nation factor; flexural rigidity

■Miaaf^ a V4 ww , iilti aw a* wa

parameter
S.

...

d...

Depth, height, or thickness; dlstanee

between eentrolds of fmelnga

T.
...

Applied torsional moment ; torque;

transverse j p*» < w direction ;

X...

Modulus of elasticity In tension

temperature
* . . .

Elongation In percent ; total

t.

Thickness ; time

deformation; eccentricity; the


distance from a bale center

. . .

factor of utilization ; gust velocity ;

to the edge of a aheet


sandwich; strain energy

f. . .

Allowable atreaa; force

V.

■ . •
Shear force; velocity, volume;

a...

Modulus of rigidity

flexibility parameter for sandwich

s* • •

Acceleration due to grmrlty

panels
H. ..

Extensions! atlffneaa of sandwich

w.

...

Total weight; length of cell wall in

h...

Height or depth; distance between

sandwich construction
eentrolds of facings

w.

Distributed load

I...

Moment of inertia

X.

Axla; distance along elastic curve


Product of Inertia

of frem

J...

Polar ■osisnt of Inertia

y.

Axla; deflection; distance from


neutral axla to given fiber

J...

Coefficient of critical ahear for

ortho tropic sandwich panels


7.

Distance to centre id of section

1...

A constant, generally estplrlcal

z.

Section modulus
z.

Axis normal to surface of panel

page 1*2.1

gTPHPTURAI A,^AI YSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Coaffloient ef tftsmal
axpanalont anxla of attack}
angle of Olaconal tanalon}
constant

Stiff anar anxla; eonatant

Unit ahoar strain


Dsflaetion; raiatlva
ra tarnation

C (Epallon) Conpraaalon or axpanalon

Strain; rotational raatralnt


ooafflelant

7? (Eta) Jlaatlaitr oooCTlolant

(X (AJLpna)

(Bata)
6 (Dslta)

9 COmta.)

A(
P

0 (Ini)
lir (m)
An anxl* «lth raapaat to a
rafaranea Una

Ona alnua tho protfuot of two


rolaaen's ratloa (1 'II 2 )

Constant

Folaaon's ratio

A oenatant

Oanaltr; radlua of ourraturo


Noroal stroas
atrooa

*Pj.ii»«> 4isplAooBoat

Subscripts

1 ...
Oanotaa faalnf of aandwlan

Miii—1 i natural

2 ...

Oanotaa faalna; of sandwich

o ...

Dsnctlac oorrttxatlon anaot

a ...

Alloonala

p ....

Proportional 11*1 t; polar


b ...

r ...

Effective; rotfnson

Baarlnc

a ...

Secant

tor ..

e . . >
Coro, sunuraaalon

si ..

Danotlna ahaar Inataol^ltr

cr ■ •

Critical

k ...

Sanson*

s ...

Elastic limit

a .

ultimate
«

Endurance; occontricltyl Solar**

■ ...

arlnfcllnx

equation

x ...

rarallal to x axis

f ...

Paao

7 ---

Sola; parallal ta j axla


1 ...

Oanotaa final saxnaut; intaroallular

s ...

rarallal to a axla

page I •'2-' 2

STRUCTUR Al ANALYSIS MA fJtiA|


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

* n

British thermal unit .... Kg

coefficient eo#f

wsine

• COS
eotancant Mt

- bl <u

cubic foot cu rt

cuble inafl cu In

*-clb«l db

d#€P ~ decor

degree Centigrade e

decree hAnstwlt v

«•■•*«• H„

Division Standard Practice. . 0.3.?.


toclnoorlnc Dspartawnt

Instruction.

feet par minute

faet p«r second

fl « OT ri«

foot ft

foot-pound n ^
horsepower ^

hp

hyperbolic miIm

hyper bo He aln

hyperbolic tangent

inch

Abbrcvlationa

inch-pound ln . lb

inches per second ipa

inside diameter ^

Inspection KLnor Rework

0rd,r DOW

Inspection Rejection ....

logarithm (ccenon)' lo ,

logarithm (natural) .... log^ or


Baterlal ReTiew Board . . . m

«ln

outside diameter 0D

P*"* lb or #

Pounds par cuble foot. ... lbe per

pounds per square foot . . . paf

pounds P*t square lnnh . . . p.i


pounds per square

absolute

revolutions per minute . . . rpa


root swan square ^

■~»* sec

sec

sin

,tmnd * rt std

tan

t«"P*rature tmp
" ,1 « Bt wt

s^Z 7 ^^ 0 "' — "nfor. with those

approved oy the American Standards Association *nr


CD/FW standard Practice. ' ^ *"* « 3 <"•»*«■>. «-

Data Source, Section 1.3 Reference I

page 1-2. ^

c^TPlf^TURAL A ,f^lY5'5 MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAM AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 1.3

RS=ERENC£S:

IN ADDITION TO REFERENCES CONTAINED IN INDIVIDUAL SECTIONS


OF THE REPORT. DATA SOURCES LISTED BELOW HAVE ALSO BEEN
USED.
1 . GD FORT WORTH STRUCTURES
MANUAL VOL 1 1963

2. CONVAIR/ASTRONAUTICS
STRUCTURES MANUAL 4.15.60

3. BELL STRUCTURE DESIGN


MANUAL

4. BOEING STRESS MANUAL


APRIL 1970

5. NASA ASTRONAUTICS STRUCTURES


MANUAL 7.1.69

6. LOCKHEED STRESS MEMO MANUAL 4.18.66

7. BRUHN, ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF FLIGHT


VEHICLE STRUCTURES JAN. 1965

8. NACA TN 3784

9. NACA TN 3785

10. NASA CR-1 24075

11. NASA CR-1 457

1 2. HEXEL TSB 123, DESIGN HANDBOOK

FOR HONEYCOMB SANDWICH STRUCTURES


OCT. 1967

1 3. ROARK. FORMULAS FOR STRESS AND


STRAIN, 3RD ED. 1954

14. CONVAIR. 2P-7-022 TN,


ANALYSIS OF MISSILE TANK
GEOMETRIES. 2-14-56

page 1.3. 1

STRUCTURAL ^A|YSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMlCS/CONVAt* AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

15. NASA SP-8007

16. NASA SP-8019

17. NASA SP-8032

1 8. BRUSH AND ALMROTH, BUCKLING OF BARS,


PLATES AND SHELLS.

19. GENERAL DYNAMICS/ASTRONAUTICS


GD/A-DDG 64-024A, POST-BUCKLING
STRENGTH OF A PRESSURIZED CYLINDER 1964
20. GENERAL DYNAMICS CONVAIR,
GDC-DDG-67-006. VOL VI

21. MIL-STD-29A, SPRINGS MECHANICAL;


DRAWING REQUIREMENTS FOR 3.1.62

22. CONSOLIDATED VULTEE, 2S-202,


FATIGUE DATA BOOK PART IV STRESS
CONCENTRATIONS, 1.12.54

23. AFFDL-TR-69-42. STRESS ANALYSIS


MANUAL. 4.30.69

24. MCDONNELL DOUGLAS DC-10


STRESS MANUAL. 4-1-68.

25. GENERAL DYNAMICS. GDSS-TC-87-01 0

26. LAUGHNER AND HARGAN. HANDBOOK


OF FASTENING AND JOINING OF METAL
PARTS.

27. AFFDL-TR-67-140, DESIGN CRITERIA


FOR THE PREDICTION AND PREVENTION
OF PANEL FLUTTER JAN. 1968

28. MIL-HDBK-5E, METALLIC MATERIALS


AND ELEMENTS FOR AEROSPACE VEHICLE
STRUCTURES. 9.15.76

29. PERRY, ADHESIVE BONDING OF


REINFORCED PLASTICS, 1959
page K3*2

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

30. GENERAL DYNAMICS CONVA1R, GDC-BTD65-1 68,


DESIGN ALLOWABLES FOR CENTAUR STRUCTURAL
MATERIALS, 2/1/66.

31 . GENERAL DYNAMICS ASTRONAUTICS, ZS-7-002,


STRESS ANALYSIS REPORT STANDARDS, 8/14/63.

32. GENERAL DYNAMICS, CASD-SSO-76-021 , ANALYSIS OF


BLADE STIFFENED INTEGRALLY MACHINED PANELS,
SPACE SHUTTLE ORBITER MID-FUSELAGE, 10/5/76.

33. GENERAL DYNAMICS CASD-SSO-76-007, ANALYSIS OF


T-STIFFENED INTEGRALLY MACHINED PANELS, SPACE
SHUTTLE ORBITER MID-FUSELAGE, 2/5/76.

34. GENERAL DYNAMICS CASD-SSO-76-016, "HONEYCOMB


SANDWICH PANEL ANALYSIS METHOD, SPACE SHUTTLE
ORBITER MID-FUSELAGE", W. S. BUSSEY JR., 22 JULY
1976.

35. E. F. BRUHN, J. I. ORLANDO, J. F. MEYERS, "ANALYSIS


AND DESIGN OF MISSILE STRUCTURE", TRI-STATE
OFFSET COMPANY, CINCINNATI, OHIO.
36. STRESS ANALYSIS MANUAL, AIR FORCE FLIGHT
DYNAMICS LABORATORY, WRIGHT-PATTERSON AIR
FORCE BASE, 1969.

37 GERALD, G. AND BECKER, H., HANDBOOK OF

STRUCTURAL STABILITY, PART I- BUCKLING OF FLAT


PLATES, NACA TN 3781 , 1957.

38. BECKER, H., HANDBOOK OF STRUCTURAL STABILITY,


PART II- BUCKLING OF COMPOSITE ELEMENTS, NACA TN
3782,1957.

39. SMITH, G. W., ANALYSIS OF MULTIPLE DISCONTINUITIES


IN SHELLS, REPORT NO. AE61-0179, 1 MARCH 1961.

page 1 .3.3

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

40. MIL-HDBK-17A MILITARY HANDBOOK, PLASTICS FOR


AEROSPACE VEHICLES.

41. GDSS MEMO NUMBER 883-0-86-099, 30 OCTOBER 1986.


page I - 3- 4

(8

STRUCTURAL ^V y ^ MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAW AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 13.0

STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS.

• DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS TOGETHER WITH CHARTS FOR STRESS CONCENTRATION


FACTORS ARE PRESENTED IN THIS SECTION.

RAGE

13.1 STATIC LOADING 13.1 .1

13.2 REPEATED LOADING 13.2.1


13.3 GEOMETRIC EFFECTS 13.3.1

page \1> «° * t

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference

Stress Concentration Factors

The distribution of stress across the section of a member may be nomi-


nally uniform or may vary In some regular manner, as Illustrated by the
linear distribution of stress in flexure. When the variation la abrupt, bo
that within a very short distance the Intensity of stress increases greatly,
the condition is described as a stress concentration. It is usually due to
local irregularities such as holes, screw threads, notches, nicks, keywaya ,
scratches, etc.

Static Loading

If an axlally loaded member has an abrupt change In section as shown


In Fig. 10.5.1-1, the maximum elastic stress that occurs in each cross
till!

■ T *~ -( —

d 1 I — '

f]

f 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ttt ttt+t

CASE I

CASE II
CASE III

Pig. 10.5.1-1

section is greater than the average stress (P/a) where (a) Is the area or
the net or small portion of the section at the abrupt change of section.
The maximum stress at such changes In section usually is called a stress
concentration and the factor by which (P/a) must be multiplied to obtain
the value of the maximum stress for axially loaded members is called an
ideal, theoretical, or elastic-stresa-concentration factor and is denoted
by (k t ). Thus,

Omajc (1 )

tfmax " k t P/a

k t "

P/a
The value (k t ) depends on the geometry of the member: that la, on the
relative values of the dimensions of the member in the neighborhood of
the stress concentration.

Values of (k fc ) for various types of abrupt changes of section are


given in Figs. #10.5-2.1 ; #10.5.2.2 ; etc. The maximum stresses for
axial, torsional, and flexural loads are given by:

cr- k t p/a , cr- k t p , cr- k t hc < 2 >

page (7>. 1. I

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMICS/CON VAlft AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference

For members made of ductile metal and aubjeoted to •t&tio loada and to
eeeentlally unidirectional stress, etreaa concentrations, are usually
relatively unimportant.
Repeated Loading

A repeated load is a force that la applied many timea to a member,


causing stresses in the material that continually vary, usually through
aome definite range.
Streaa concentrations are very important for both brittle and ductile
materials under repeated stresses. Members with streaa oonoentratlona
usually fail under repeated loada which are considerably amaller than
similar static loada which were required to cause failure. .

In calculating the significant (localized) streaa in a member that


contains Borne form of an abrupt change in section, the formulas developed
previously can be used. The atreaa distribution at an abrupt change In
aection in a tension and a flexural member la shown in Pig. 10. 5.2-1*

K t P/a

CT- K t Mc/I

^3

Fig. 10.5.2-1

In order to make intelligent use of the foregoing equation*, we muat know


the following two quantities:

(1 ) The maximum value of the repeated atreaa that the


material can reaiat without being structurally
damaged.

(2) The value of the atreaa-concentration factor / (k t ).

Tn« values of the atreaa concentration factora depend* mainly on two


conditioner namely, (1 ) the form of the member or nature of the dia-
contlnultlee that give riae to the atreaa concentrations , and (2) the
propertiea of the material that modify the damaging influence of the
atreaa concentrations. The atreaa-concentration factor reaulting from
the firat condition only ie called the theoretical factor and ie denoted
a* (k ) ; and that reaulting from both conditions Jointly is frequently
called the effective streaa concentration factor and la denoted aa (k f ).

The valuea of (k t ) are usually found either by mathematical analyala


photoelaatic analysis, or direct atrain measurements. Valuea of (k f ) are
found by use of tests of the actual material.

The valuea of (k f ) are functions of the material, geometry of the


atreaa concentration, heat treat, number of cyclea, atreaa level, teat m
temperature, grain eize, surface finish, etc. In moat cases (lc t )_igL

page 13.2. /

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

acceptable as thla factor can be theoretically obtained and *111 produce


only slightly conservative results . If more accurate results are required
values of (k f ) can be obtained from S-N curves of unnotched and notched
specimens .

m Fatigue Strength of Unnotched Specimens at N Cycles


f Fatigue Strength of Notched Specimens at N Cycles

The specimen, test temperature, stress level, geometry of the stress


concentration, etc. should represent actual conditions as closely as
possible

The ratio q - k f " 1 Is often referred to as "notch sensitivity"

of a material. It Is a measure of the susceptibility of the material to


stress concentrations. Values of (k f ) and (q) for four types of steel are
given in Fig. #10.5-2.15. These curves were obtained from tests of grooved
specimens. Additional tests show that these results can also be used for
stress concentrations caused by fillets or holes. Some of the relative
values of notch sensitivity are given in Fig. #10.5-2.16, #10.5-2.17. etc.
These values were obtained from room temperature tests. In general, they
will be only slightly conservative for application at elevated temperatures.

If (q - 0) , (k f - 1) and the material Is insensitive to the effects


of the stress concentration. If (q - 1 ) , (lc f - k t ) and the material is
fully sensitive to the effects of the stress concentration.
Some of the ways to overcome the damaging effects of localized stresses
are listed as follows:

1. Reducing the abruptness of the change in cross-section of


the member by use of fillets, etc.,

2. Reducing the value of the stress concentration by making


the portion of the member in the neighborhood of the stress
concentration less stiff; this sometimes may be done by
substituting a member made of material with a lower modulus
of elasticity, such as replacing a steel nut on a steel bolt
by a bronze nut for reducing the stress concentration at the
threads of the steel bolt.

3. Increasing the fatigue strength of the material by cold-working


the portions of the members where the stress concentrations
occur: For example, by the cold rolling of fillets and of
bearing surfaces on axles, by the shot blasting or shot peenlng
of surfaces of machine parts .

4. Increasing the fatigue strength of the material by alloying or


heat treating. Heat treating to a certain point will increase
the fatigue strength. Heat treating beyond this point might
actually reduce the fatigue strength.

It may be necessary to design for the Increase in stress by


using a lower allowable.

5. Some additional methods of decreasing stress concentration are


shown on the following pages.
page \2>,Z*Z

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

METHODS OF AVOIDING OR DECREASING STRESS CONCENTRATIONS

1. The number stamp should be called out on the una tressed or the low stressed
portion of the part, or raised bosses should be provided. Other types of
marking are available and should be used If possible.

2. Highly stressed members should have smooth surfaces.

3. Locate all oil holes In regions of low stress.

U. Use a thread relief by undercutting


below the threads.

Grain direction should be parallel to the load Imposed on the part whenever
possible. Low endurance limits are typical of specimens tested normal to the
grain.

Avoid sharp bends and Internal corners. Internal machined comers should not
be dimensioned as R - -XXX^^ Such a dimension is Interpreted to mean any-
thing from zero to the dimension given,
with permissible tolerances.

7. Avoid spot facing into stressed fillet,

8. Avoid abrupt changes in sections. Use


generous fillet or faired lines.

Radii should always be dimensioned

Better

Poor

When a sharp corner is necessary to


accommodate a part which has a small
radius, a stress relieving groove can
be uaed effectively.

ABA
10. Additional well placed grooves at "A"
help to relieve the stress concentra-
tions caused by "B".

11. A relieving groove can be used to


reduce the notch effect.

12. Avoid the use of large collars. Small


collars do not disrupt the stress flow
appreciably.

as

page \z.2. 3
STRUCTURAL ANALYS IS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

METHODS OF AVOIDING OR DE CREASING 3TRL3S CONCENTRAT IONS (CONVD)

13. Threads placed outside of

effective material reduce the


stress concentrations .

IU. A stress relieving hole lightens


the shackle and may Increase
the allowable stress.

15. Never use sharp re-entrant angles


or notches In a part subjected to
repeated loading. Use a faired
line as shown.

16. Heat treating will raise the


static strength of the part but
it will not necessarily in-
crease its fatigue strength.
(OC

°)

Better

17. Avoid carrying loads around


"corners" of angles, zees, etc.,
as much as possible.

18. Avoid welded parts such as that


in the figure. The part will
fail at a rather low repeated
stress around the weld regard-
less of which member is loaded.

"1

"*f — T
19. Patch weld members fall at low
stresses under repeated loads.

-\ <>

20. Where members are under re-


peated loads avoid all welds
which induce abrupt changes in
cross section. Low endurance
limits are typical for 3uch
specimens .

1 r

Undesirable

Preferred
page \Z.2.4

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference 22

GEOMETRIC STRESS COHCEHTRATIOH FACTORS

Sous CncuL&m Shajt


Circular Fillet

CO

1.4

1.1

IjO
w^5

I
\
\
k
ft _ .
7

s
/
1

CSAST 1
10

page

GEOMETRIC STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

GEOMETRIC STRESS COlfCElfTRATIOlf FACTORS

Solid Cibculab Bhait


Circular FUlat
Tondoo

Cum- S
1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

page

GEOMETRIC 8TRES3 CONCENTRATION FACTORS

Boud Circular Abaft


Circular Groort
B«ndinf

r
4

Cbabt ft
GEOMETRIC STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

GEOMETRIC STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

Solid Circular Bhait


TmnRvene Hole
Tension

Cbajt 10

OBOMETRIC STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

Boud Circular Shaft


Tnoeveree Hole
Bending C)

GEOMETRIC STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

GEOMETRIC STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

Bo lid Circular Rhaft


PUin PreM Fit
Bending

Chart 13

GEOMETRIC STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS


Hollow Circular 8 baft
External Circular Groove
Tenaion

Crust 14

GEOMETRIC STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

Hollow Circular Shaft


External Circular Groove
Bending

.1 i.O i.» to
Cmabt 15

GEOMETRIC STRESS COlfCKIfTRATIOlf FACTORS

OEOMETRIC STRESS COlfCKIfTRATIOlf FACTORS

Hollow Circular Shaft Hollow Circular Burr

Eitorrial Circular Groova Internal Circular Groove

GEOMETRIC STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

GEOMETRIC STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

Hollow Circular Shaft


Intern*] Circular Groove
Tor lion

its*
Snom.- CTR

GEOMETRIC STRESS COlfCENTRATIOlf FACTORS

Hoixow CiAcvlai 8bar


Longitudinal CirouUr Groove
Torsion

CU1T»

GEOMETRIC 8TRXSS COlfCElTTRATIOlf FACTORS

GEOMETRIC STRESS OOKCBRTRATIOH FACTORS

Flit Platm
Circular Fillet*
Tcnako
Co ■ -r n

OlOMETRIC STRESS COlfCEIfTRATION FACTORS


Flat Platm
Circular FilleU
Tendon with Uniformly Distributed Retctlon oo FUnffti

LO tM U) t-t 40

1!

Cuast 33

OlOHtTRIC 8TOIS8 COItCKtTRATIOR FACTORS


Flat Plate*
CirouUr FUUU
Tmion m\ih Cooeentntod R«Mtloa an FUagM

Cbajtt 34

OIOUtTRlC STRESS CONCKNTRATIOlf FACTORS

Flat Plate*
CirtuUr FUleU

I
h

Chajit 36

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
GEOMETRIC STRESS CONCENT RATIO If FACTORS

Flat Platcb
Circular FillaU
Bendinc — Concentrated Load

page |V^>.)3

pTBUCTURAI ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

GEOMETRIC STRESS COHCEWTRATIOH FACTORS

Flat Plates
Hyperbolic Groove on One Edge
Tension

7*
h

Chjlkt 33

91

page |3.^>. H

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
page 13.3. i5

OIOIUTRIC STRESS COllCEIfTRATIOlf FACTORS

Flat Platu
Transverse Hole at Center
Tension

6?

*MfL a

IW-lrlt

O
(0
ClAIT 30

OEOlltTRIC STRESS COllCENTRATIOlf FACTORS

Flat Plate*
Trui «verM Hole At Center
Transverse Bending

Cauar 87

OBOlfKTRIC BTO1SS COHCHfTRATlOlf FACTORS

GEOIUTRIC 8TRIS8 CONCENTRATION FACTORS

Flat Plates
TrtnfverM Hole Near Ed««
B«odlnf
4.0

-/
M

:>

GEOMETRIC STRESS COlfCBlfTRATIOH FACTORS

Flat Plate*
FUnfe
B«oding

Chart 43
OBOkOTMC BT1188 COWCHtTRATIOIl FACTORS

0B01OTRIC STIUISS COIfCEffTRATIOH FACTORS

Flat Platu
Elliptical TnnnerM Hole at Center
Biaxial Streat

Chart 46

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
FATIGUE STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS
FOR ANNEALED STEELS

Solid Circular Shaft

Hiresda
Tension and Bending

US. STANDARD

WHfTWORTH

RENDING OR TENSION

"PLIED

CUT
Kff

23

2M

BENDING OR TENSION

ROLLED

CUT

1.4

1A
DARDALET AERO STUD

BENDING OR TENSION

WOLLED

CUT

23

BCNOING OR TENSION
TOLLED

CUT

1-2

1.5

Chart GO

page I^.^.Zi

STRUCTURAL ANALYS IS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

FATIGUE STRESS CONCENTRATIO N FAC TORS


FOR QUENCHED AND DRAWN STEELS

Solid Cikcuulb Sbatt


Threads
Tension and Bending
US. STANDARD WHITWORTH

BENDING Oft TENSION

ROLLED

CUT

10

•ENDING Oft TENSION


ROLLED

CUT

2*

13

DAR0A1XT AERO STUD

Chjlkt 107

page 15.3.22

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAJR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference I

0 0.2 0.U 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 lA 1.6 1.8 2.0

b/d

Stress Concentration Factors for a Wide Sheet With a


Double Row of Holes Perpendicular to the Load

Fig. 10.5-2.9

page 13.3. Zh

QTPHCTURAI ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

f max" k t f ave
f - P

t - plate thickness

Stress Concentration Factor For A


Notched Flat Plate Under Axial Load

Fig. 10.5-2.10

STRUCTURAL ANALYSI S MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

♦ HI

r \-\ r
I

f =k f
max t ave

f =^ f
max t nom
Stress Concentration Factors
Pig. 10.5.2.11

page

QTRUCTURA1 ANAt YSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIB AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

dl + R Minimum Edge Distance

Stress Concentration Factors for an Axially


Loaded Plate with an Eccentric Circular Hole
Fig. 10.5.2.12

page 13.3-2^

e
STRUCTURAL , ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

w/2
w/2

— 6 !■ ^

f max." k t f nom.(at edge of holes)

f = _ — — (nominal stress in net section)


nom. Iw-DJt

t = plate thickness

0.2 0.4 0.6

D/b

Stress Concentration Factors


Fig. 10.5.2,13
page (3.3. 27

flTRUCTURAI ANALYS IS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

K* = 5^(t) Conc^ For R>14b£ ; whore


Sa(t) f

Sa(t) = P

Stress Concentration Factors for Circular Fillets


in Stepped Wall Cylinders Subjected to Axial Tension

Fig. 10.5. 2. 14

page
3.3. as

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

ii 0.4
0.2
Fatigue Test - SAE 2315 and U130 Steels
Heat-Treated

■ Fatigue Test - SAE 1035 Steel as Rolled


Fatigue Test - SAE 1020 Steel as Rolled

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

Radius of Groove, r, in.


Influence of Radius of Groove on Notch Sensitivity Index
Pig. 10.5.2.15

page 15.3.2.3

STRUCTURAL ANALYS IS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

■p

>
•H
4->
-H

03

0)
CO

o
2;
1.2

1.0
.8

.6
.4

.2
0
/

^.

- / /
/ >

/ /

//
r

2 .^e

Notch Radius, r, in.


Fig. 10.5.2.16 Notch-Sensitivity of Normallzed-Steel
Rotating Beam. Specimens

1.2

32 .36

16 .20 .24 .28


Notch Radius, r, in.
Fia 10,5.2.17 Notnh-Sensitivity of 24S-T Aluminum Alloy,
Fig. lOO-^.-W ^ Load i ng (Completely Reversed)

page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
0 .02 .04 .06 .08 .10 .12 .14 .16
Notch Radius, r, in.
Fig. 10.5-2.l8 Curves for Steel, Bending or Axial Loading.

1.4

04

.08

.12

16

20
Fig. 10.5.2.19

Notcn Radius, r, in.


Scatter Bands for Steel, Alternating Bending

page ia>.2>.*'

Notch Radius, r, In.


Fig. 10.5.2.20 Curves for Steel Bending or Axial Loading

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAlR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

1.0

r , in.
Fig. 10.5.2.21 Compression of q vs. r curves,
using exact stress distribution at an elliptical hole
and linear stress gradient

page 13.3- 33 •

10.5.0

REFERENCES

Strese Concentration Pactora

Hayes, J." E*. , SRG-26 , Fatigue -^b a 'Problem-- in- Aircraft Structure Design,
1956.

PeterBon, R. E. , Stresa Concentration Design Pactora, J. Wiley and Sons,


1953

Sines, 0. and Walaman, J. L., Metal Fatigue, McGraw-Hill. 1959


r

page 1*5. 2>4

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 14.0

JOINTS & FITTINGS

ANALYSIS METHODS FOR A VARIETY OF JOINTS AND FITTINGS IS PRESENTED IN


THIS SECTION.
PAGE

14.1

LUG ANALYSIS

14.1.1

14.2

MULTIPLE FASTENER PATTERNS

14.2.1

14.3

BEAM IN SOCKET

14.3.1

14.4
INTERFERENCE FIT BUSHINGS

14.4.1

14.5

TENSION CUPS AND TEES

14.5.1

14.6

BOLT STRENGTH

14.6.1

14.7

BATH TUB TYPE TENSION FITTINGS

14.7.1
14.8

WELD JOINTS

14.8.1

14.9

WELD-ON BRACKETS

14.9.1

14.10

BONDED JOINTS

14.10.1

14.1 1

JOINT FLEXIBILITY
14.11.1

14.12

PRELOADED BOLTS AND SCREWS

14.12.1

14.13

BOLT TORQUE EFFECTS

14.13.1

14.14

EFFICIENCY OF PLATES IN TENSION JOINTS

14.14.1

page >4-.0.\
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL D YNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source. Section 1 2 Reference 2. 5

9. LUC ANALYSIS

9. l Introduction to Lug Analyst!

Lugs are connector-type elements widely used as structural supports


fot pin connections. In the past, the lug strength was overdesigned since
weight and sixe requirements were for the most part unrestricted. How-
ever, the refinement of these requirements have necessitated conservative
methods of design.

This section presents static strength analysis procedures for uniformly


loaded lugs and bushings. Cor double shear joints, and for single shear joints,
subjected to axial, transverse, or oblique loading. Also listed is a section
which applies to lugs made from materials having ultimate elongations of at
least 5T« in any direction in the plane of the lug. Modifications for lugs with
less than 5% elongation are also presented. In addition, a short section on
the stresses due to press fit bushings is presented*

9.2 Lug Analy


r 1

* to

s Nomenclature

Lug ultimate bearing stress


Lug yield bearing stress

Cross grain tensile ultimate stress of lug material


Croae grain tensile yield stress of lug material
Allowable ultimate bearing stress, MHB5
Allowable yield bearing stress, MHB5
Ultimate tensile stress

Allowable lug net-section tensile ultimate stress

Allowable lug net- section tensile yield stress

Allowable bearing yield stress for bushings

Bushing compressive yield stress

Allowable bearing ultimate stress for bushings


Ultimate shear stress of the pin material

Pin ultimata tensile stress

Allowable ultimate tang stress

Maximum lug bearing stress

Maximum bushing bearing stress

Maximum pin shear stress

Maximum pin bending stress

Allowable lug ultimate bearing load

Allowable lug net -section ultimate load

Allowable bushing ultimate load

Allowable design Ultimate load

Allowable lug-bushing ultimate load

Pin ultimate shear load

Pin ultimate bending load

page i4.M
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

"Balanced design" pin ultimate bending load

Allowable joint ultimate load

Pr

Lug tang strength

Allowable lug transverse ultimate load


Allowable bushing transverse ultimate load

K,

Net-tension strees coefficient

K S

Plastic bending coefficient for pin

Plastic bending coefficient for tang —


Plastic bearing coefficient for lug

Plastic bending coefficient for lug

Transverse ultimate load coefficient

Transverse yield load coefficient

Maximum pin bending moment


Ultimate pin failing nosiest

A
A

Arit| in*

&

Distance from edge of hole to edge of lug, inches

Ductility factor for lugs with less than 5% elongation


b

Effective bearing width, inches

Hole diameter of pin diameter, inches

Modulus of elasticity, psi

Edge distance, inches

f
Stress, psi

Cyclic stress amplitude on net section of given lug.

lbs /in. 2

Mean cyclic stress on net section of given lug, lbs /in. 2

Maximum cyclic stress on net section of given lug.


lbs /in. 2

Minimum cyclic stress on net section of given lug,

lbs /in. 2

Gap between lugs, inches


Edge distances in transversely loaded lug, inches

K*

Effective edge distance in transversely loaded lug

Allowable stress (or load) coefficient

Fatigue parameters

=
Bending moment, in. -lbs.

Fatigue life, number of cycles

Load, lbs.

Stress ratio, i vtm /S mm

t.

m
Bushing wall thickness, inches

Lug thickness, inches

Lug width, inches

Angle of load to axial direction, degrees

c
*

Strain, inches/inch

Density, lbs /in. 3

page H. \ .Z

cTpncrruRAL a,NV Y ^ s manual

GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Subscript*

t
L

Allowable

Axial

Bushing

B ending

Bearing

Compression

Lag

Mucimum
Net tensile
Oblique

. 2

Optiznuzn

Pin
Shear

Tang

Tensile

Transverse

Ultimate

Cross grain

Yield

Female and male lugs

9 . 3 Lug and Bushing Strength Under Uniform Axial Load

Axially loaded lugs in tension must be checked for bearing strength and
for net-section strength. The bearing strength of a lug loaded in tension, as-
shown in Figure 9-1. depends largely on the interaction between bearing.
.S-£t. S hoop-tension .tree... in the part of the lug ahead of the pm.
The net-section of the lug through the pin must be checked against
failure. In addition, the lug and bushing must be checked to ensure that the
deformations at design yield load are not excessive.

Figure 9-1- Schematics of Lugs Loaded in Tension


9. 3, i Lug Bearing Strength Under Uniform Axial Load

The bearing stresses and loads for lug failure involving bearing,
shear-tearout, or hoop tension in the region forward of the net-section
in Figure 9-1 are determined from the equations below, with an allowable
load coefficient (K) determined from Figures 9-2 *nd 9-3. For values of
e/D less than 1. 5, lug failures are likely to involve shear-out or hoop-
tension; and for values of e/D greater than 1. 5. the bearing is likely to be
critical. Actual lug failures may involve more than one failure mode t but

page *

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

such interaction ^effects are accounted for la the values of K. The lug ultimata

"I

F. i\ .. . i./n*i <i <9-U)

bearing stress (F br _ ) is
b„ L ■ K ~ *t«* <e/D< 1.5)

F bn , L « K F^. («/Dl 1.5)

(9-ib)

Th« lug yield bearing stress (F bry ) is

* Ki- F t „, <e/D< 1.5)

F bry » KF tyx> (e/D* 1.5)

(9-2*)
<9-2b)

2. 0
_ 1

1.6

3 I-*

1.2

1.0

\
/

7
—Pi

rL • J

Cat F
0.4 0.6 O.a 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4

«/D

Figure 9-2. Allowable Uniform Axial Load Coefficient

The graph in Figure 9-2 applies only to cases where D/t is 5 or less, which
covers most of the cases. If D/t is greater than 5, there is a reduction in
strength which can be approximated by the curves and e^veateiorvs.on Figure 9*3,

page \4M4

2.0

"D

(Q
(D
— • HE HOT! 1

Curva "A" la • cm oil to b* uiad lor >ll ;


llumlnom alloy hind-lor«.*d blllata »h«»
lha lon| lr»n«wtn* grain dlracilo* ban -
lha |cnar>I diracilon *'C" In Ihf {
Curvt "B" la a culoll 10 b* ua.d (or ill -
aluminum alloy plala, bar. and »and-
f or 1*4 blllaia whan lh« ahori iranavtraa ■* 10
grain dlrtcllon haa lha |anorildlr«ilon J
"C" In lha aattch and lor dla lorglnga ■
when lha lu« conuina lha parting plana
U a dlracllon aeproilmaltlr normal lo
lha dlracHon "C,"

In addUlon to tha llmltaJlona proved by


turret "A" and "B, "" In no a»«nt thill
a K-, r (runt lhan 1.0 bm u**d lor lufa
Icom O.J -Inch iMch or Itilckar
aluminum alloy plala. bar, or hand-
torgtd billet •

AnaddlllonatM S ol 0. 13 ovar and a'lova


any caallng or (Wing factor La ipon prl-
ala.

Valuta ara tor room itmpcniuri uaa

only.
Kbry

i I I ■ I i.o

e/D

bru

K bru F tu A br

p bry ~ K bry F ty A br
A br = D t

ri|ur« 9-1. Bearing Efficiency Factor* of Lugs, Aluminum Alloys, »nd Alloy Steel with
F tu < 160 KSt
STRUCTURAL ANALYSES MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

The allowable lug ultimate bearing Load {P**, ) for lug failure in bearing,
shear-out, or hoop tension is

P»r^ * F*^ Dt. (if T % „ * 1. 304 F m ) (9-3a)

P»„ t x 1. 304 F 4rTi Dt, (if F t „ > 1. 304 F m ) (9- 3b)

P fcr , /Dt should not exceed either F m or 1. 304 F fcry , where F^„ and F %rT

allowable ultimate and yield bearing stresses for the lug material
for e/D = 2. 0, as *iven in MIL-HDBK-5 or other applicable specification.

Equations (9-3a) and (9-3b) apply only if the load is uniformly dis-
tributed across the lug thickness. If the pin is too flexible and bends
excessively, the load on the lug will tend to peak up near the shear faces
and possibly cause premature failure of the lug.

A procedure to check the pin bending strength in order to pre-


vent premature lug failure is given in Section 9.4 entitled "Double Shear
Joint Strength Under Uniform Axial Load. 11

?. 3.2 Lug Net-Section Strength Under Uniform Axial Load

The allowable lug net-section tensile ultimate stress (F„ )


on Section 1-1 in Figure 9-4a is affected by the ability of the lug material
to yield and thereby relieve the stress concentration at the edge of the hole.
(9-4)

K^, the n«*t-tension stress coefficient, is obtained from the graphs shown
in FiK" r e 9-4 as a function of the ultimate and yield stress and strains of
the lut material in the direction of the applied load. The ultimate strain (s,j
can bf obtained from MIL-HDBK-5.

U!

Figure 9-4. Net Tension Stress Coefficient

page i4. 1 - 6

STRUCTURAL ^ AlVStS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

0 (1.2 0.4 D / w 0.4 o.a 1.0


Figure 9-4. Net Tension Stress Coefficient (conduced)

page MJ-7

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND 'SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

The allowable lug net- section tensile yield stress (F„ t ) is


The allowable lu« net- section ultimate load (P„^> is

9-5)

* (w-D)t. (if F t , * 1. 304 F tr ) (9-6a)

P^ = 1.304 F„ l (w-D)t. (if F u > 1.304 F tT ) (9-6b)

9. 3. 3 Lue Design Strength Under Uniform Axial Load

The allowable design ultimate load for the lug (P^) is the
lower of the values obtained from Equations (9-3) and (9-6).

F 3 (Equations (9-3a) and (9-3b), or (Q _ 7)


1 F (Equations <9-6a) and (9-6b))

9.3.4 Bushing Bearing Strength Under Uniform Axial Load

The allowable bearing yield stress for bushings (F >rT| ) is re-


stricted to the compressive yield stress (F -y ) of the bushing material,
unless higher values are substantiated by tests.

The allowable bearing ultimate stress for bushings (F krmf ) is

« 1- 304 F. Ti (9-8)

The allowable bushing ultimate load (P t> ) is

P H » 1.304 F„, D,t (9-9)

This assumes that the bushing extends through the full thickness

of the lug.

9. 3. 5 Combined Lug-Bushing Design Strength Under Unif orm Axial Load

The allowable lug-bushing ultimate load (P^ ) U the lower of the


loads obtained from Equations (9-7) and (9-9).

P, * P. (Equation (9-7). or P, (Equation (.9-9)) (9-10)

9. 4 Double Shear Joint Strength Under Uniform Axial Load

The strength of a joint such as the one shown in Figure 9-5-depends


on the lug-bushing ultimate strength (P. ) and on the pin shear and pin
he nding strengths.
page /

STRUCTURAL A ^AIVSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

bri

br2

Figure 9-5. Double Shear Lug Joint

9. 4. 1 Lug-Bushing Design Strength for Double Shear Joints Under


Uniform Axial Load

The allowable lug-bushing ultimate load (P^ ) for the joint is


computed, using Equation (9-10). For the symmetrical joint shown la
the figure, Equation (9-10) is used to calculate the ultimate load for the
outer Lugs and bushings (2 P. ) and the ultimate load for the inner lug

•l

and bushing (P. ). The allowable value of for the joint is the Lower
of these two values.

P. * 2P. (Equation (9- 10)), or P. (Equation (9-10)) (9-11)

page U3

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

9. 4. 2 Pin Shea r Strength for Double Shear Joints Under'Uniform


Axial Load

The pin ultimate shear load (P mt ) for the symmetrical joint


shown in Figure 9-5 is the double shear strength of the pin:

P«, « 1.571 D, 2 F. s (9-12)

where F, s is the ultimate shear stress of the pin material.

9-4.3 Pin Bending Strength for Double Shear Joints Under Uniform
Axial Load

Although actual pin bending failures are infrequent, excessive


pin deflections can cause the load in the lugs to peak up near the shear
planes instead of being uniformly distributed across the lug thickness,
thereby leading to premature lug or bushing failures at loads less than
those predicted by Equation (9-11). At the same time, however, the con-
centration of load near the lug shear planes reduces the bending arm and,
therefore, the bending moment in the pin, making the pin less critical in
bending. The following procedure is used in determining the pin ultimate
bending load.

Assume that the load in each lug is uniformly distributed across


the lug thickness (bj = tj. and 2bj * t 2 ). For the symmetrical joint shown
in Figure 9.-5, the resulting maximum pin bending moment is

P ( *1 *2 \
M —' "~ \~ + ~ + « J (9-13)

The ultimate failing moment for the pin is

« 0.0982 k^ a 3 F ta , (9-14)

where k^ is the plastic bending coefficient for the pin. The value of k*
varies from 1. 0 for a perfectly elastic pin to 1. 7 for a perfectly plastic
pin, with a value of I. 56 for pins made from reasonably ductile materials
(more than 5% elongation).

The pin ultimate bending load (F lb? ) is, therefore,


0.1963 k,, D, 3 F„
page KJ. Jo

BTR1JCTURAI ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

If p„, i» equal to or greater than either P (Equation <9-ll) or P..,


(Equation (9-12)). then the pin i. a relatively .trong pin that i. not critical
in bending, and no further pin bending calculation, are required. The
allowable load for the joint (P ul ) can be determined by going directly to
EquHtion (9- 19a).

If P, H (Equation (9-15)) i. le.i than both P^ (Equation (9-1D)


and P (Equation (9-121). the pin i. con.idered a relatively ™*
cHticIY in bending. However, ,uch a pin may deflect .uffic.ntly under
"ad to shift the c g. of the bearing load, toward th. .hear ace. of the lug.,
re.ulting in a decrea.ed pin bending moment and an increased value of P„, .
The.c .hifted load, are assumed to be uniformly di.tr. buted over width. b X

Ind2b 2 which are le.. than t t and t 2 . re.pectively to« l» Figure 9-5.

The portion, of th. lug, and bu.hing. not included in b v and 2b 2 are con-
Tid e r ed in.ffective. The new increa.ed value of pin ultimate bending load i.

0. 1963 k, D, 3 T t

' ' (9-15a)


Th. maximum aUowabl. valu. of P.., i. reached when b^ and b 2 *" ef-
ficiently reduced .o that P, s (Equation (9- 15a)) i. equal to P^ (Equation
(9-111). provided that b t and 2b 2 are .ub.tituted for tl aad t 2 . re.p.ctively.
At this point w. have a balanced deign where th. joint i. equally, critical
in pin-bending failure or lug-bu.hing failure.

The following equation, give th« "balanced de.ign" pin ultimate


bending load (P.»,,J * nd '&*<*i™ bearing width. |b u , and 2b 2- .):

where

C *

The value of F mk on the right hand aide of Equation (9-16) and th. value, of
p % and in the expre.aion for C are baaed on the aa.umption th*t the

ftUlthicknerle. of the lug- are effective and have already been calculated.
(Equations (9-10) and 19-15)).

page [4. Ml

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
If the inner lug strength ii equal to the total strength of the two
outer lugs (P = 2P ), and if g * 0, then

The "balanced design" effective bearing widths are

bl « (9-U»)

l -is 2P,

2b, -tt^ < 9 " 18b >

6 Si a

L, 2

where P u> is obtained from Equation (9-lo) and P„ and P are

» ft*x ^ 1 • 2

the previously calculated values based on the full thicknesses of the lugs.
Since any lug thicknesses greater than b x or b 2 ^ are not considered
effective, an efficient static strength design would*nave t x - b ls4m and
t2 ■ 2b 2 „,.

The allowable joint ultimate load (P, n ) for the double-shear joint
is obtained as follows:

If P lfc (Equation (9-15) is greater than either (Equation (9-11)


or P„ (Equation (9-12)), then P ul is the lower of the value's of P^ or
P^i 3 P, (Equation (9-11) or P„. (Equation (9-12)) (9-19a)

If P lk , (Equation (9-15)) is less than both P and P M ^ then


P.., is the lower of the values of P.. and P m >

P.n *P-. (Equation (9-12) or P_> {Equation (9-16)) (9-19b)

9.4.4 Lug Tang Strength for Double Shear Joints Un der Uniform Aaaal Load

If Equation (9- 19a) has been used to determine the joint allowable
load, then we have a conation where the load in the lugs and tangs is assumed
uniformly distributed. The allowable stress in the tangs is F t , T . The lug tang

page

ffTRUCTURAt ANALYSI S MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

.trength (F T > i» the lower of the following value..

(9-20*)

P ' F, 't 2 t 2 2

U Equation (9- 19b) wa. u.ed to determine the joint allowable load,
the tang, of the outer lug. .hould be checked for the ""bined axial and I bend-

,«r«..«. re.ulting from the eccentric application of the bearing


A..uming that the lug tfcckne.. remain, con.tant beyond the pin. a load (F/2)
applTd over the width b , in each outer lug will produce the following bending
moment in the tang»:

«,.-!• (-^-)

A .imple. but generally con.ervative. approximation to the maximum com-


bined «tre«. in the outer lug tang. i.

6M 1 (9-21)

where . the pla.tic bending coefficient for a lug tang of rectangular cro..-
.ection. 'varie. from 1.0 for * P^*^ ^ngulaVc^^n.

Ible "a!u. of r t °; u F„ r . The lug tang .trength i. the lower of the fol-
lowina value*: 1 1

Pr

2 *X ^1*1
(9-22b)

where b^. ia given by Equation (9-18*)

5 Single.Shear Joint Stren gth Under Uniform Axial Load

In .ingl.-.hear joint., lug and pin bending are more critical than in
double-hear joint.. The amount of bending can be .igmficantly affected by
ooU c!am P ?ng In the ca.e. con.ider.d in Figure 9-6. no holt clamoxng »
a.,umel and the bending moment in the pin i. re.i.ted by .ocket actxon m
the lugs.

page \4A. 13

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Figure 9-6. Single Shear Lug Joint


In Figure 9-6 a representative tingle-shear joint is shown, with centrally
applied loads (P) in each lug, and bending moments (M and Mj) that keep
the system in equilibrium. (Assuming that there is no gap between the lugs,
M 4 Mj = P (t + tj)/2). The individual values of M and Mj are determined
from the loading of the lugs as modified by the deflection, if any, of the lugs,
according to the principles of mechanics.

The strength analysis procedure outlined below applies to either lug.


The joint strength is determined by the lowest of the margins of safety cal-
culated for the different failure modes defined by Equations (9-23) through (9-27) .

q - 1 Lug Bearing Strength for Single Shear Joints Under Uniform

Axial Loads

The bearing stress distribution between lug and bushing is assumed


to be similar to the stress distribution that would be obtained in a rectangular
cross section of width (D) and depth (t) f subjected to a load (Pi and moment (M)
At ultimate load the maximum lug bearing stress (F fcF M L ) is approximated by

^ Dt 2

where k >r ^ is a plastic bearing coefficient for the lug material, and is assumed
to be the same as the plastic bending coefficient (k^ ) for a rectangular section.

page M .I-H
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

The allowable ultimate value of F^ r ^ i. either (Equation*


<q.la) (Q-lb)) or 1.304 (Equation. <9-2a) (9-2b)), whichever is lower.

9 5 ^ t. ^ Net-Section Strength for Sinple Shear Joint. Under Uniform


Axial Load

At ultimate load the nominal value of the outer Tiber tea-ile .tree,
in the Iur net-.ection is approximated by

P , 6M . (9-24)

* *** " |w-D)t ^ (w^D)t 2

where K i» pla.tic bending coefficient for the lug net-.ection.


i

The allowable ultimate value of F, _ 1. F^ (Equation (9-4)) or


I 304 F, T (Equation (9-5)). whichever i« lower.

,. 5 .3 ' Bu3 hin g Strength for Sinai. Sh ear Joint. Under Uniform Axial Load

The bearing .tre.. di.tributioa between bu.hing and pin i. a..umed


to be .imilar to that between the lug and bu.hing. At ultimate bu.hing load the
maximum bu.hing bearing »tre«« i. approximated by
r- - P , 6M (9-2S)

F -- , ~* S at 2

where k», . the pla.tic bearing coefficient, i. a..umed the .am. a. the pla.tic

bending coefficient <k» ) for a rectangular .ection.

The allowable ultimate value of F», „, , i» 1. 304 F % . where F W|


it the bu.hing material compre.»iv. yield .trength.

,. s .4 Pin Shear Strength for Single S hear Joint. Under Uniform Axial Load

The maximum value of pin .hear can occur either within th. luj |«
at th. common .hear face of th. two lug., depending upon th. value ^of M/Ft.
At the lug ultimat. load the maximum pin .hear *tr... IF, W »I »• approxi-
mated by

F 1.273 P ff , M «->, v (9-26a)

D. 2 Pt

1 273 P + * ' ^ . (if J4- >2/3> (9-26b)

F. .« « = — : »' - - ■ *> P»

D, 2 (|M +1 + 1

^Pt ,X Pt '
page 1-4- U IS

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Equation (9-2ba) define* che cue where the maximum pin shear is obtained
at the common shear face of the lug a, and Equation (9-26b) define* the case
where the maximum pin shear occurs away from the shear face.

The allowable ultimate value ofr kiM , is F„ . the ultimate shear


stress of the pin material. *

°-. 5. 5 Pin Bending Strength for Single Shear Joints Under Uniform
Axial Load

The maximum pin bending moment can occur within the lug or at
the common shear faces of the two lugs, depending on the value of M/Pt. At
the lug ultimate load the maximum pin bending stress (F k ^ ,) is approxi-
mated by

(9.27a)
10. 19M

K> 0.'

(!(*?...,)

Pt

2M
Pt

(9-27b)

{tfJL. >3/8)

where is the plastic bending coefficient for the pin.

Equation (9-27a) defines the cam where the maximum pin bending
moment is obtained at the common shear face of the lugs, and Equation (9-27b)
defines the case where the maximum pin bending moment occurs away from
the shear face, where the pin shear is rero.

The allowable ultimate value of F % ^ p is F tm> , the ultimate tensile


stress of the pin material.

9. 6 Example of Uniform Axially Loaded Lug Analysis

Determine the static strength of an axially loaded, double shear joint,


auch as shown in Section 9. 4. with dimensions and material properties given
in Table 9-1.

page H. /. I &

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Table 9-1. Dimensions and Properties

Fernale Luga. 1
Male Lug. 2

Bushings,
1 and 2

Pin

Material

2024-T15I Plate

7075. TMl Plate

Al. Bron**

4! 30 St

*4000 pat

77000 pei
1-10. 000 pai

125.000 pai

■\,

40000 pai
(X-grainl

&00 00 pai
<X-vraia>

bO, 000 pai

L03, 000 pai

60, 000 pai


82, 000 pai

10. 5 x 10 6 o«i

I0.3x 10 6

29 x 1 0 6 t>«i

«.

0. 12
0. 06

D or D„

D « 1. 00 in.

D « 1. 00 in.

D» » 0. 75 in. .

n * i no \n

n, » 0. 75 In.

1.25 in.

1 . 50 in.
*

0.75 in.

l.UUn.

W W f

2. 50 \tu

3. 00 LA.

t
0. 50 in.

0. 75 in.

0. 50 and

0. 75 in.

0. 10 in.

1 1 ) Female Lugs and Bushing!

F t „ - 64, 000 pai: 1. 304 F tw * 1. 304 x 40000 = 52160 pai.

a) Lug Bearing Strength (Equations (9-2a) and (9-3b))

lL.»Iii£ = 1.25: therefore K, s (from ™W 9-2)

D 1. 00 1
P \n 3 K 304 x 1 ' 46 x °- 75 x 4 °000 x 1. 00 x 0. 50 » 28600 lbs.
l l

b) Lug Net-Section Tension Strength (Equation* (9-5) andf9-6b))

D. - _L21 * 0.40:

40000

2. 50

F 64000

- 0.625:

64000

* 0. 051; therefore, k, * 0. 74
E€ « 10. 5 x 10 x 0. 12

(by interpolation from Figure 9-4^

P ta s 2 x I. 304 x . 74 x 4000 x (2. 5 - 1. 0) x . 5 » 57. 898 lbs,

page /7

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

c) Lug Design Strength (Equation (9-7))


p t * Ph. = 28600 lbs.

d ) Bushing Bearing Strength (Equation (9-9))

P = 1. 304 x 60000 x a. 75 x 0. 50 = 29300 lbs.


M

*•> Combined Lug-Bushing Design Strength (Equation (9-10)J

p_ = p. = 28600 lbs.
1
V L l

(2) Male Lug and Bushing

F t „ - 77000 psi; 1. 304 F t7l * 1. 304 x 66000 = 86100 psi.

a) Lug Bearing Strength (Equations (9- lb) and (9-3a))

-i- = ±ii£ . 1. 50; therefore. K 2 * 1. 33 (from Figure 9-7)


D 1.00 *

P kM = 1.33 x 77000 x 1.00 x 0.75 = 77000 lbs.


»-2

b) Lug Net-Section Tension Strength (Equations (9-4) and (9-6a))

_2_ s ^22 - n W . T " . 66000 s0i857 .


w 2 3.00 F, t 77000

F t* 77000

= ^— s 0. 125; therefore * 0. 87

E€ * 10. 3 x 10 6 x 0. 06 2
(by interpolation from Figure 9--*)

P, = 1. 304 x 87 x 66000 x (3. 0 - 1 0) < . 75 = 112, 313 lbs.

c) Lug Design Strength (Equation (9-7))


P_ = P>_ « 77000 lbs.
d) Bushing Bearing Strength (Equation (9-9))

P_ = 1. 304 x 60000 x 0. 75 x 0. 75 = 44000 lbs.


•2

ei Combined Lug-Bushing Design Strength (Equation (9-10))

F„ = P, = 44000 lbs.
^2 '2

page

STRUCTURAL ANA1YSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

(31 Joint Analysis

Lug-Bushing Strength (Equation (9-11))

p = P. = 44000 Iba.
H "2

b) Pin Shear Strength (Equation (9-12))

p a 1.571 x (0.75) 2 x 82000 = 72400 Iba.


C ) Pin Bending Strength (Equation (9-15))

The pin ultimate bending load, assuming uniform bearing acroes


the lug*, ia

. 0. 1963 x 1. 56 x (0.75) 3 x 125000 . 30100 lbs ^


" 0.25 + 0. 1875 + 0. 10

Since P lh ia less than both P^ and P w>( tht pin ia a relatively


weak pin which deflect, sufficiently under load to shift the bear-
ing loada toward the shear face* of the lug a. The new value of
pin bending atrength ia, then,

^ » 2C x (1 22^2. x (0. 25 + 0. 1875 + 0. 10) + (0. 10) 2 - 0. lo)

28600 x 44000

(from Equation (9-16)) where C ■

286 x 0. 75 + 44000 x 0. 050


» 29000 lba/in.

Therefore, P, H M = * * 29000 x (0. 754 - 0. 10) - 37900 Ibe.

The "balanced design" effective bearing widtha are

b s 37900 x 0. 50 . 0 33l iQ< (from Equa tion (9-18a))


lwi% 2 x 28600
t

a 37900 x 0. 75 . Q 64o ln< (fpom Equation (9- 18b))


^2 mm 44000

Therefore, the same value of P rt would be obtained if the

thickneee of each female lug was reduced to 0.331 inches and


the thickness of the male lug reduced to 0. 646 inchea.

d) Joint Strength (Eq-iation (9- 19b))

The final allowable load for the joint, exclusive of the lug tanga, ia

page t4-U3

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

p .n * p .», mw ■ 37900 lbs.


14) Lug Tang Analysis

p T = z * 64000 x 2. 50 x 0. 50 , 92700 lb>> {from Equat ion (9-22*))

1 +
1.4 V

0.331
0. 500

or

P T = 77000 z 3. 00 x 0. 75 = 173300 lbs. (from Equation (9-22b))

Therefore, the lug tangs are not critical and the allowable joint
load remains at 37900 pounds.

7 Lug and Bushing Strength Under Transverse Load

Transversely loaded lugs and bushings are checked in the same general
n:*nner as axially loaded lugs. The transversely loaded lug. however, is a

• ire redundant structure than an axially loaded lug, and it has a more com-
plicated failure mode. Figure 9-7 illustrates the different lug dimensions
are critical in determining the lug strength.
Figure 9-7. Schematic of Lugs Under Transverse Loads
o. 7, 1 Lug Strength Under Transverse Load

The lug ultimate bearing stress (F^) is

wnere K,,,, the transverse ultimate load coefficient, is obtained from


J-'iV'Jre 9-8 as a function of the "effective" edge distance (h t ,):

h . 6

'* ' 3/hj + l/h 2 + l/h 3 + 1 h/4

(9-28)

page )4J. 20

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
The effective edge di.taace can be found by using the nomograph in
Figure 9-9. The nomograph i. u.ed by fir.t connecting the h x and H Z Une. at
the appropriate value of h X and h 2 . The interaction with Une A i. noted. Next
connect the h 3 and h 4 Une. .imilarly. and note the B Une interaction. Con-
necting the A and B line interaction give, the value of h„ to be read at the
interaction with the h„ Une. The different edge distance. (h 1( *>2. *3. a 4>
indicate different critical region, in the lug. hi being the mo.t critical. The
di.tance h, i. the .maUe.t di.tance from the hole to the edge of the lug. U
the lug i. 1 concentric lug with parallel .id... h.^D can be obtained directly
from Figure 9-10 for any value of e/D. In concentric lug., hj » h 4 aadh2*n3.

The lug yield bearing .tree. {T %vr ) i»

r « K. F (9-29)

where K tTT . the tran.ver.e yield load coefficient, i. obtained from Figure 9-9.
The allowable lug tran.ver.e ultimate load (P.„^> i«

p , 1.304 F Wi Dt (if F w > 1.304 F m ) (9-30b


where F>„ ana F fcry are obtained from Equation. (9-28i and (9-29)).

page I4./.Z/
CTRMCTURAl ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

1.6
1.4

1. I

[ . 0

!9

- t . 6

0.6
0. 4
0.2

Figure 9-10/ Effective Edge Di.tance

If the lug i. not o£ con.tant thicknes., then A^/A^ is substituted


for h tT /D on the horizontal scale of the graph in Figure 9-8. where i- the
lug bearing area, and

3/ A! + l/Aj + WA 3 + l/A 4

A X . A Z . A3, and A 4 are the area, of the section, defined by h v h 2 . h 3 . and


h 4 . respectively.

The value, of and K,^ corresponding to A.,/ A,, are then obtained
from the graph in Figure 9-8 and the allowable bearing stre..e. are obtaxned
as before from Equation. (9-28) and (9-29)).

9.7.2 Bushing Strength Unde r Tr,isver«e Load

The allowable bearing .tre.. on the bu.hing i. the .arne a. that for
the bu.hing in an axially loaded lug and i. given by Equation (9-8). The allow-
able bu.hing ultimate load (P t „ ) is equal to (Equation (9-9)).

page 14. 1. 23

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MAMUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

9. 8 Double Shear Joints Under Tranivertc Load


The itrength calculation* needed (or double shear joint strength analysis
are basically the same as those needed for axially loaded. Equations (9-11)
through '9-19) can be used; however, the maximum lug bearing stresses at
ultimate and yield loads must not exceed those given by Equations (9-28)
and (9-29).

9. 9 Single Shear Joints Under Transverse Load

The previous discussion on double shear joint applies to single shear


joint strength analysis except the equations to be used are now Equations (9-23)
through (9-27).

9. 10

Lug and Bushing Strength Under Oblique Load

The analysis procedures used to check the strength of axially loaded


lugs and of transversely loaded lugs are combined to analyze obliquely
loaded lugs such as the one shown in Figure 9-11. These procedures apply
only if 1 does not exceed 90°.

Figure 9-11. Obliquely Loaded Lug


9. 10. 1 Lug Strength Under Oblique Load

The obliquely applied load (P ft ) is resolved into an axial component


fP = P cos a) and a transverse component (P„ = P a sina>. The allowable
ultimate value of P a is P a and its axial and transverse components satisfy
the following equation: 1

« vl.6 , p \1.6

= 1

(9-31)

where P, is the strength of an axially loaded lug (Equation (9-7)) and P tf ^ is


the strength of a transversely loaded lug (Equations (9-30a), (9-30b)). The
allowable load curve defined by Equation (9-31) is plotted on the graph in
Figure 9-12.

MS = -
615

- I.O

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STRUCTURAL A N AI Y ^ IS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMiCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

p . Axial Component of Applied Load

Allowable Load for Ajdally Loaded Lug

Figure 9- 12. Allowable Load Curve

For any given value of a the allowable Load (Pq^) tor a lug can be
determined from the graph shown in Figure 9-12 by drawing a line from the
origin with a slope equal to (P^/Ptni L ). The intersection of this line with the
allowable load curve (point 1 on the graph) Indicate* the allowable value* of
P/Pu and P tr /Ptni « from which the axial and transverse components. P
and P tr . of the allowable load can be readily obtained.

9.10.2 Bushing Strength Under Oblique Load


The bushing strength calculations are identical to those for axial
loading (Equations (9-3) and (9-9)).

9. 1 I Double Shear Joints Under Oblique Load

The strength calculations are basically the same as those for an axially
loaded joint except that the maximum lug bearing stress at ultimate load must

page 14 J.25

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

not exceed P a /Dt, where P. is defined by Equation (9-31). Use Equation ■

l ^ _

(9-11) through (9-19)).

9. 12 Single Shear Jointa Under Oblique Load

The previous discussion on double shear joints applies to single shear


joint strength analysis except the equations to be used are now Equations
(9-23) through (9-27).

9. 13 Multiple Shear and Single Shear Connections


Lug-pin combinations having the geometry indicated in Figure 9-13
should be analyzed according to the following criteria:

(1 ) The load carried by each lug should be determined by distributing


the total applied load P among the lugs as indicated in Figure 9-13,
b being obtained in Table 9-2. This distribution is based on the
assumption of plastic behavior (at ultimate load) of the lugs and
clastic bending of the pin, and gives approximately zero bending
deflection of the pin.

(2) The maximum shear load on the pin is given in Table 9-2.

(3) The maximum bending moment in the pin is given by the formulae

P l b

where b is given in Table 9-2,

These lugs of
iqual thickness t r
CP

Two outer lugs of equal thickness


not less than CV (See Table 9-2)

CPl'

These lugs of equal


thickness t"

Figure 9-13. Schematic of Multiple Shear Joint in Tension

page

STRUCTURAL A,NA1YSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
Total number
o( lugs includ-
ing both tides

Pin Shear

. 35

. 50 P x

.40
. 53 Pj

.33il±il

.43

.54Pj

,37 t,+t "


2

11

.44

. 54 Pj

.39*^1
2

m
. 50

• 50 P x

.50

9. 14 Axially Loaded Lug Design

This section presents procedures for the optimized design of lugs,


bushings and pin in a symmetrical, double-shear joint, such as shown in
Figure 9-5, subjected to a static axial load (P). One design procedure applies
to the case where the pin is critical in shear, the other to the case where the
pin is critical in bending. A method is given to help determine which mode of
pin failure is more likely, so that the appropriate design procedure will be use

Portions of the design procedures may be useful in obtaining efficient


designs for joints other than symmetrical, double- shear joints.

9, 14. I Axial Lug Design for Pin Failure

An indication of whether the pin in an optimized joint design is more


likely to fail in shear or in bending can be obtained from the value of R (Equa-
tion (9-32)). If R is less than 1. 0, the pin is likely to fail in shear and the
design procedure for joints with pins critical in shear should be used to get
an optimized design. If R is greater than 1. 0, the pin is likely to be critical
in bending and the design procedures for joints with pins critical in bending
should be used.

X F *r Ul i F *r til 2

where F # and F % ^ are the ultimate shear and ultimate tension stresses for
the pin material, Tt^ is the plastic bending coefficient for the pin, and F WMi x

9 ± ) (9-32)

page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSE MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

and F ¥f »**e allowable bearing stresses in the female and male lugs. The
value of F wul can be approximated by the lowest of the following three values:

•where F tll and F mi are the cross-grain tensile ultimate and tensile yield
stress for female lugs. F,, is the compressive yield stress of the bushings

in the female lugs, and K is obtained from Figure 9-14. Assume D = D, if

a better estimate cannot be made. T %9 is approximated in a similar manner.

1. 1

L.C

0.9

0.8

0. 7

PL
2 3
Pi a Material Penalty
Lug Material Density

Figure 9-14. Allowable Bearing Coefficient

9. 14. 1. 1 Axial Lug Design for Pin Failure in the Shearing Mode
Pin and Bushing Diameter

The minimum allowable diameter for a pin in double shear is

rv , o.798 \l — Z— C9-33>

The outside diameter of the bushing is D * Dp + 2t,, where t, is the bushing


wall thickness.

Edge Distance Ratio (e/D)

The value of e/D that will minimise the combined lug and pin weight
is obtained from Figure (9-15)<a) for the case where lug bearing failure and
pin shear failure occur simultaneously. The lug is assumed not critical in
net tension, and the bushing is assumed not critical in bearing.

page 14- / .-23


STRUCTURAL ANALYS IS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAJR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

1. o
I ■ »
t 6

1.4

I . 2
I. 0

0 H
i. b

I I I I I I I

Lncrease in weight of cross-hatched


area over optimum design weight (%)

2 >
Pin Material Density
Lug Material Density
(a)

Pin Critical
in Shear

Pi « Material Density
Lug Material Density

(b>

Double-Shear Joint,
Pin Critical in
Bending

(male lug is assumed


identical to female
lugs but is twice as

thick)
Figure 9-15. Edge Distance Ratio

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STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

no hC T Ve> ^ FiRU " 9 " 15 -PeciflcaUy to concentric lug.

(a » e - D/2. and w = 2e), but they can be used for reasonably .imilar lugs.

Allowable Loads

The allowable loads for the different failure modes (lug bearing
failure, lug net-tension failure, and bushing failure) are determined from
-equations (9-3). (9-6), and (9-9) in terms of the (unknown) lug thickness
The lowest of these loads is critical.

Lug Thicknesses

The required male and female lug thicknesses are determined by


equating the applied load in each lug to the critical failure load for the lug.

Pin Bending

To prevent bending failure of the pin before lug or bushing failure


occurs in a uniformly loaded symmetrical double-shear joint, the required
pin diameter is

(9-34

where k^ is the plastic bending coefficient for the pin. If the value of D,
ii*om Equation (9-34) is greater than that from Equation (9-33), the joint
must be redesigned because the pin is critical in bending.

Reduced Edge Distance

If the allowable bushing load (Equation (9-9)) is less than the allow-
able lug load (Equation (9-3)), a reduced value of e. obtained by using the curve
f hown in Figure 9-16 for optimum e/D t will give a lighter joint in which lug
rearing failure and bushing bearing failure will occur simultaneously. The
n-evtously calculated pin diameter and lug thicknesses are unchanged.

Reduced Lug Width

If the lug net-tension strength (Equation (9-6)) exceeds the bearing


rength (Equation (9-3)), the net-section width can be reduced by the ratio of
ne bearing strength to the net-tension strength.

'•14.1.2 Axial Lug Design for Pin Failure in the Bending Mode
Pin and Bushing Diameters (First Approximation )

A first approximation to the optimum pin diameter is shown in


-quation (9-35).

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fTRUCTURAI ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION-

" (^£-) 2 (.,£*-♦ -I*-)

(9-

where F t Ul i* either T %%M ^ »r 1. 304 F tJtl « whichever is smaller; and

F t *u iM either F t „ 2 or 1.3u4 F m2 » whichever ii smaller. This approxi-


mation becomes more accurate when there are no bushings and when there
is no gap between lugs.

The Erst approximation to the outside diameter of the bushing is


D = D, + 2t,.
f . ■ Allowable bushing ultimata
or b

b«artng «tr<ts*

r ■ Lug material crots-grmin


ultimate tensil* .tr«»s

2. 5

2.0

1.5

r/O

I. 0
0.5

u.5

21

.c

1.5

2.0

2.5
°P r bru- /D r tax

.Figure 9-16. Edge Distance Ratio

page M- 1 . 3 1

STRUCTURAL ANA1 MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Edge Pittance Ratio (e/D)

The value of e/D that will minimize the combined lug and pin weight
is obtained from Figure f9-15)(b) for the cue of symmetrical double-shear
joint* in which lug bearing failure and pin bending failure occur simultaneously.
The lug is assumed not critical in tension and the bushing is assumed not
critical in bearing.

The curves apply specifically to concentric lugs ( a = e - D/2, and


w = Zc), but can be used for reasonably similar lugs.

Allowable Loads (First Approximation)

The allowable loads for the different failure modes (lug bearing
failure, lug net-tension failure, and bushing failure} are determined from
Equations (9-3), (9-6), and (9-9). in terms of the (unknown) lug thickness.
The lowest of these loads is critical.

Lug Thicknesses (Firat Approximation)

The first approximation to the required male and female lug thick-
nesses are determined by equating the applied load in each lug to the lowest
allowable load for the lug.

Pin Diameter (Second Approximation )

The second approximation to the pin diameter is obtained by sub-


stituting the first approximation lug thicknesses into Equation (9-34).

Final Pin and Bushing Diameters and Lug Thicknesses

The final optimum pin diameter is very closely approximated by

D > 1/3 D » (Equation (9-35)) + 2/3 D, (Equation (9-34)) (9-36)

Aji average value, however, is generally sufficient. If the final optimum


value is not a standard pin diameter, choose the next larger standard pin
?, rid bushing.

The final lug thicknesses corresponding to the standard pin and


' bushing are then determined.

Pin Shear

The pin is checked for shear strength (Equation (9-33)).


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{STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Reduced Edge Distance

If the bushing bearing strength (Equation (9-9)) i* less than the lug
bearing strength (Equation (9-3)), a reduced value of e/D, obtained from the
curve in Figure 9-16, wiU give a lighter joint. The pin diameter and lug
thicknesses are unchanged.

Reduced Lug Width

If the lug net-tension strength (Equation (9-6)) exceeds the lug bear-
ing strength (Equation (9-3)), the net-section width can be reduced by the ratio
of the bearing strength to the net-tension strength.

9.14.1.3 Example of Ajdally Loaded Lu g Design

Using the same materials for the lug, bushing and pin as mentioned
in Section 9. 6, and assuming the same allowable static load of 37900 pounds,
a symmetrical double-shear joint will be designed to carry this load. A 0. 10-
inch gap is again assumed between the lugs. The bushing wail thickness is
assumed to be 1/8 inch.

The lug will first be assumed to be concentric (a ■ e - D/2, and


w . Ze) but the final minimum weight design will not necessarily be concentric.
Pin Failure Mode (Equation (9-32))

The pin is first checked to determine whether it will be critical in


shear or bending, using Equation (9-32). Assuming D ■ D, as a first approxi-
mation, determine F^ Ml and T» ^ using the graph in Figure 9-14 to
determine K.

KF %W1 » 1. 02 x 64000 » 65300 psi; 1. 304 KF tywi


» 1. 304 x 1. 02 x 40000 » 53100 psi;

1. 304 F^ f ■ 1. 304 x 60000 ■ 78200 psi; therefore, F w ull « 53100 pai

KF t „ 2 = 1. 02 x 77000 = 78500 psi; 1. 304 KF tTt ^


■ 1. 304 x 1. 02 x 66000 ■ 87900 psi

1. 304 F Wf * 1. 304 x 60000 » IclOO psi; therefore F >r ulz « 78200 psi
Therefore,

page M . 1 . 33

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

K. nx 82000 x (1*222- + -Si222-)= 3.4 (Equation (9-32))

1. 56 x 125000 V 53100 78200 '


Therefore, the design procedure for pins critical in bending applies.

Pin and Bushing Diameters * First Approximation (Equation (9 - 35) )

n - \ 1 - 273 * ( 37900 \ , { 125000 . 125000 ) . Q .


D = 0. 741 + 2 x 0. 125 - 0, 991 in.

Edge Distance Ration (c/D)

The optimum value of e/D for both male and female lugs is 1. 24
■ Figure 9-15 (b)). Therefore a/D is 0. 74 and w/D is 2. 48 for a concentric
luc (therefore, w = 2.46 in.).

Allowable Loads - Female Lugs and Bushings (First Approximation)

(a) Lug Bearing Strength (Equations (9-2a) and (9-36H

p »w t = l * 304 x 1.46 x 0. 74 x 40000 x 0. 991 t } = 55900 lbs.

where K = 1.46 is obtained from Figure 9-2 for e/D = 1.24

(b) Lug Net-Section Tension Strength (Equations (9-5) and (9-6b))

K, = 0. 74 (obtained by interpolation from the graphs shown in

Figure 9-9-4i for

F F
2- = 0.403; — = 0.625; —2- = 0.051
F„ EC,

P., L * 1- ^04 x 40000 x (2.46 - 0.991) t x = 56600 tj lbs.

(c) Bushing Bearing Strength (Equation (9-9))


P u = 1. 304 x 60000 x 0. 741 t, = 58000 t, lbs.

Allowable Loads - Male Lug and Bushing (First Approximation)


(a) Lug Bearing Strength (Equations (9-la) and (9-3a))

page H. |. ^4

crraiirTURAL AfJAI YSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

p » 1.46 x 0. 74 x 77000 x 0.991 tj » 82500 ^ Iba.

(b) Lug Net.Section Ten.ion Strength (Equation* (9-4) and (9-6*))

K, 2 = 0. 88 (obtained by interpolation from graph* ihown in

Figure 9-4) for.


F F tm
0_ =0i403; _ll s 0.857; — — * 0. 125
w 2 F„ EC,

p lm ^ = 0.88 x 77000 x (2. 46 - 0.991) t 2 = 99500 t 2 iba.

(c) Bu*hing Bearing Strength (Equation (9-9))

p * 1. 304 x 60000 x 0. 741 t 2 s 58000 t 2 lb*.


**2

Lug Thlckneaaea (First Approximation)

t , s 37900 = o. 339 in. :t 2S 4^22- - 0.654 in.


1 2 x 55900 58000

Pin Diameter - Second Approximation (Equation (9-34))

D . ?| 2. 55 x 37900 f n no x ft 177 + fl. 2001 « 0, 755 in.


P " \ 1. 56 x 125000

D = 0. 7555 + 2 x 0. 125 « 1.0005 in.

Final Pin and Buahing Diameter (Equation (9-36))

n -r °- 741 + °- T 55 . 0. 748 in. (Uae 0. 750 inch pin)


• w 2 2

D * 0. 750 + 2 x 0. 125 ■ 1. 000 ia.


Pin Shear (Equation (9-33))
n , * 0.798 \4^2£- .0.541 in.
1 82000

Therefore, the pin ia not critical in ahear.

Final Lug Thickneaaea

t, = 0.339 x °' 9ql * 0.336 in.


1 1.000

page I. :S5"

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

t 7 = 0. 654 x °- 741 * 0. 646 in.


L 0.750

Reduced Edge Distance

The lug tension strength (Equation (9-3)) exceeds the bushing


strength (Equation (9-9)) for the male lug. Therefore, a reduced
e/D can be obtained for the male lug shown in Figure 9-16.
D * 0. 750 1. 304 x 60000

D F t „ = 1, 000 % 77000

Therefore, e/D = 0. 97 (male lug)

Reduced Lug Width

The lug net-section tension strength (Equation (9-6)) exceeds the


hearing strength (Equation (9-3)) for both the male and female lugs
Therefore, the widths can be reduced as follows:

/ 55900 t. v

w, = 1. 00 + (2.48 - 1. 00) v - )= 2- 46 in.

1 1 56600 t 1 '

w 2

/ 82500 u v
1.00 , (2.48 - 1.00) ( 995Qo t * )■ 2.23 in

Final Dimensions
D p * 0. 750 in. ; D ■ 1. 000 in.

tj s 0. 336 in. ; «j « 1. 24 in. ; W| s 2. 46 in.

t^ = 0. 646 in. ; e^ * 0. 97 in. ; W£ = 2. 23 in.

Since w^ is larger than 2e£, the final male lug is not concentric.
5 Analysis of Lugs with Less Than 5 PCT Elongation

The procedures given through Section 9-14 for determining the static
strength of lugs apply to lugs made from materials which have ultimate
elongations, c v , of at least 5% in all directions in the plane of the lug. This
section describes procedures for calculating reductions in strength for lugs
made from materials which do not meet the elongation requirement. In
addition to using these procedures, special consideration must be given to
possible further loss in strength resulting from material defects when the
short transverse gain direction of the lug material is in the plane of the lug.

page 14. 1.

pTRUCTURAI ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

The analysis procedures for lugs made from materials without defects
but with less than 5% elongation are as follows:
q. 15. I Bearing Strength of Axially Loaded Lugs with Less Than 5 PCT
Elongation

(1) Determine F ty / F„ and C y /c,. using values of F ty , F M , e y , and


G, that correspond to the minimum value of € t in the plane of
the lug.

(2) Determine the value of B, the ductility factor, from the graph
shown in Figure 9-17.

(3) Determine a second value of B (denoted by B Q5 ) for the same


values of F ly . T tm . and c y as before, but with c, a 0. 05.

(4) Multiply the bearing stress and bearing load allowables given
by Equations (9-la) through (9-3b) by B/B 05 to obtain the
corrected allowables.

Figure 9-17. Ductility Factor

q. , s. Z Net-Section Strength of Axially Loade d Lugs with Less Than


5 PCT Elongation

The procedure for determining net-section allowables is the same


for all values of The graphs in T'gure 9-4 are used to obtain a value of
K. which is substituted in Equations (9-4) and (9-5). If the grain direction of
the material is known, the values of F ty . F t ,. and €, used in entering the graphs
should correspond to the grain direction parallel to the load. Otherwise, u»e
vaiuca corresponding to the minimum value of in the plane of the lug.

page 14

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

? - 15. 3 Strength of Lug Tangs in Axially Loaded Lugs with Less Than
5 PCT Elongation

The plastic bending coefficient for a rectangular cross section can


be approximated by = I. 5B, where B is obtained from Figure 9-17. in
which y and u are the yield and ultimate strains of the lug tang material in
the direction of loading. The maximum allowable value of kv for a rec-
tangle is 1 . 4.

q - 1 5 - 4 Lug-Bushing Strength in Axially-Loaded Single-Shear Joint


with Less Than 5 PCT Elongation

The values of k^ and k> for rectangular cross sections are


approximated by 1. 5B, where B is l deterinined from the graph as described
in Figure 9-17. The maximum allowable values of k> f and k^ are 1.4.

1 5. 5 Bearing Strength of Transversely Loaded Lugs with Less Than 5°Tn


Elongation (Equations (9-28) through (9-30b) in Section 9. 7. 1
The same procedure as that for the bearing strength of axially
loaded lugs is used.

(1) Determine B and B # 05 as described for axially loaded lugs f


where B corresponds to the minimum value of c t in the
plane of the lug.

(2) Multiply the bearing stress and bearing load allowables


given by Equations (9-28) through (9-30b> by B/Bq. 5 to
obtain the corrected allowables.

*>. 16 Stresses Due to Press Fit Bushings

Pressure between a lug and bushing assembly having negative clearance


can be determined from consideration of the radial displacements. After
assembly, the increase in inner radius of the ring (lug) plus the decrease in
outer radius of the bushing equals the difference between the radii of the bush-
ing and ring before assembly:

6 * u ring * Pushing (9-36)

where

6 r Difference between outer radius of bushing and inner radius


of the ring.

u = Radial displacement, positive away from the axis of ring or bushing,

page 14. 1.3& .


STRUCTURAL A^AIVSIS MANUAL
GENERAL D YNAMtCS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Radial displacement at the inner surface of a ring .ubjected to internal


pressure p is

(9-37)

ring

Radial displacement »t the outer surface of a bus ung subjected to


external pressure p i«

r u 2 x a 2 1 (9.38

u =

^usfa. B 2 -A 2
where . .

A » Inner radius of bushing D « Xnn.r radio, of rang (lug)

B , Outer radius of bushing E * Modulus of elasticity

C = Outer radius of ring (lug) U » Poisaon ■ ratio

Substitute Equation. (9-37) and (9-38) into Equation (9-36) and solve for p;

jr- m — c 2 - D 2 nns;
'-ring C fa D

■ I — 2. — 7z m u * u,h

Ebuah. B - A.

.)
Maximum radial and tangential .tr.a.e. for a ring .ubjected to internal
pres.ure occur at the inner .urfaee of the ring (lug).

F, = -p

Positive sign indicate, ten.ioa. The maximum shear stre.. at thi.


point i.

F, - T r

The maximum radial stre.. for a bu.hing .ubjected to external pre.eure


occurs at the outer surface of the bu.hing i.

r ? « -p

The maximum tangential stre.. .or a bu.hing subjected to external pre.-


•ure occurs at the inner surface of the bu.hing i.

F t *

2 .
B 2 * A 2
pagfe 14.1, 35

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

The allowable press fit stress may be based tin:

ill Stress Corrosion . The maximum allowable press fit stress in


magnesium alloys should not exceed 8000 psi. For all aluminum
alloys the maximum press fit stress should not exceed 0. 50 T iT .

(21 Static Fatigue . Static fatigue is the brittle fracture of metals


under sustained loading, and in steel may result from several
different phenomena, the most familiar of which is hydrogen
embrittlement. Steel parts heat treated above 200 ksi, which
by nature of their function or other considerations are exposed
to hydrogen embrittlement, should be designed to an allowable
press fit stress of 25% F tl .

(3) Ultimate Strength . Ultimate strength cannot be exceeded, but is


not usually critical in a press fit application.

(4) Fatigue Life . The hoop tension stresses resulting from the press
fit of a bushing in a lug will reduce the stress range for oscillating
loads, thereby improving fatigue life.

The presence of hard brittle coatings in holes that contain a press fit
bushing or bearing can cause premature failure by cracking of the coating
or by high press fit stresses caused by build-up of coating. Therefore,
Hardcoat or HAE coatings should not be used in holes that will subsequently
contain a press fit bushing or bearing.

Figures 9-18 and 9-19 permit determining the tangential stress, F T ,


for bushings pressed into aluminum rings. Figure 9-18 presents data for
general steel bushings, and Figure 9-19 presents data for the NAS 75 class
bushings. Figure 9-20 gives limits for maximum interference fits for steel
bushings in magnesium alloy rings.

9.17 Lug Fatigue Analysis

A method for determining the fatigue strength of 2024-T3 and 7075-T6


aluminum alloy lugs under axial loading is presented.

Figures 9-21 and 9-22 show the lug and the range of lug geometries
covered by the fatigue strength prediction method. Fatigue lives for lugs
having dimensional ratios falling outside the region shown should be corrobo-
rated by tests.

In this method the important fatigue parameters are kj. k^, and k3
'see Figure 9-23).

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fiTRUCTURAI ANALYSI S MANUAL


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C/B

Figure 9-18. Tangential Stresses Cor Pressed Steel Bushings


in Aluminum Rings

page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Figure 9-19. Tangential Stresses for Pressed N AS 75 Bushings

page W.I-fZ

STRUCTURAL ANAI VSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
r

.50 .60 .MO 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60

Outside Radius of Ring (R)


Di&m. of Hole in Ring

O. D. of the bushing is the after-plating diameter f f the bushing.

The curve* are bated upon a mvdmuin allowable interference tangential


•tress of 8000 pal.

Figure 9-20. Maximum Interference Fits of Steel Bushings in


Magnesium Alloy Ring*

page \4»

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
a/C

Figure 9-22. Region of Lug Geometries Covered by Fatigue


Prediction Method

page H.]-4<?

STRUCTURAL ANALYSI S MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Figure 9-23. Parameters To He Used in Figure 9-24 or Lug Fatigue Analysis

page 14.1.4 5

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMlCS/CONVAiB AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
To find the allowable life knowing the applied stresses and lug dimen-
sions, or to find the allowable stresses knowing the life, R value (R**,j t /f w )
and, Iur dimensions, uae the following procedure:

Ml fcZnter Figure 9-22 to check that the lug dimensional ratioa fall
within the region covered by the method. Enter Figure 9-23
and read kj, k 2 , and kj; calculate the product kjk 2 k3.

\Z) Calculate the allowable net-tenaion etatic stress for the lug, F,^,
according to the method described in Section 9. 3. 2.

Mt Determine the value 0.4 F-- . This ia the alternating atresa

corresponding to a maximum atresa value of 0. 8 F BV ^ when


f rtl = 0. 0.8 F^ waa chosen aa an average yield stress value

for 2024 and 7075 aluminum alloy lugs.

(4) Using the value 0.4 F tm ^ as an alternating stress, draw a straight


line between the intersection of this value and the appropriate

k 1^2*3 curve on Figures 9-24 or 9-25, and the point 0. 5 F Mf at 1


cycle. Thia extends the kik2k3 curve to cover the entire life range
to static failure.

(5) Enter Figure 9-24 or 9-25 (lug fatigue curv- s for the case where
R = 0) with k 1 k 2 k 3 . For values of life, N = 10 3 , 3 x 10 3 , 10 4 ,
etc. , br any other convenient values, determine the corresponding
values of f K , the stress amplitude causing fatigue failure when R = 0.
(6) Plot the values of f, found in Step 5 along tht R = 0 line in a Goodman
diagram such as ahown in Figure 9-26 (f B = , when R = 0). The
Goodman diagram ahown in Figure 9-27 app ies to a particular
7075-T6 lug for which kjk 2 k3 ~ 1. 32 (see example problem 11,

hut is typical of all such diagrams.

(71 Plot the allowable net-tension static atress found in Step 2 aa

f B ai the point (£,, 0) of the Goodman diagram (f, = f M when f B = 0).


For the caae conaidered in Figure 9-26, this point is plotted as
(f, = 70,000 pei, f, = 0).

(8) Connect the point plotted in Step 7 with each of the points plotted
in Step d by etraight lines. These are the conatant life lines for
the particular lug being analyzed. The Goodman diagram is now
complete and may be used to determine a life for any given applied
stresses, or to determine allowable atresses knowing the life and
P value.

page i4*L4L

-Si
frTRUCTURAt ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

9<I 8 Example Problem of Lu ff Fitigue Analyst*

Given a concentric 7075-T6 aluminum lug a. shown in Figure 0 -2 1. with


the following dimension.: a . 0. 344 in. c » 0. 3444 in, and D - 0. 437 n. If the
lul Subjected to a cycle axial load .uch that the maximum

U 27 000 p.i and the minimum net .ection .tree. is 18.470 psi. find the fatigue
UXe.

From the lug dimensions,

a/c ■ 1.0 c/D * 0. 787 (D/c ■ 1.27)

(1) Figure 9-22 indicate that the lug may be analyxed using this method.
From Figure 9-23 ,

kj * I. 0: k 2 * 1. 33: k 3 » 0. 99; ±\*Z^ ■ l- *2

(2) Calculate the allowable net-section tensile ultimate stress, F^.


for Equation (9-4) in Section 9. 3. 2. For the given lug, F.^ «
70, 000 psi.

(3) 0. 4 * 0. 4 x 70. 000 ■ 28, 000 psi.

(4) Draw a light pencil line on Figure 9-24 from the point (f » 28,000
psi on k Ak 3 • 1. 32) to the point (f. • 35. 000. N « 1 cycle) (This
is illustrated, for clarity, on Figure 9-27).

(51 Enter Figure 9-24 and read values of f, for various aumbere of
UXe cycles, using the line k^ks - 1. 32. These numbers are a.

10*

10 3

3 x 10 3

10*

3 x 10 4

10 5

10 6

10 7
3 OK SI

24. 5

18.8

13. 5

8.88

3.70

2.34

1. 30

(6) Plot the values of f, along the R « 0 Une of the Goodman diagram.
(Refer to Figure 9-26. )

(7) Plot F^ » 70. 000 psi. as f. at the point <f„ 0) of the Goodman diagram.
(Refer to Figure 9-26. )

(8) Connect the points plotted in Step 6 with the point plotted in Step 7
by straight lines. The Goodman diagram is bow complete.

page 14. LSI

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

(9) Enter the Goodman diagram with values of L * 27 • 700 " 18 ' 470 =

4,615 p.i and f . * 27,700 + 18,470 = ^ Q85 ^ ^ y ^ ^

fatigue life, N * 8 x 10* cycles, by interpolation (test result* show


N a- 8. 6 x 10* cycles).

If the known quantities are life and R value, e.g., N = 10 4 cycles and
R = 0, the allowable stresses can be obtained by using the same Goodman
diagram. Enter the completed Goodman diagram at R = 0 and N = 10 4 cycles
tnd read the amplitude and mean stresses (in this case f 4 = f, = 13, 500 psi).

Only if the lug dimensions are changed, must a new Goodman diagram
be drawn.
page 14. 1.52

STRUCTURAL ANALYSI S MANUAL 4


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference 2

LUGS

A Method of checking lugs is presented on page 4-8 of


ANC-5 (Dec. 1942 Revision). This method may also be applied to
holes in sheet and other structural parts.

FiptlRE 8-b

FIGURE 8-o

FIGURE 8-d
Use the ANC-5 method mentionefl above for cases simulating
Figures 8-b, 8-c and 8d using X, X e and X s in the Allowable shear
strength formula (Ps = 2XtF s )

nana 1 4 I 5*^

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

qTRHCTURAI ANALYS E MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1.3 Reference 24-

KNUCKLE OR CLEVIS TYPE JOINTS - ROD ENDS

b
d

°1
0 o

On
Ei

ty

I mar daanaaar of buying, in.


Omr daa n a u a of buying, in.
Wtttodiamw ptftaintng to h* in.
Innardiarnatarof lug, in.
Outar diamatar of lug, m.
d/0,

Elatfe-placac boundarv diamatar, in.

Young's modulus of ti**ucrty of lug


ksi

Younf't modulus of •tamcity of buahing


kal

from cantor of nolo* m.


mm in lug, kai

Altaa w ttls yiaM shaar mm of Haj maw**,


kai

Altowabla yMd sows in tanaion of lug


maearial. kai

0^0, 01
Og/O, Di

Lug-buahina imar-*irfaca p iaaaira. ksi


Str a av na r d aniraj p a i a ji w ar
FofOffh intarfaranca in tarrm of diamatar
Poaaon't ratio i<L2)

Outar notation
Shaar yiaid
Tanoantial
Tanaiiaytaid

Arbitrary boundary notation


Porojmina to lug
Parain i raj to buahing

13-M
1. Anon: Stnxturm Afm*. NASA, (Saetton B2.)

Z Mofcom. M. A. and HoMiC F. N.: Ommtapmmnut


pto Anmym at AtftAod for Oiwmum nf if*
5owiftfi of Uiaa LaaOarf aW*poary or TrwmmwiY.
Product Erajwaarlng, Juna 1963

X Cosona. F. P.. Maleom. M. A., and HoWit. F.


M.: An-ry*. of Um ** *~ *"? *** °*
Ataminum or ttaaf A/toya. Product Enomaariraj,

May 1960

4. Anon: «aoj«lc kmmriam antf Sarnana for


Aaroapac* VWuc* Structural M1L-H0BK-SA.
Oapartmant of Dafanaa. 8 Fabruary 1968

5. Anon: Anaryaa o* Um "« ^ ^

Corneanaan » fan. 0ACO Raport S. M. 22913,


12 Saptarnbar, 1967

6, Anon: McOonnatt Aircraft Corp. flaport 339.

134 KNUCKLE OR CLfiVtt TYP€JOIKTS - ROO


ENOS
134.1 Ganaral

Knuckla joints ara uaad in aaroapaea


eonvol rods. Thay can bo raadllv dtaeonnac
- rapain. Tho anda of aach of tha
by upMCTina tha rod and machining to farm an
•yo on ona and and a da** <fork or yofcat on tha otftar
(Pigura 13-93).

Each fork of tf« ckw» aral tr» aya am formaofluoi a^


ara anatyzad by tha madiodadiscy--* * oaraoraoh 13-*
as iliaua— I in following pi

eYi»

\ eg

_j_
H U

i»aj. Ki

page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Necked Lugs — Rod Ends

13-5.2 Necfcad Luff - Rod Ends

Sharply necfcad rod ende differ from kip previously


rlisru— d. The rim rnatariei between the pin and outar
ajrfaca if usually thinner and mora ajacoptible to
in-ptane banding {Figure 1344). (Rafaranea 3)

Sharply nacfcad rod ends, such at shown in Figure 13-06


(A) tftoutd ate ba checked for banding at lha juncture
of traj shank and rim; thit juncture is designated tamori
3 by the following procedure. All angles art in degree s .

a. Compute I and A for lection 1, Fiount 13-95A

b. Compute far K9O + 0/1BO*]


c Compute K*(LI)/(Ar*)

d. Enter graoh (Figure 13-96) with K and fl, than find a


and 7 where:

c Computa pure hoop tension at section 2. (B). Figure


13-96.

T, -P/(2co*al
f. Compute toads at isction 3, (B) Figure 13-95.

T, - T 3 co*7
S, ■ T 5 tin 7
M, -T a r(1-cos7)

Th« procedure hai been derived theoretically. ssaumevj


a rigid pin and aajmtng that the increase in length
around the rim is given by • tension toad T 5 acting upon
a member of length L_ Within the
proeadura gwes results in ctaea
example, in checking stresses resulting from fatigue)
loading egeinac fatigue allowables.

INTERNAL THREAD MUl P*


TMREAO

Tuat

TRANSITION PI ECS

critical section'

ASSUME 1.5 0

Kpwa 13-S4. fta*

IN MNDINO
fif* mtm Am**tmti»n

UMEaSURSO

CENTROlD OF SECTION

13-eS. taadi m Hmkmt R«a In*

page l.5"Q,

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNA MICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

0.002

a (so* aooi a 01
aaa a 04 aot

At uftknra toad, th« pfocaoura can ttffl ba uart. but


lba<

Th« proeadura tftould ba uaad in conjunction with tha


fottowing tniaracbon aquation:

MS •

;- 1

In addition to an v^yaa at taction 3. K tha minimun*


Mrion oftharina>laaithanlhaan»of «cbon 3. tha
rnMnum action *ouU ba chaekad for pun
traaj with *a appliad hoop tanak
Tj m obtainad from aoap a in tf»

13-SJ
1. A*, Jo-W Mfri. M. Korttut Machint Daaian. 2B
Sapt 1M1.

2. gffwcw* 0a*p> 0' Knuckto Jomu, S. Warran K*V*.


0aoanNawi;1lMav1960

1 Structural *t*ym of Cotml *oofc e . M. Hobttt.


Lockhaad Aircraft Co^ Product Enginaann». Oct
1982.

• page 1*M.^~7

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNA MICS/CON VA IR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference £

Data Source, Section 1.3 Reference 2


JOINTS

When bolted or riveted joints are loaded as indicated in figure 8A, the
patterns may be analyzed as indicated in the following two cases:
FIGURE 34

® is the center-of-gravity (C.G.) of the rivet pattern.

P% (RESULTANT RIVET LOAD)


PM i (MOMENT LOAD ON RIVET *1)
PDf (DIRECT LOAD ON RIVET 01) p

Case#1:

Where rivets are of the same size and critical in either


bearing or shear:

p^- moment load on rivet #1


-(MXd^/Id 2

A
Where: M - the moment of external loads about the
C.G. of the rivet pattern - PX
d - distance of rivet from C.G. of the rivet
pattern

page 1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

The center of gravity of the rivet pattern Is determined


by Inspection for a simple rivet pattern. Where the
pattern is to complex to determine the C. G. by Inspection,
the C. G. location may be determined by summing up
moments about reference axes:

c y

Where X & Y = the distance of the rivet from the

reference axes
n s number of rivets in the pattern

The direct rivet load for this case Is determined by


dividing the load "P" by the number of rivets In the
pattern

P d has the same direction as P

P R = the resultant rivet load and is equal to the vector


sum ofP m + P d obtained as indicated for rivet

#1 in Figure 8A

page K.2.2

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Case #2: Where rivets have different allowables:

P m1 . rivet moment load

-(K-, XMX d-,)/XKd 2


Where: K « the allowable rivet load critical in either shear

or bearing

d * distance of rivet from the C.G. of pattern

The center of gravity of the rivet pattern is determined by summing up


moments about reference axes as indicated below:

x - (2Ky)/IK
y - (XKx)/IK

The direct rivet load for this case is determined the the following
manner:

P d1 - (P K)/IK

Where: P d has the same direction as P in figure 8A

P r - the resultant rivet load which is the vector sum


of P^ and P m , as indicated in figure 8A

Limitations:

The formula presented in Case #1 and #2 assume that the rivet pattern
does not deform under load and that each rivet or bolt of the pattern has
the same approximate fit.

Large error is probable when either or both joined members display


appreciable deformation within the region of the joint, (such as in joints
spread over a large area).
page 14.2.3

c p-puCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 2 Reference &

SUBJECT: Betun in a Socket

1 Deperdin^ upon tho fit of the boaa in the socket tad the relative rigidity
* of the bean aid the socket, several cases of tearing load distribution
arise as illustrated in the figures below.

EQUAL Fl£XIB:Lirf RELATIVELY RIGID SUPPORT POSITIVE CLEARANCE


CLOSE FIT CLOSE FIT PRACTICAL FIT

w
7

f THEORETICAL
01 STRI SUTIOM

L' ESTIMATED

DISTR1BU1 ICM

L9*PM6

ESTIMATED
'/ OlSTRjauTlOK
SHEA R

MOWENT

FIG, 1

FIG. 2

FIG. 3

page \A. 3- /

I*

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

The ntT.inun bearing load per inch corresponding to the load distribution
of Fie* 1 Gn4 solved for graphically in rigs. 5 end 6 tiy be used for
other conditions su;h as those shovm in Fig. 2 and Fig. Z, since undor
the latter conditions the loading peaks are rounded off, as indicated by
the dotted linr-s, due to loeel plastic def orations. Eence boaring
loads conforming with tha distribution of Fig. 1 should be usod in
practically every cass.

The maximum Eicr.ent obtained from the load distribution of Fig. 1 (see
Figs. 5 and 6 at end of me^o) tends to be conservative for the load
distribution of Figs. 2 and 3 (Ref . 1). The r-ar-imicu shear corresponding
to the load distribution of Fig. 1 tends to be conservative for the
distribution of Fig. 3 (Raf. l).

page I l. t z 2.

STRUCTURAL ANA! Y gfS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMtCS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVtStON

2« Raiaod bazrin* »urfr.c:-3 on pins, cuoh cc a pistcu in fc ehock (strut, chould


bo uacd in preference to c. unifcsvi oylirdriail cectioa for the follo.rins
roacouc 1
l. Eae« of Rcc^.*;ly.

b. Ths distritvlio- of ccrsizt led io cccurr.tily la:c:ni einoo it ic trJctn


out te & oouplo lo=.d on the bearing Eitrfo-ces.

Tho diL^ncion "w" io determined by the peeking requirement* for


oylindor leafccgo or bearing tree.

page /^.£-3

fS

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAJR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

FIGURE 5
TABLE I. Uia with Fig. 5 when L§!U <1

To Obtain
w 1

w 2

^max

M max

Compute

K 1 M
L 2 "

\J

K m M
THE VALUES OF S AND M max GIVEN BY THE CURVES AND TABLES OF FIGS. 5
AND 6 ARE INTERNAL MAXIMA. THE EXTERNAL MAXIMA ARE M AND S. IF A K
VALUE IS NOT SHOWN. THE CORRESPONDING INTERNAL MAXIMUM DOES NOT EXIST.

page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

*m
2.0

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

.8
.6

0
-.2
-.4
-.6
-.8
-1.0
-1.2

»TT

: r

i.

FIGURE 6

...i::.
-.:v.r:
m

••H:i

Hi

10
9
8

1
0

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

-6

-,8 -t6 -.4 -v2

.2

.4

8 1.0
M

SL

TABLE It. USE WITH FIG. 6 WHEN

M
SL

<1

TO OBTAIN

w 1

w 2

a
^max

M max

COMPUTE

K jS
L

K2$
L

page /4. a. 5

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference 2.4

12.41 rr?xss5s zvz to fbzss fit bvshins?*

Pressure between a lug and bushing assembly having negative clearance can be
determined from consideration of the radial displacements. After assembly, the
increase in inner radius of the ring (lug) plus the decrease in outer radius of
the bushing equals the difference between tne radii of the bushing and ring before
assembly. ^
6 " Ving " Pushing

& - Difference between outer radius of bushing and inner radius of the ring.
u - Radial displacement, positive away from the axis of ring or bushing.
Radial displacement at the inner surface of a ring subjected to internal pres-

Radial displacement at the outer surface of a bushing subjected to external

A - Inner radius of bushing D - Inner radius of ring (lug)

B - Outer radius of bushing £ - Modulus of elasticity

C - Outer radius of ring (lug) v - Foisson ! s ratio

Substitute equations (2) and (3) into equation (1) ar.d solve for p;

^ng
Kaximun radial ar.rt tangential stresses fcr a rinj subjected to interril
pressure occur at the inner surface of the ring (lug).

Positive si*rn indicates tension. The iraxiirjm shear stress at this point is

Maximum radial stress for a bushing -subjected to external pressure occurs


at the outer surface of the bushing.

t r ■ -P

KaxJjwm tangential stress for a bushing subjected to external pressure occurs


at the inner surface of the bushing.

f - 2PB 2 '
* " B2-A2

* Timoshenko, Strength of Materials, 7olune 2, 19U1, Page 2M-.

page /

STRUCTURAL ANALYS TS MANUAL •


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

The allowable press fit icrcsi may he based oa:


(I, Stress Corrosion. The maximum allowable prtai fit stress in
nuiP^jufw «n Q y» should not exceed 8000 p*i. Tor all iTumicu.-r.
alloys th« maximum press at stress should not exceed 0 -W f ^

r2, Static Fatigue . Static fatigue iJ the brittle iracture of metal*


under sustained loading, and in steel may result from several
different phenomena, the moat familiar of which ia hycrogts
embrittiement. Steel parts heat treated above 200 ksi. which
by nature of their function or other considerations are exposed
to hydrogen embrittiement. should be designed to an allowable
press fit stress of 257« F„.

(3) Ultimate Strength . Ultimate strength cannot be exceeded, bu: is


not usually critical in a press fit application.

(4) Fatigue life . The hoop tension stresses resulting from the press
fit of a bushing ia a lug will reduce the *trmst range for oscillating
loads, thereby improving fatigue life.

The presence of hard brittle coatings in holes that contain a press fit
bushing or bearing can cause premature failure by cracking of the coating
or by high press fit stresses caused by build-up of coating. Therefore,
Hardcoat or HA£ coalings should not be used is holes that will subsequently
contain a press fit bushing or bearing.

Reference APPbL-TK- « -44 AKL-FoECE *A*UOfti_

page
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMlCS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference 3

10

12 3 4

C/B

figure 6.40 • tangential stresses for pressed steel bushings in


aluminum rings

page l^^.'S

STRUCTURAL ANAI YSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

c
FICTRZ 6.41 TANGENTIAL STRESSES FOR. PRESSED
HA57S BUSHINGS

page \4>AA

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

OUTSIDE RADIUS OF RING (R)


DLA. OF HOLE IV RING

FIGURE 6.42 MAXIMUM INTERFERENCE FITS OF STEEL


BUSHINGS IN MAGNESIUM ALLOY RINGS

/*1

page I4-A5
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1.3 Reference &

SUBJECT: Flange Bending Strength of Angles

UTTRODUCTION

When a tension load is applied normal to the outstanding leg of en angle,


tension, bending, and shear stresses occur- If the outstanding leg is
not rigidlv supported, the allowable load is usually limited by consider-
ations of permissible deflection and permanent set- If the attachment
points through which the load is transmitted to the angle are not spaced
sufficiently close, the full strength of the angle is not developed since
local deformation at the attachment points becomes the limiting factor.

This Stress JSsbd presents design considerations and allowable loads for
aluminum alloy extruded and formed sheet metal angles subjected to flange
bending loads.

I. DESIGN COIBIDSRATIONS

A. In Vital tension Joints wherein part of the structure is con-


tinuous across the Joint and a part discontinuous, angles loaded
noriLEl to the outstanding legs shall not be used to Join the
discontinuous members. *

B. Generous corner fillets on extruded angles and minimum bend radii


on formed sheet metal angles shall be used in all cases where
applied loads tend to "open" or "close" the angle.

C. For r^TmiTTi strength, the bolt or rivet head should be adjacent


to the point of tangency of the fillet or bend radius.

D. High local stresses and large deflections in angle Joints pro-


hibit their uce in applications subject to repeated or alternat-
ing loads.

H. METHODS 0? ATTACHMENT

Three (3). methods of attachment in their order of preference are


illustrated below.

page /

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

IX. METHODS OF AH7EACHMENT (Contd. )


A. Bolts
TT~TT

Preferable to "B" or "C

B. Rivets - Manufactured
Heeds Inside Angle

Preferable to "C

C* Rivets - Formed
Heads Inside
Angle

Least Preferable

IH. AUiOWA3I£S

A. Single Angles
1. Figures 1 and 2 give the ultimate allowable loads for various gases °f
2021-T3 alclad formed sheet metal and 202^1-, extruded ancles respectively.

2. Ultimate allowable loada for "VttM p"" alloy angles other than 202 1 ^-T^
extrusion and 2024-T3 alclad formed sheet metal may be derived from the
values obtained from Figures I and 2 by direct proportionality vith the
transverse yield strengths*

i.e.

(allowable)

P (fram figures) x

vhere:

K - ^2,000 for extruded an^le

m 1*0,000 for formed sheet metal angle


B. Double Angles and Tees

1. When tvo (2) angles are used back to back and loaded symmetric ally in both
outstanding flanges, the allowables obtained from Figures 1 and 2 may be
multiplied by two and one-half (2.5).

3/

page I4.S.2

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

IH. ALLOWABLES (Contd. )

B. Double Ancrles and Tees (Contd. )

2. When tees axe loaded symmetrically in "both outstanding flanges,


the allowables obtained from Figure 2 may be multiplied by
three (3).
p

ioj

C« Loads on Connectors
When heavy angles are used as a tension Joint, the tension load on
the connector shall be calculated as follows ;

Load on Connector ■ P x

a + b

If the matins surfaces undergo excessive separation, bending of the


bolt may become & critical factor.

page /4.5\-3

STRUCTURAL ANALYS IS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
V, DEFLECT I OT?

The following formula will yield conservative values of deflection at the


connectors:

. k Pc 3
Et 3

page 14.5.4

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAJR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

700

(in.)
.10O

FIGUHS 1

ULTIMATE ALLOWABLE LOAD FOR


202U-T3 CLAD SHEET METAL ANGLES

600

500

1 m^m^m

koo

.033

L
II I 1!

) 1

:4—

MM

;.r_~.!:
NOTES:

(1) Attachment point


spacing:

(a) ^l in., "P" is lbs.


per Inch of angle.

(b) >l in., "P" is lb*,


per attachment point

(2) For aluminum alloy


engles other than 202U-T3
clad, cultiply "P" by:

7,

ty T

1*0,000

(3) When tvo angles are


placed back to beck,
multiply "P" by 2.5
(U) The^ ultimate allowable
load,'P^ is defined as 1.5
times the load at 0.005
inch permanent set.

m.

page 1-4.5.5

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

FIGUK£ 2
ULTIMATE ALLOWABLE LOAD FOR

202U-TU extruded jczls

NOTES:

(1) Attachment point


spacing:

(a) < 1 in., "P" is


lbs. per inch of
angle

(b) >1 in., "P" is


lbs per attachment
point

(2) For aluminum alloy


angles oth^r than
202k~Tk extrusion
multiply "P" by:

^tyr

' U2,6o6

(3) When tvo angles


exi placed back to
back, crjltiply V oy
2.5

(h) Toy symmetric ally


loaded tses, multiply
'P" by 3.0

(5) The ultimate


allowable load/P', is
defined as 1.5 times
the load at 0.005 inch
permanent set.
m

0.8 1*2 1-6

Eccentricity, c (ins«)

page 1 4.^.6

I*?

CO

CO

Dl.83.02 - STEEL BOLT STRENGTH DATA - SINGLE SHEAR, TENSION 1 BENDING MOMENT
ALLOWABLES (Lb.)
o

61

BOLT NUMBER

7
1

10

11

14

14

II

70

77

74
FULL DIAMETER

.1900

TWO

JIB

.3750

.43/5

.4000

.4474

iftO

7400

.1740
1.000

1.1740

1 240

1.1740

1.4000

ROOT DIAMETER
(Fine THREAD)

.MM

.70*

.7541
.3709

.1774

.4174

.4903

.4470

KM

.7077

.90J?

1.01(7

1 1417

1 74*7
1.391'

l»HT

174.000 HT ATTACHMENTS
EXAMPLE: AN 1 70. 71-*
407. 409; HAS 771-777

ruiL DlA. SHEAR

FULL DlA. *M

ROOT OlA. TENSION |7»

u*

131

1.154

3.112
311
4.1/0

%.m

114
(.710

l,7M

i.ou
it.no

11.770
I.M4
11.110

14.730
7.410
11.900

11,440
1,411
11,990

71.110
4.914
30.440

13.130
0.490
44.400
44.100
13,404
(0.900

41,900
70,171
79.100

74.(00
70.444
107,700

97.000

».no

irt.joo

111,400
159,000

137.400
191.000

1(0 HT
AIL IM.000NT ATTACHMENTS
ALL K0.Q00HT ATTACHMENTS
ALL KOHt ATTACHMENTS 01
ALL KOHT ATTACHMENTS (11

FULL DtA. SHEAR


FULL DtA. B.M.
ROOT MA. TENSION (31
ROOT DlA. TENSION I?)

1.(94
III
7.097

1.744

I,tt0
411

V3«e

4.170

7.790
ou

1.490
S.lll
10,490
1.304

I3.I.M
11.300

14.740

7.707
17.710

u.no

10.1 40
1,711
74.190
10.900

73,110
4,411

10.700
11.990

79,140
0,471
a.oto

30.440

47.000
11.094
47,000
44.400

47.100
17.111
77.900
(0.900

M.tOO
74.799
101,300
79.100

94.400
37,444
111.400
107.100

lion

4I.M
1(5.(00
171.100

141.100
(0.»l

703.(00
159.000

1(7,901
01.7(2

744.400
191.000

110 HT

1IO.0OONT ATTACHMENTS
CKTINNAL IRENCHIMG BOLTS
(NAS (74-4441

FULL DlA. SHEAR

FULL DlA. BM

ROOT DlA. TENSION (31

1.0(1
$.300
4*1
1.010

1.710
Ml
9.U0

11.930
I.44S
14,030

14.7*0
1.441
70,010

71.710
3.441
77.110

31.110
4.770
14.440

13,110
7.IM
41.000

47.700
17.171
04.100

(4.900
I9.S47
17,700

14,000
79.370
114.000

107.400
41.747
147.900

137.400
47.701
IK, TOO

1(0.400
71.741
779.000
190.000
90.914

770.700

NOTES: (I) EiMOta: MS 70004 -MS 70074; NAS331-140. 413-490. 1101-1120,


1703-1707. 1103-1170. 1403-1401. 1401-1410, 4(4.

(2) Rffet* tefl»M iIImmMm to 24% 4 titwIiM nh*s Km ««f


AN 170 ■ NAS 1021 ALUMINUM Mb.
R«fac« iMiiM MkMabMit W40%* UwUM nihil i*e* «w|
AN 320 m NAS 1072 STEEL wll « tOW ALUMINUM Mill
vtiwi mmmI OimkIm >%.

(I) T«il« rtmt vOm mht MH. HF1 « NMS77 M».

CO

w
o
c
Reference: 0-2

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMlCS/CONVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference <o

SUBJECT* TENS! 02 TYPE FITTINGS

INTRODUCTION

This memo contains methods of analysis applicable to certain common types


of tension fittings. The methods have a rational basis and give loads
agreeing well -with available test data*

GENERAL

Pertinent fitting and eactin* factors shall al-rays be used in the analysis.
If in any application both a fitting and a casting factor are applicable,
they shall not be multiplied, but only tho lexgor shall be used.

In addition to the factors above, the analysis shall show a minimum mar£in
of safety of 0.20. This shall be demonstrated for both yield and ultimto
strength. This requiromont may bo relaxed upon the approval of tho Projoct
Structures Engineer.

Bolts highly loaded in tension should be assonblod with a washer under both
the head and nut,

Eooentrioities in fitting attachment should be kopt to a minimum. Unavoid-


able eocontrioities shall be considered in the analysis.

Fitting attachment edge distances ahull conform to design handbook require-


ments to prevont premature tension failures in tho fitting wall.

The methods of analysis of tension fittings in this r.amo are shown on en


ultimate basis. For yield arjalyai/s, tho stur.a procedure is followed except
that yield loada, momanta and multiplying factors are substituted for tho
ultimate values wherovar necessary.

page /-? .7 . l

CTRtmTURAL AMA|V^rq MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

I. Bathtub Fitting

Vail
Thickness

Bolt Hole

Radius

(Nominal)

Applied Load, P

A.. Wall Analysis

1. Tension in w all

Effective
Bearing Area

r 0 - Bolt Head Radius


Fig. 1

a* Determine the ™™ tension stress, ftu^* tna fitting **11


due to the ultimate load, p^, from

where, A^ * gross area ■ (R D 2 - S^ 2 )

b. Obtain the basio tension efficiency, , of the -wall frcm


Stress Uamo Ho. 56, considering the wall as one sheet in a
tension Joint between sheets*

e« Determine the wall tension stress ratio from

^BU

y[ F tu

where ^ is an additional (multiplying) factor of safety, if


any; otherwise use jgm ■ 1

2. Bending in Wall

a. Compute the centroid and I about the eentroidal aada for one-
half of a hollow cylinder, respeetirely, byi

page / 4 . 7 • 2

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

I. Bathtub fitting (Cont'd)


Xm TTall analysla (Cont'd)

t« Bending In TTall (Cont'd)


a, (Cont'd)

e . Bo 2 -*- RqRi+ Ri 2

I . .10 9 8(H 0 < - El <) - -^(H^^-H,)

b« Do to mine the applied ultimate bending moment, &u, from


»u » Pu (° " d )

o* Obtain the allotrablo bending etreae, Fbu»from S.M. 63, asstn-


ing k o 1#70 end calculate the ailoTOblo bending momant froa

Mtt . Pbu-J-
c

d* Determine the vail bending ratio fron


"u

3. Interaction » Bending and Tonalon

Obtain the ultimate margin of safoty ucing the interaction equation


jt^ + R^ 11 • i t aaeuning a aolid round section for the determination oi
n. (See paragraph* TIII-D to VIIl-« of S.U.63.)

B« End Pad Analyst o

1* Bonding

r 4 a-d t e
a* Computer ™» ^o~* CLa ^~^

b« Obtain ti frea Fig. 6.


o* Obtain K 2 from Fig* 7.

d. Determine the bending atrosa, f DU0 » on ••« tioa k ~ L of n S» 1


from

Pu

f bu, ■ *1 K 2

page M- 7-3
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Bathtub Fitting (Cont'd)


j, Bad Pad Analyila (Cont'd)
1. Banding (Cont'd)

«. Obtain the allowable banding street, Pbu# ft»»u»ing ft rectangular

•action (k = 1.5). from SECT. VI.O


f. The nargin of safety for bending on section X^L of Fig- 1 ie gi™»

bu

3nm ^bu^

- 1

t # Shoar of End Pad

a. Determine shear stress, f 8U6 » on and pud by


f = *
BU e 2TTr 0 t e

b. Obtain allowable shear stress, F BU .

o. Tha margin of safoty for shoar is given by

M.S. tt = -rfaH l

Jam £ au«

. Channel Type Fittings

€ Baa*

Wall Wall
Section A-A

Fig. 2

page
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

II. Channel Typo Fittings (Cont'd)


A. Wall Analysis

1. Tension in the wall may be analyzed by the method aa shown in amo-


tion I -A with tha ezoaption that A g is defined as,

H m **** + bt b

and if S s *w th * n »

Aj S tw(2a + b)

2. Bending in T7all

a* Compute o for section A -A of rig. 2 by,

*b 2 / M
o b -g-(b + (a + tp)

Zat^-r bt b
and if t b = t, then,

„ -?(b aCa^t,,)
O ■ ■ — i- — ■ ■- - —

2a -r b

b. Determine the applied ultimate banding moment, m^, from


■u ■ Pu (d • o)

o« Determine the allowable bending moment, Uu, of an unsyanaetrioal


soot ion per pa. \~J. 2.-3

d* Determine the wall bending ratio from


- ■ ^mu

S* Interaction - Bending and Tonal on

Obtain the ultimate margin of safety using the interaction equation

R^n a 1 for the taluoa of Rt^ and Rb^ ft s determined in par. A-l
and A-2-d aboTe. (See pq . H-i+.l, )

B* End Pad Analysis

1. Bending

ri , b
a* Compute a »■ and -j— •

b. Obtain K3 from Fig* 8*

page M."7-5

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
II, Channel Type Fittings (Cont'd)
B. End Pad Analysis (Cont'd)
!♦ Bending (Cont'd)

o. Determine the bending stress, fbu,* « aeotion B-B of rig. 2


from

d. Obtain the alloTmble ^bending stress, Fb u , aaawaing a reot«

angular aoetlon (3c ■ 1*5), fron £^CTt\ \~l.O

• • The margin of safety for bending on aeotion B-B of Fig. 2 ie


given by

* u tmx fbii*

2. Shear of End Pad

Cheek shear of end pad aa shovn In aeotion I-B-2.


III. Angle Type Fittings

Fig. 3
. B

Wall

Actual Fitting
yalent Fitting

page U

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

III. Ancle Type Pitting (Cont'd)

AajcXw type fittings uy be annlyied *■ bathtub fitting! by the methods of


«c*tion I proridod that the ratio. i/B, *■ defined in Fig. S i. not larger
than 2. The effectiTe Talues or a and d for the equi Talent bathtub fitting
used in the analysis are giren by

+ B
fr 2 )

a •
d ■ a

The seetion properties of the equiralent eeotion are obtained from.

* s ■ rat,
e. ■ .637a
I ■ «298a3t v

IT. * PI* typo Fittings

Section B-D

Fig* It

X. Tension In TTall
1. Detersdne th. maximum tension stress, ftu** ^ the fitting wall
due to the ultimate fitting load, Pu, froa

t - *°

where Xj Is the gross area of seotlon 3-B in Fig* 4,

Obtain the basie tension efficiency, 7? # of the wall froa «CX


considering the wall ae one sheet in < tension Joint between shDOte.

page M~7-7

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIB AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

•Vl m Type fittings (Cont'd )


X. Tension in Wall (Cont'd)

3, The margin of safety for temion in the ws.ll ii giroa by

8. Bnd P>d Bending


1. Determine the fixed end moment for a beam oontinuou* over three
supports aeeuming ell loads as oonoentrated.

1. JLesuae 6C* of the ebo-re ralues as end moment* end determine bolt
loadi (oonoentrated).

Analyte the end bolts for the oombinad loading (moment plu»
toneion) end the oenter bolt for direct tension.

To determine the bonding moment eurre, assume the oenter bolt lead
computed in (2) is uniformly dietributod e-ror the bolt hoed flat.

4« The eboT* step* are graphically reprooonted in Pig. 5.

6, Obtain the allowable *f bonding stress, Fbu. framS^. n.O, eesumins

a reotanguler eeotioa (k • 1.6) end oalouleto the allowable bending


moment from T

u« • Pbtt-4-

6* The margin of safety for bending 1* giroa by

lotet A ©hook of sexeral seotions may be nooessary to determine tho


critical seotion in tha end pad.

page H."7.3
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMiCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

XT. m Tt m Typa Fitting* (Cont'd)


fi. End Pad Bending (Cont'd)

§ if

I,

tRfl 'Be ~. ...

Flrtt Calculation •*& .


Cantor Bolt Load Asauaed ttatrlbuted

U 11 I

«4

A "B "C

Second Calculation
Assuming 50* Fixity

Mount BLa^raa

rig. 5

C* Shsar of End Pad


Chaek shsar of end pad as snotm In section I-D-2*

page 14-7*2

STRUCTURAL ANALYSI S MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

page J4."7*>o

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

page tf. 1*12

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
TABLE 2-L WELD STRESS FORMULAS

Data Source, ginmal dynamics I astronautics design manual

page 14.3- J

gTqnfvnjRAL an *' ysts manual

GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 14.9

WELD-ON BRACKETS

A SIMPLE ANALYSIS FOR A TYPICAL BRACKET WELDED TO A PRESSURIZED


PROPELLANT TANK IS SHOWN ON THE PAGES FOLLOWING.
page 14.9.1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 14.10

BONDED JOINTS

THIS SECTION WILL BE ADDED WHEN AVAILABLE

page \+.\QA

c fTPUCTURAt ANALYSIS MANUAL


CBNEBAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference 3

6.4.3 Attachment Flexibility


Th* flexibility of an attachment/sheet combination should bt: determined i-xpi-ri-
mentally U load-deflection curves for a particular f a> tene r/>hee t combination
axe available, the flexibility is the slope of the curve at the u.tlmati-d luad
level.

If load-deflection test data is not available for the exact fa.ua.r/^LL com-
bination, two methods can be used to determine a spring rat,.

6.4.3.1 Method I - Generalized Test Data

Some test data is available to develop generalized stiffness curvu. Figure h .1


shows a curve of t/D versus K for a single shear join; with a steel tanner.

DIA

1/R 1 3/161 XfU I 5/16 | 3/8 | 1/2 | 9/1&I 3/M _

ALUM
.163

.203

.244

.325

.406

.437

.56 3

.650 1.732

.813

STEEL

3.62
4.53

5.44

7.25

9.06

10.9

12.6

14.5

15.5

18.1

TITAN

1.93
2.42 12.90

3.87

4.83

5.31

6.72

7.71

a. 27

9.6 5

OTHER

(Eol

■her/EsteeDxSRateel J
SHEET
JOINT

SPRING RATE - K x SR

SPRING RATE - l/<l/SRu + 1/SR1)

TABLE 6.9 - BASIC SPRINC RATES

1. Calculate t/D for upper sheet

2. Calculate t/D for lower sheet

3. From Figure 6.27 determine K for upper sheet

4. From Figure 6.27 determine K for lower sheet

page K. / /. )

STRUCTURAL A NALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

1.6
i.fc
1.2
1.0
K .8

.4
.2

R4

-U.

TT

NOTE:
CURVE FOR STEEL ATTACHMENTS
IN STANDARD HOLES* CORRECT
FOR OTHER MATERIALS AND
HOLES AS FOLLOWS:

ALUMINUM - .59K
TITANIUM - .72K
CLOSE HOLES - 1.33K
COUNTER SUNK - ,67K

M M M M I 1 1 I htttt

.4

.5

t/D

.9 1.0

FIGURE 6.27 - EFFECTIVE SPRING RATES FOR STEEL


PINS IN SINGLE SHEAR
ITT

page 14. I J. 2

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

5 If the fastener is steel and in a hole drilled co normal tolerance


proceed to step 6. Modify the K. factors of step A by
the following factors

Aluminum Fastener, K X .5 9
Titanium Fastener, K x .72
Close Tolerance Hole, K x 1.33
Countersunk Hole, (C x .67

Examp 1 e :

Titanium fastener in close tolerance hole.

From step 4: K

Correct K: .72 x 1. 33 X K
6. Determine SR from Table 6. 9 . Calculate spring race for each sheet "by

k - K x SR
n n

where

k fl ■ spring race of sheet

K - constant from step 4 or 5


n

SR - value from Table 6.9

and

7. Calculate joint spring rate

K Joint l/k u + l/\


6.4.3.2 Mechod II - Bearing Criteria

If load deflection data is not available, the limit bearing load criteria of
Reference 1 may be used to obtain an estimate of the attachment-hole flexibili
Tnese criteria result in an overestimate of the attachment-hole flexibility an
an underestimate of the maximum attachment load at load levels below yield.

As an exampla of the way the criteria of MIL-KDBK-5B (Reference 1) may be used


to determine the attachment-hole flexibility factor, consider a Joint in which
the bolt diameter is 0.25 inch, the upper sheet is 0.125 inch titanium and the
lower sheet is 0.25 inch aluminum. Assuming that the aluminum is 2024-T6 and
the titanium is 6 A1-4V, the respective bearing yield stress allowables from
Reference 1 are 78,000 psi and 198,000 psi. The yield loads are then calculated
to be

P - 78, 000(. 250)0250) - 4875 lbs

al

P - 198,000(.125)(.250) - 62,000 lbs

ti tariium

page \4- \ f-3

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

The average load is then

P * (6200 + 4875)/2 - 5590 lbs.


avg

The flexibility is calculated for a deformation of 2 percent of the hole diameter


per Section 1 .3 Reference 26.

f * A/P * (.02){. 250)/5590^900(10" 9 )in./lb


avg avg

page K./K"?

crrRUCTURAI ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

4.1 FASTENER ELASTIC STIFfTESS EQUATION

Reference: ASTM STP 486 and Swift, T. , AIAA San Diego. Section
1979 Education Lecture Series, 14 March 1979

S * Fastener Displacement
D = Fastener Diameter
P « Lead

E « Plate Modulus
Plate thickness

Fastener Material

Aluminum Titanium Steel

5.000
0.80

3.947
0.82

1.666
0.86

The Titanium fastener values were interpolated based on Young's Modulii.


Hie equation was rearranged with sane jesses, to give

K i
1.0

A . rt 1 + 1— )

— E t E t

ED 11 2 2

1 1
where E 1 - 0.5/( + )

K. ■ Fastener Spring Rate

page \A * H - 5*

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference £>


SUBJECT* Preloaded Bolts and Screws

Introduction

This Hemo oontains:

(1) Hat hod a for computing the loads in bolts and screws aubjeoted
to ocmbined preload and, applied tension loads,

(2) Ifathods for computing the optiaum preload for a repeated


applied load,

(3) Uethods for computing the wrench torque required to produce


e. glTon preload » and

(4) Restrictions on preloaded bolts and screws*

la the body of this Mono, reference is usually made to bolts, but the infonr-ttica
Is equally applicable to screws*

page 'I

STRUCTURAL AMA|Vqi^ MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

II. strength Rcgulrrroont. f or F'rolcftdod Bolts

rn. applied ultimate tenaioa lor.d ea th. bolt, i" 01 * 1 ^ th. .ff«t. of
Reload, .toll not e*oc«d the ultimate ten.lon «tr« DE th of th, bolt.

The applied yield tension load on x=h, bolt. includes the effect, of

, 1 ll lot r-oduce a etrsss, b«cd on the thread root area,


^•^"hTjlSld or tta bolt material. Thrc.d root area,

may be obtained fron Tablo I.

When the fitting faocs .re in contact, shear 1 ^et^e'^


only the ^extermvl tension load in the analysis of the boxt. When the
fitting f aoea are not in contact, shear leads .hall oe combined vith the
total tension loadTn" the bolt (raf- Fig. 2 and 3;.

III. Total Load In Solt

The total lend In a bolt that is eubjected to both an initial tension


preload and an external load is giv«n by the l*r 6 or of i

Where

Pb ' ? bi * *
C
I

*b E b

P b - W

Pb
Pbi

la

Ab

D
Total load in ^©lt, lba.
Preload in bolt due to tightening, lba.
Applied (external) tenaion lead, lba.
(See Fig. 1).

Distance betneem bolt head and nut, in.


Young's modulus for bolt, poi.

Young"* modulus? for material in oompreeaion, pei.

Shank area of holt, aq. in.

Area of material in compression, aq. in.

TT (B a -D*), approximately, where


Diatanoe between flata of hex hoad or diameter of
round head bolta, in*
Diameter of bolt shank, in.

page H. \2-£

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
A. B.
Fig. 1*

The dlstanoa C is tLeaaurcd between the ceuterlines of the walli adjacent


to the area Aq« Thus* in Pig. 1 A, C/L • «6«

The relationship bett?e?n the applied load, the inititl prelocd, and the
total holt lend ia therm is Fig* 2.

P^, ■ Separation of
Hating Surfaces

Total Dolt Load


with Preload

Ho Preload

Applied- Tension Load W

PlS* 2*
page

STRUCTURAL ANALYS IS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Prel oaded Bolt* uzAer Repeated loading

The optimum preload for repeated loading la obtained when the matins
surfaces are just on the point of separating under the applied lotdi
that it, the point Pb «• W in Fig. 2 (refs. 2 and S). Thle will ooour
when the ratio of bolt preload ?bi to applied load IT it given b/t

Pbi
W

i - i

Both lncreaeins and decreasing the preload from this value vlll ronult in
a deoreaied number of loading cycles to produon fatigu* failure, ?ba
deorease if leas for preloads above thie vUue than for preload* corres-
pondingly below this vnlue.

Value* of PfaiA for standard bolts and ior#wB in oosnon wateriala are
given in Fig* 6*

T. TTrenea Tor oue for a Clv*n Preload

The averag e wrcnoh torque appliod to the nut to produoe a specified


preload or strena on the roct aroa ie given by

ffhere

•T * Wrench Torque ^ in* *lb»

B - TTronoh torque ratio (froa Table II).

Pbi • Preload in bolt due to tightening, lbo.

JL r » Root area of bolt, tq. in. (See Table I).

BooauM of the variation of friotional reslatanoe, the torque required on


indiviiv-kl nuta to produce a given preload may vary by * 30^ for dry nut»
and by * 15% for lubrioated nuts*

TX* Special Conalderatlone

X* Alwlntn and Magnesium Flttlnei

The additive affect of the Initial preload to the applied load !•


largest when the material under compression baa a low value of 2*
as compared to the E of the bolt material. Special attention should
therefore be given to steel bolts through aluminum or magnoaiua
fittings.

page \**iz.4

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

VI* Spocial Conslderr.tlona (Continued)

B« l!a.tln% Si~rfz.C9S Hot lr. Contact* _

THien the eatins «urf*oos of the fitting are not la oentr.ot, the
Initial pr'-'Ioid and the applied tenuica lead niy aid directly.
A typioal structure with a gr.p bst;/oori matins aurface« ia
llluotra-tcd ia Fig. 3, and a oc.rrcspondins holt leading is
eheva in Fig, 4» The corresponding bolt leading when tas rating
Buri'acea are in contact ie aho'.m in Fig. 2«

Applied Load W
Fig. 4

page

STRUCTURAL ANALY SIS^ MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAWCS/CONVAIR AND SPACESYSTEMS DIVISION

SA3IZ I

SIAIOJAHD ST2SL BOIZT FSELQADS

Bolt
Size

Root Arsa

Lbs. (2)

Sq.In. (1)
Tension Nut

Shear Rut

10-32

1/^-23

5/16-2V

.01807^
.03339^
.053666

720
1,3*^3
2,150

430

OOO

1,290

3/8-2*
7/16-20

1/2-20

.082397
.15116

3,300
4,450
6,050

1 ofin

2,670
3,630

• 9/16-1S

5/e-i3

3/4-16

.19190
.2^9
.35605

7,680
9,7^0
14,200

4,600
5,84o
8,520

7/8-1U

1-lU

1-12

•46695
.65332

.63307

19,500
26,200
25,300

11,700
15,700
15,200

1-1/8-02
l-lA-12

.82162
1.0347

32,500
41,400

19,700
24,300

hOTS; (1) Based on KH-S-7742 thread

<o\ f40,CC0 x Root Area - Tension nut

^i" 124,000 x Hoot Area - Shaar cat.

Tigure 5» Tallies of opticma preload ratio P^^/W for standard


steel bolts ami screws In camon materials.

page

TABLE II
WRENCH TORQUE RATIOS R FOR STEEL BOLTS

Thread
Site

Bolt and Hut 9 * 9

Bolt and Tapped Plato 5 *"* (Set Screw)

Rut Turning
On Stael
Fitting 6

Hut Turning
On Aluminum
Fitting 5

Flat-Snded Bolt
Turning on
St*el Plato

Round-Ended Bolt
Turning on
Steel Plata
Dry

Imbricated

Dry

Lubricated

Dry

Lubriontad

Dry

Lubrioatad

10-32
1/4-23
5/! 6-24

.ooioae
,00246

•00509

.000767

.00167

.0035.0

•000065
.001966
•00406

.000546

.00110

.00243

.0OOG3?

.00153

•00305

.000313
•000757
,00151

.000470
.001113
,00224

.000149
.003333
,000359

5/3-24

7/16-20

l/2-20

.00823

.0127

.0203

.00533
.00306
.01174

.00375
.01039
.0164.3

.00379
.00575
.C091 5

.OOSSB
.00390
,013?6

.C0373
.00-* 29

,00555

. 00-00
.006-12
.00993

.001125
,00179

.00?.(52

E/lS-iO
s/e-ia

.0294
.0421
.0713

.0191
,02c<2
.0453

.0233
.0340
• 0579

,012-i
.0192
.0313

.0197
,027C
.0189

.00 31 7
• 01 SO

• OI-UH
.0K-82
.G?-'8

. C0374
.00505
.00836

7/8-14

1-14

1-1/6-12

.U3'3
.1742
.246

.0720
.1090
.1555

.0922
.1412
.1995

.0507
.0753
.1038

.0779
.HOC
.1681

• 0 3i_2
.C5A8
.0774

.0553
.064 5
.119?

.01338
.0201
• OP. 8 6

1-1/4-12

.333

.2175

.2010
.1522

.2375

. 1054

.1670

.0392

Rotes i 1. Torque (In. -lb.) - R z initial teuslon stress on root area (psl).

2. All bolts and nuts or tapped plates are steel* cadmium plated.

3* Values for bolt and nut combination are based on holding bolt fixed
and turning nut.

4. Values for bolt and tapped plate (set sore*) oombination are based on head
of bolt not In oontaot with tapped plate*

6. Where washers are used under the nut, the fitting material shall be taken
as the material of the washer.
QTRUCTURAl ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL D YNAMl CS/CON VAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1.3 Reference 2_<o

T«bW 4-2 LOADS AND STRESSES PER UNIT TORQUE FOR NUM6ERED SIZE THREADS

AI*I flmmmwtrm
****•'

llmi mmmti

ihrrmdl

ptt, t*

M.
W. /» *•

Sit*

r «.

trrew triih

Nm.

«.

**"*

Fin*
**

m*JA mi mml

9l i «hi (Mr/

o.ou

to

00013

72.MJO

74

0.071
*4

0.0022

41.900

*3

73

0.O024

11.100

a
2

o.os*

}*

0.0011

:t.:t»

33

**

0.0014
23.400

54

0 ott

41

0 0041

11.200

30

i*
0.004]

lfc.100

J1

on:

40

0.00.10

12. &00

42
41

0.0017

10. TOO

4]

0.1:5

40

0.0067

7.190
H

44

0.007;

7.190

37

0.131

!Z

0 0073
A.I 10

14

40

0.DOI7

3.620

13

0 1*4

12
0.0120

!J*0 _

10

It

0.0 12S

1-270

10

10

0.1H.
:4

0.0143

2.460

21

32

0.0173

2.100

27

i;
0.21*

O.CrcO*

1.»00

21

:*

0.022C

1.410

23
Tabic 4.3

LOADS AND STRESSES PER UNIT TORQUE FOR FRACTIONAL SIZE THREADS

M. C—'M F t**

St
H
K
%

IK

IK

IK

14
*****

ON •/

unftr trrnt.

AIM umJ

tttltom

pti, "*

kW. Jfr. •»

KWMlf
terrw virt

Ikremd*,

****** f! !

utntm* mi t

J* Ml.

lM-il> «H HUl

ut-iit mm ami

0 0:«

l.i::

:o.t

0.012*
r*

21-*

0CJ32

107

21.7

C.*i3*

S12

!*.{
17.1

0.0324

4J2

0.CJ9Q
J 77

17^

0.K7I

292

I4J

0.M.09

2*1

\43

O.OS 90

213

ISJ
0.09})

179

11.2.

C.1C9C

130

12-*

0.1217

132

11.0

0.1137

I IS
10.9

O.MS*

97.1

11.4

0.14)4

l*.l

H.7

0.1430

i:j

9.9

0.1331
*.j

10 J

<U0M

*3J

10J

C-3011

5* -3

1.73

0J4O0

4|J

9J4
0.231*

*4J

9-33

0.3320

33.1

7J4

OJ3U

Z1A

7.*4

0J723

23.3
7.U

0.41*1

20.4

*J2

0.4S03

17.*

*.7S

0J20O

l*.l

*J3

0J3I0
11*

5.7)

0.44*4

Hi

3Sf

0.4121

1M

*.09

0.4911

9.* 1

3J»
0.11 II

1.0*

JJ2

01773

7 .41

S-43

0JI1I

4.71

443

IjKSI

3.T3
4J0

1.09*9

JJ3

4.K

1.0141

5.17

4.11

1.3*03

«J4

4.40

L3f)l
1J4

3-M

ij2i:

JJ1

4,1*

1.JIQI

3.17

4J2

page |4. )3. !

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMtCS/CON VAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference G

SUBJECTi Efficiency of Plates ia Tension Joints

I. Introduction

This nemo contains an e:r.pirioal method cT dcterr-ising sheet st f icidr.^is:


of lap and butt plats joints when the joints are made with rivers, bolts
and/or screws. It ia applicable to all catale coicmonly used in aircraft
structures. The eothcd does not dettr=ine the Icid oa any of the con-
nectors, or the load carried by doublers: -These loads nust be detsrainsd
by other meaas •

page (4. \ 4. I

STRUCTURAL ANALYS IS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMlCS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Jfotaticn
C ROW NO. I —

FOR THIS SHEET

OLUMN t's

I -0—0— O—O- O

I I I I I I

I -o— o— o— o— o

CHAIN RIVET iNG — L ; I I I I

i^o— o-o-o— o-

-6-0— o-o— o-

i i i i i

\ -o— o— o— o— o-
PITCH

t ROW NO. I FOR THIS SHEET

UK. 1

^. ROW NO. I -H
FOR THIS SHEET-^

I
I

Chain Spaoiag

ROW
JOINT
-O-

-o-

STAGGERED
RIVETING

-O-

-i- -4-

1 i 1 •

I -o- -o-
1 I

COLUMN C

CAGE

PITCH — ■— J j

£ ROW NO. I FOn THIS SHEET —

*t Staggered Sjmeins

Lines of oonneotcrs parallel to the joint centerlina, the first re* in


any sheet being the row farthest a^y froa the edge of the shee-.

Lines of oosnoctors normal to the Joint eenterline.

page \4.\4.Z
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

II. (Continued)

Pitch - "Distance between rows (or, spacing nornal to tho Joint center-
line) .

Gage - Distance between ooluzna (or, spaoinr; parallel to the Joint


oenterline) •

p - Pitch between the first and seoond rows.

D^ - Effective diarater of the largest hole in the first row.

■ Gross cross-sectional area of the plate, (area without holes) •

• Reduction in crose-cecticnal area due to the largest hole in


the first row.

ZR-i " Total reduction in eross-aectional area due to all the holec
in the first row.

2R B " Total reduction in cross-sectional area due to all oonneotors


P within a pitch of 5D U of the first row (inoludin; holes, in
first row) »nen projeoted upon a croae-ceotion parallel- to
the Joint csnterline (joe Fig. 3).

t • Sheet thiclcnoce.

page

^tructurai analysis manual

GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

.II. General

A. Chain epaoing ahould be used in preference to staggered spacing when-


ever possible. This practice eliminates the possibility of overlooking
the weakest section and reduces the possibility of premature failure

in the first row of connectors.

B. Chain spaced Joints in which the first re* ha. number of con-
nectors than the succaeding row. do not necessarily give higher «"i-
oiencie. than thoae ucing ordinary chain .peeing. In addition, a. witri
staggered .pacing, this .pacing gi™» the poacibility of premature fail-
ure in the fir.t row of connectors.

C. Staggered spacing may become neoessary in such application* as oap


splices, where the length and width available for the joint do not
permit a sufficient number of ohain-epaced connectors xo transmit the
applied load. In suoh cases, the rivets should be in straight lines
parallel to the length of the member.

D. Staggered spacing may become neeesaary to maintain pressure-tight


Joints, In such cases, a minimum gage of 2 dimeters should be used,
together with a pitoh such that there is a minimus dijtanoe of 3
diameters betrreon connectors*

E. If a combination of ambers giTCS different efficiencies (e. 6 ., a skin


and corrugation ccmbinetion fastened to a splice plato). the
of the efficiencies should bo applied to all members in the combination.

T. Eighe.t plate efficiencies are obtained by using tLe maximum number of


columns consistent with a value of R«/;.g equal tc or less than .17,

0. When the stress varies acro.s the width of the Joint, or when the hole
pattern i. not constant, the maximum stress fcr the critical representa-
tive width should be used with the efficiency as determined below for
the critical width.

H. This method provides for stress conoentrstion effects at ultimate lead,


insofar as the connector holes are concerned, and no additional factor
Is necessary to provide for that phenomenon.

IV. Tension Efficiency

A. Obtain p |

RjC | as followsi
B • Obtain

1. For bolts, non-countersunk screws, and plain and dimpled rivets,


use sheet thickness times actual hole diameter, if too*.mj other-
wise use sheet thickness times 1.05 times the nominal shank diam-
eter.

2. For 100° flush head fasteners, refer to Table I.

page K I 4. 4

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

IV. (Continued)

C. Obtain

D U . —
D. Obt-

ain Kg f, f^T

, uad

2R,

ooruicHrin^ entire width of

the Joist. Ujs of a le«*-sr -.'id*:h vill rasuit in ten o:rv;~rvj t.i*>«
eff 5 eleneiff a .

E. Obtain thn effectiT*; reduction in ^rsa frcci

* e - 2R P - -r^- [ ZR p -
.]

or from tho lowar portion of Fig. 4.

Th< tension *ffJciency ^ -if tho pl«.te bxsod cn gross er;% Is given by

which^'Tr is «**Ql1*r, sr Trm the upper portion of Fig. 4.

T. torsir.* of r>f»*y
A . Tension Cnl y

Thn virgin of «f«ty under «n opplicd torsion lot* (lo».d norn.il tc th«
Joint centorlinfl) is gi-rnn by

wlmrr f t - P^Afc is tKe tfltieloii «tr«s5 cn t.h* gross »re«

page 14. K.5*


STRUCTURAL ANALYSI S MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAM1CS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVtSlON

( Continued)
B. Shear Only

The margin of safety under an applied shear lead (lead parallel


the Joint ronterlino) is given by

- 1

- 1
where f s ■ P 8 Ag is the sheer stress on the gross area*

C. Combined Tension and Sheer

1* Obtain the tension stress ratio and the shear stress rati
R s from

a* ■

**„

1
2. The margin of safety of the plate at the Joint in eoabinnd
tension end shear is given by

page M-IL ^

TABLE I

AREA REMOVED DUE TO DRILLING AND COUNTERSINKING FOR


100° FLUSH HEAD FASTENERS. (SQ. IN. PER FASTENER)

Fastener
Ha ad
Style

Nominal
Shank Dia.
(Inches)

Sheet Thickness (inches)

.025

.032

.ObO

.050

.063

.071

.080

.090

.100
.125

.160

.190

MS20b26
(AT.'ti26)
Rivet

1/16

3/32

1/8

5/32

3/16

1/h

.00213
.00373
.00563
.006bO
.00803
.01116
.002r50

.ooL5l
.00691
.00793
.01008
.OlbOl

.0031b
.00529
.00829

.00953
.01221

.01713

.00381
.00625
.00977
.01132
.01b67
.02082

.00b6B
.00750
.011b6
.013bO
.017;i
.02526

.00522
.00826
.012b6
.01b67
.01907
.02779

.00582
.00913
.0136b
.01610
.02079
.030b5

.006b?
.01009
.01b93
.01769
.02270
.03319

.00716
.01105
.01621
.01928
.02b6l
.03576

.00883
.013L5
.019b2
.02325
.02938
.0b?l3

.01118
.01681
.02392
.02882
.03607
,05118

.01319
.01969
.02778
.03359
.OblCO
.05889

HAS517
Screw

#10 (.190)
1/L
5/16
3/8
7/16

.00678
.01183
.01501
.01838
.02316

.01097

.oi! t eo

.0189b
.02300
.02707

.01333
.01821
.02329
.02837
.03315

.01607
.02217
.02852
.03h87
-Obl22

.01927
.02696
.03b96
.Ob296
.05096

.0210b
.02971
.03872
.0J,77b
.05676

.02286
.03261
.Ob277
.05293
.06309

.02b79
.03562
.0b705
.O58L0
.06991

.02673
.03818
.05108
.06378
.076bB

.03156
.0bb71
.06013
.07600
.09188

.0383b
.05353
.0712b
.09061
.11093

.Obblb
.06109
.06072
.10192
■12b95

Shear Type
Lockbox t
or
Hl-Lok

3/16
1/1*

5/16

3/8

.00687
.00923
.01122
.013bl

.00853
.011<lj
.OliilO
.01690

.01028
.oiho5
.0172b
.0207b

.01226
.01697
.02096
.02533

.01!i72
.020bO
.025b3
.0309b

.0162b
.022bO
.02798
.03bl9

.0179b
.02b6b
.03079
.03767

.0198b
.0271b
.03391
.Oblbl

.02173
.02963
.03703
.Ob5l6

.0?6b7
.03587
.0bb83
.05b52
.03310
.0bb60
.05575
.06763

.03879
.05209
.06511
.07886

STRUCTURAL ANALYS IS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

IRp

ric a

E7F I CIEHCT OF PUTZS IH TgrSICW J0IV7S

2 3 ^zH-HFJ:
tes i

Uso lolid linos only.


For ohain riTotins,
R. / • IRp/ * ER, /

D^icale may bo ohanged £


by, any f»otor, provided
that the p Bcal*
ohJingod by the lama
faotor.

- 1 q* 3 0 4 oT5 06 o!t 0.6 O.S l.~ *S

o.o a i

0.2

page I4J4*&
\l(o

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMiCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 15.0

ACOUSTICS, VIBRATION , FLUTTER

AN OVERVIEW OF ELEMENTARY STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS ANALYSIS


METHODS IS PRESENTED IN THIS SECTION.

MORE COMPREHENSIVE DATA AND METHODS ARE CONTAINED IN THE


STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS MANUAL

FOR SPECIRC INFORMATION, CONSULT THE STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS


GROUP.

PA3E
15.1

UNEAR SYSTEMS

15.1 .1

15.2

FORCED VIBRATION

15.2.1

15.3

METHODS OF CALCULATIONS

15.3.1

15.4

SONIC FATOJE
15.4.1

15.5

FLUTTER

15.5.1

15.6

ACOUSTICS AND VIBRATION

15.6.1

page -O .\

fiTRUCTUR Al ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 J3 Reference I


Acoustics and Vlbratlona

Practically all periodic waves, however complicated the form, nay be


considered aa being composed of, or representing the sum of, two or more sine
waves. Most waves nay be analyzed into simple harmonic or sine wave components
and these components generally form a harmonic series; i.e., they have fre-
quencies which are integral multiples of the lowest frequency. The lowest
frequency is called the fundamental, and the higher ones are called harmonics.

Frequency

The frequency of a vibrating body is the number of complete cycles of


motion In a unit time.
Period

The period of a wave is the time elapsed while the motion repeals itself.
It is simply the reciprocal of its frequency.
Amplitude

The amplitude of a wave is the maximum distance the vibrating particles


of the medium in the path of the wave are displaced from their position of
equilibrium.

wavelength

The wavelength of a wave is the shortest distance between two particles


along the wave which differ in phase by one cycle.

The Linear System With One Degree of Freedom

The number of independent coordinates necessary to describe the motion


of a system is called degrees of freedom. Examples of systems possessing one,
two, and many degrees of freedom are shown in Fig. 10.7.1-1*

////////

UULUJ

(a) Single Degree


of Freedom

(b) Two Degrees


of Freedom

rrmTTT?

(e) Many Degrees


of Freedom

Fig. 10.7.1-1
The ideal vibratory system of one degree of freedom is represented in
Fig. 10.7 .1-2.

7iTf. 10.7.1-2

Llnear Vibratory System


of One Degree of Freedom

page i y'. 1 . 1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS- MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

It consists of a mass "m" supported on motionless and massless rollers


attached to a spring and a dashpot. If a force "F" which Is a function of
time *'t" acts on the mass, the differential equation,

md 2 x + cf£ + kx - F(t), (1)

dt 2

must be satisfied at all times,


where

C is the coefficient of viscous damping,

k is the spring constant,

x la the displacement from rest, and

F(t) is the external force varying with time.

If, after an initial disturbance of the system shown in Fig. 10.7-1-2,


the external force ceases to act, the equation becomes

^ + C§§ + kx - 0 (2)

dt 2

If C 2 /*ta 2 > k/m, the mass "a" will not oscillate but will gradually
return to its rest position. IT C 2 /4m 2 < k/m, there will result a decaying
oscillation of circular frequency.

(J n - k/m - C 2 /^ 2 radians/sec. , ... (3)


for which the corresponding linear frequency will be

f . _L_ -y/k/m - C 2 /4m 2 cycles/sec, .... CO


n 2TT V

where

H n" denotes natural frequency with damping.


and

U - 2 7T f (5)

n n

If C 2 /4m 2 - k/m, this is the limiting case for no oscillation, and the
system is said to be critically damped. This particular value of C is
designated C cr where

cr

2m VK/n" - 2 VmT - 2mU n - 2 k/ U n . . (6 )

The solution of equation (2) for less than critical damping is


-Ct

x - e~2m (A sin U ft + B cos U^t) (7)

where A and B are arbitrary constants depending on the initial conditions.


page 15.1.2.

STRUCTURAL ANALYS IS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference I

Pig. 10.7.1-3 shows x as a function of t for this case.

The amplitude decreases by a


definite percentage with each cycle,
and the natural logarithm of the
ratio of two successive amplitudes
is called the logarithmic decrement.

log e *N
A N+1

(8)

or, for an interval of'q cycles


separating the two measured amplitudes and Xj^j

5- |ic 8e !»L

q e Y

frrq

Pig. 10.7.1-3

(9)

Also,

2 7T^ C <

(10)

For small damping


(5<*27TtC/C cp ) (11)

If there is no damping, C - 0, and the natural circular frequency la

2 7T f.

(12)

Forced Vibration

If the driving force is sinusoidal

[F(t) - F 0 3intJt] , Equation 10. 7.1- (1)

becomes

d 2 x

2* + c 4§ + kx - * sin U t ...
dt 2 °
(1)

where

F is the maximum value of the sinusoidal force, and U is the forced


o

frequency .

The general solution to this equation is

-Ct

S ( A sW„t + B co. (J ' t) + P o Sln {Ut ' * ]

. . . (2)

{CU) Z ♦ (k-mU 2 ) 2
page (5.5.1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference J

where

0 is the phase angle, and A and B are arbitrary constants depending


on the initial conditions.

As before

U - *Vk> - (3)

Also,

0 " tan -1

k-mU
fi „ tan' 1 ^-. 2 <*>

The first term on the right hand side of equation (2) vanishes in
time owing to the fact that the term, e " Ct/2m . constantly diminishes

and is called the transient term. The second term gives the amplitude of
the forced vibration in terms of the system constants and driving force and
is called the steady state term.

The amplitude of the steady-state vibration is

x . f o — (5)

This la also expressed In the convenient form,

where

■ V* ■ ■ ■ ■ (6)

F^k is the displacement that would be produced by a static force, P c

Basic Methods of Calculations

NOTE: The equations following are based on the simple beam theory and are
accurate only for beams having a length to depth ratio of the order of 10
or more. The effects of rotary inertia and shear deflection are neglected.

Uniform Bar With Free Ends

The equations for finding the deflection for different mode patterns

is as follows :

_1

2T0T

-sinC^x + 1.02 cosOn* - slnnO^* + 1-02 coshO^* j ... (D

where CX is the characteristic number for the n— mode and la the root of
the equation cosO^ coshQC n - 1. The characteristic numbers for the first
three modes of this beam are: 4.73, 7.853, and 10.996.

page 15.3.1

STRUCTURAL AN A I v * fg MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
c

Frequencies of higher modes for this bean are as follows:

An^lltnd*

rruf Lie

f*ode

Ifattiml Cirnidor
Frequency

L. »1

, -.

2 I'odee
'.■ — ;■- ■ ■ ; -

— »- x

3 Nodes

2.77 w t (B)

i. Nodes

5.iX w 1 * (C)

5 Ilodes
9.00 Wi (D)

Fig. 10.7-3-1

Uniform Bar With Simple Support at Ends

The equations of deflection for the fundamental mode is

y - sin & (2)

if the amplitude la taken as unity at the center.

Frequencies of higher modes for this beam are as follows:

Amplitude
Profile

Mode

Natural Circular
Frequency
2 Nodes

rr- L -Tn

3 Hod* a

4. w t (B)

4 I'odes

9w i (c)
5 r'odec

16 W t (D)

Fig. 10.7.3-2

page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Uniform Cantilever Beam

Frequencies of higher modes for this beam are as follows :

Amplitude
Profile
X >

Mode

1 Nodes

2 Nodes

3 Nodes

4 Nodes

5 Nodes

Natural Circular
Frequency
6.27 U

(B)

17.6^ (C)|

34.4 1^ (D)|

56.81^ ( E ;

Pig. 10.7.3-3

Uniform Beam With Clamped Ends

Frequencies of higher modes for this beam are as follows


Amplitude
Profile

Mode

Natural Circular
Frequency

2 Nodsa

k:">:;";;:»e

3 Nodes

2.77 Wj (B)

4 Nodes
5.U Wl (C )

5 Nodes

9-00 Wl (D)

Pig. 10.7.3-4

page 15,3.3

ftTRUCTURA! ANALYSI S MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Hinged Fixed Uniform Beam

Frequencies of higher modes for this beam are as follows:

Amplitude
Profile

Mode

2 Nodes

3 Nodes

U Nodes

Natural Circular
Frequency

3.2* (B)

6.76 (C)
Fig. 10.7.3-5
Uniform Cantilever Beam With Mass at the End

(3)

Pl«. 10.7.3-6

Onlfon. Beam With S^lc SUEBgrt at Endg_and Concentrated Wass In the Center

— —
Fig. 10.7.3-7

Rectangular Plates

A. Simple Support at Edges

u.

The general formula Is as follows:


.2 ^

Fig. 10.7.3-8

page ts\^.4

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

where M and N are integers depending on number of nodal llnea .

m
M-l, N-l

M-2, N-l

M-l, N-2

M-2, N-2

///
M-3, N-2

Pig. 10.7.3- 9
{Normal Modes of Rectangular Membrane)
NOTE : Light areas are l80° out of time phase with shaded areas

B. Clamped Edges

U, - 164,000 Z£* -J 7(4 + 4 } +

i steel aD V a"

(7)

Longitudinal or Axial Vibration of Uniform Beams or Shafts


A. Free Ends

U - 61.6 ifWF -

u L ^ 1 L ■
(8)

T Node
Fig. 10.7-3-rlO

The fundamental mode has a node in the middle . Higher modes are
related by series of 1, 2, 3, etc.

B. Both Ends Fixed

Same as above.

Columns - Effect of Axial Load on Natural Frequency

(9)

where p Is the axial load,

p is the Euler buckling load (p„ - ^ E £ )* and

cr cr ^

U 0 la the natural frequency for zero axial load.

For the pin-ended column U is given by for a uniform bar with simple
support at ends. For the fixed-end column U Q is given by for a uniform

beam with clamped ends.

page is.3.5

fiTRUCTUBAl ANALYS IS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Streaa and Strain In Vibrating Rectangular Plate

Assume: 1. Perfectly elastic

2. Homogeneous _ _

3. Isotropic

k. Uniform thickness small compared to Its other dimensions

5. Deflections small compared to thickness

6. No stretching of middle plane

Strain in thin layer of element indicated by shaded area and z distance


from middle of plane Is given by following equations:
xx

yy

^ - - ^

2Z

(10)
(11)
(12)

dx

dx dy

e are unit elongations

yy ^
in the x and J directions.
Is shear deformation in the xx plane.

dy^^r ■ ■

h/2

1
1

^1

^ 1

j+
J- - --

Pig. 10.7.3-11

(5 Is deflection of the plate.


1/R^ l/Rg ar * curvatures In the xz and yz plane,
h - thickness of plate
The corresponding stress is then obtained from the following equations:

-ez a 2 (5+ „ d 2 ^

<*-Vi- J*„> -^2

(14)
r- 0 «.

(15)

where /I is Polsson'a ratio.

page i5\3. ^

CTPIIPTUHAL MANUAL
GENERAL DYNA MICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIV,SION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference 1

Pactors Involved In the resign of Sonic Fatlgu. Re3i^ Struct^

1 utho^Tsonlc fatigue life cannot be predicted with a great deal of

accuracy, eonlc t. .tin. of structure, ha. revealed Information which 1. of


importance to the de S i 8 n engineer. It la possible to design sonic fatigue
resistant structure.

Panel Size _
Large unsupported panels should be avoided whenever possible. To

accomplish this, stiff ener. and rib. can be used effectively From the
standpoint of edge stress, a square section Is much more effective than a
rectangular shaped panel. Th. sonic fatigue life of a panel 1. a direct
function of the stiffness and an inverse function of the vibrating mas. .
Therefore, any beef -up for this type of stress must increase the stiffness
without significantly increasing the mass.

Ii ^ T S £: Su^arie. of this type construction .hould be Investigated criti-


cally Any discontinuity Irritates the fatigue problems. Attachment of
rib. and stlffeners should be by means of symmetrical sections.

rh.n-Mllled Skin (Waffle Construction)

Aspre vlo^ly stated, th. boundarie, .hould be critically investigated.

The small rib. do offer stiffness but not enough to eliminate the use of

The small no. u ± of ^ reentrant

intermediate supports. Care must be taxen "

corner, of each cell as large a. po.slbl. to reduce the concentration of


stress*

Bonded Beaded Inner Skin B-ads


^—TnTl^^Tt be critically Investigated to Insure proper tie-ins. Bead,
are frequently used over fairly large expanse, of unsupported
TesfbL.. however, are character!,* by poor terminations. "^J""
Z. unsupported, the panel -ill vibrate a. one large diaphram. This -Ill
cause crack, to for. very rapidly because of the heavy working at the end.
of the bead. The addition of a doubter at the end of each bead or a double
llT^Tc^ ^increase th. llf. 50 to 100* more over that of th. standard
construction.

i ^r^r« i6 -wls. —tural approach to very high intensity


sound. Again, th. boundaries must be Investigated to Insure an adequate
ser^ce So. This type of construction is fatigue resistant because of the
large amount of structural damping.

^All clips should be designed to provide continuity for all possibl, . load
M th. T^. gage of the clips should preferably be thicker than th. lightest
Tale belS ejected and weU riveted. It 1. advisable to reduce the bending
.tree. In a clip or member being Joined whenever possible.

page 1 5 . 4 . 1

/*7

STRUCTURAL ANALYS IS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

atlffenera

All atiffeners ahould be dealgned using the rule of thumb that eymmetrioal
attachments will prolong aervica Ufa. Tests tend to indicate that the mini-
mum gage of an aluminum etlffener should b« .040 for lntanaa aound praaaura
1#VB la. Thicker gagaa will probably b« neceaaary for each apecial eaae. One
of the moat critical regions of a etiffened panel la the change In stlffnesa
st the end of a atiffaner. This tranaition must be as gradual as poealble
with relatively low etreaaea in the fastener.

Curved Panels

The atreaaea in curved panels are much lower than in flat plates, if the
plate width is more than a email percentage of the radius of curvature. This
results from the pressure loads being carried as membrane stresses (like
hoop tension) instead of by bending. Teata have indicated that the fatigue
life due to curving a panel may be increaaed aa much aa 3*000 per cent.

3treae Co nc entra t lo na

Anything that might possibly produce a stress raiser should be avoided.


A majority of the falluree due to sonic excitation can be attributed to
stress concentrations at rivet holes, small bend radii, raw edgea, reentrant
comers, rough machine surfaces, etc. .

page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

REFERENCES
Acoustics and Vibrations

Goldbrlck, R . T. , A Vibration Manual for Engineers , Department of


Commerce, 1957-

Myklestad, N . 0., Vibration Analysis , McGraw-Hill, 19*^.

page is.<?.3

STRUCTURAL ANALY SIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference 2.7

SWCPSB

Panel flutter is a self-excited, aeroelastic instability that may occur


when a panel is exposed to a supersonic airstream. During flutter the panel
oscillates in a direction normal to its plane and the amplitude of motion
usually increases until limited by inplane stresses. The consequences of
panel flutter cannot be reliably predicted, but the serious effects that have
been encountered include very high noise levels vithin occupied compartments
as well as panel failure due to fatigue.
A considerable amount of work, both experimental and theoretical, has
been done during the last two decades not only to obtain insight into the
phenomenon but to develop procedures for the prediction and prevention of
panel flutter. This report presents the results of an extensive investiga-
tion to determine the state of the art in panel flutter, and from that basis,
to formulate a comprehensive set of design criteria. The investigation con-
sisted not only of literature review but also of personal consultation with
individuals who have made significant contributions in the field. The report
further brings together data from wind tunnel test, flight test, vibration
test and theoretical investigation f and presents methods that have been
developed to provide procedures, criteria, and guidelines for designing
panels .

page iS-5- )

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference 4-

ACOUSTICS AND VIBRATION

■Toe development of structure adequate to sustain


high acoustic loads is important to ihe basic airframe
de*ign. Although consinenbie engineering effort and
investigation tiirough Usnng have been deroted to the
solution of the problem fo* individual aircraft, no
rational, economical design me r hod has appeared.
General ruidelines eased on comparative tciL. arid service
experience have been established and are presented along
with a general discussion of sonic fatigue.

20.1 SONIC FATIGUE

To understand the problems created by sonic


fatigue, it is necsaaiiry to be familiar with so.ne of the
fundamental a ecu sties concepts and the structure
response* to sound. A sound is esscniuJIv a fluctuating
pressure in air or some other medium. The intensity of a
sound is determined by the amplitude of the pressure
waves and is commonly expressed in Jcc.^eU. The decibel
rating or sound lcv«l is 10 time* the logarithmic ratio of
the intensity of the sound to a re! ere net intensity,
intensity ociiia me*&uicu as power. F&; most purposes,
the refrrcnee intensity arbitrarily been *et at IG"'^
watrs/cm-, which is approximately Ihe tnrethold of
hearing. Expressed malhematirrUy.

dB " 10 log-p

where:

I j » intensity of the sound

Iq ■ reference sound intensity (tnreshold of hearing


» 10** 6 watts/on 2 )

The decibel lerc* of a sound may be determined by


its pressure fluctuation as follows:

Pi

dB • 20 tog -=r-
*0

where:

P] ■ the rma pressure fluctuation of sound in


question

Pq ■ the rat pressure fluctuation at the threshold of


hearing: 1,0.000204 dynes/cm 2 )

The pressure awodated with a fc-ven Jccibel level is


shown in Fig. 10.1*1. The pcak-to-ps^i: value cf tr.c
alternating sound pressuie is shown as well as the rms
values. With the jet engines presently m u«e f 145-' 70
JBj. the airplane* arr experiencing *oj,k fa?ig*je failures
as the pressures at these decibel levels -re capatie ?f
exciting the strucrure well beyond the faiigue endurance
limit of the matenaJ.

20.1.1 Sound Distribution Over Structuie


Generally, the magnitude of the ^onic noise is

referred to in tenrn of sound preisure lrvels in decibels.


The Acoustics unit norma Hy prowies estimates of sound
pressure levels, in and aroun*l the aircraft structures, that
are used in initial design of new structures. A» powerplart
infonnation is firmed up, better design sound pressure
laiels are published; final confirmation s prided during
the early rround rjns of the engines on ihe first aircraft
The design d-ta usually takes the form of contour p'ots
of the sound pressure levels. Ar. example of tltw seunu
pressure or. the lovrr exrre:;ie *wf»c* of t!ie 3-5.'
wing is sliC A-n in rig. 10.1.1-1.

20.1.2 Response of Structures to So**;. Loading

When z structure is sufrjecled to sonic loading, us


vibrating frequency and amclitude are dependent on ihr
structure and the intensity ami frequency of the *ound.
The modem jet engine is a powerful source of random
noise and produces essentistiy ail frequencies **uh.p j
range from 20 ;o 20.000 Hr. Tu analyze cows from *t
■mgines, it is common practice to record the noise levels
in the otuve band* ai.J thereby obtain a picture of the
correspondence of frequencies and noise leveis. ToJay.
engines seem to distribute .nore noise energy in a
frequency range of 150 to 600 Ha vrun in the higher c:
low frequency ranges. * typical piot of the none !ev.'t»
in the different octave bands and the total overall noise
level is given in Fig, 20. 1.2-1.

The responie of a panel to random noise is


somewhat unpredictable, but a typical response mitfhi be
a resonant frequency vibration. The amplitude of this

page /5.
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

vibrstioa would, be trmtfy moduli red. and thsrr wo aid


be no repetition or pattern to the response. Although
considerable cng nstrin g effort and testing expense hay*
been devoted 10 determining the faiigor lift of individual
aircraft components, no rational, economical design
method has appeared. Some attempts taw been mad* to
approximate a service life by considering the structural
component as a simple danmed-mass spring oscillator. A
ample oscillator may bt characterized by its resonant
frequency (j, of (ha rcJatrft damping 4" and the elastic
r e sponse y 0 to tome reference forcing input Fg. The
evaaiatsoa v o/ I, Uq. and yJY Q along wits a statistical
description of the forcing function will provide a time
history stress ajii mini that can be summed by Miner's
methods of aoeumnbtzf* damage to tree a fatigue Ufa
(see Ret*. 187 and 1 23). Tne Royal Aeronautical Society
Engineering Sciences Data sheets also present an epproxi-
matc anaiysia of sonic life for flat^ectangular panels (Ref.
205). •
SPECTRUM OF JET ENGINE NOISE
AT MILITARY POWER

- 180
§ 150

140
130

130
110
9
s I 3 1 § I § S I I I I 1 ,\

\\\\\\

OCTAVI 1ANOS (HZ)

FIGURE 20.1*2*1

n«r. 20?

page ts.&.Z
rs

in-

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

20.1-3 Sooic Testing

A( the prrvni tine, the be* design data his been


compiled through extensive tests. The testing has taken
three defmiic fonm: testing of high-speed components
for buffeting and nutter, behind and within a jet blast;
testing of simulated panels behind -a jet engine in a test
cell; and testinf of simulated panels in a sound chamber
with a controlled sound source. The lectins; program,
coupled with extensive service life experiences, has
provided some design guidelines. Generally, the test
results provide retime life data for variations in design
detaiis in riveted sheet structure up through fully bonded
sandwich construction in mc: Jg as well as some plastics.
Some of the early comparative lest results arc utovr. in
He, 20.1.M-
20.2 GENERAL DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS

The service experience and test programs from the


B-52, KC-135, and commercial fleets have provided
information that can be accepted is appropriate stude-
Mnes for structure in sonic arras. The following design
charts may he used where sonic resistance 4* required.
The tonic designs are not enact: however, their use should
prevent pro it errors. Boeing's design objective is mini-
mum we**ht consistent with required life: this can be
.Attained oiiiy iiuuu^ji time *Uefluw«i iu Jeuul> and
np'-imistic desirJi criteria to the extent that some failures
are expected* that may require redesign.

20.2.1 Bonded Honeycomb Panela

The design curve* shown in Figs. 20.2. 1*1 . 20.2.1-2


and r 0.2. 1-3 rive the maximum allowable sai-.ua pressure
level to wuicrt *Ji- described panel can be subjected for a.
300-hr serviceable life period. The service experience of
present jet aircraft have ->ywn that a panel, designed for
300 hr of maximum er.pnr outpu; noise, ptmdes a loial
service life a'ieiiui:f for tatty's requirements. The arrvc*
arc all plovicd for sciwre panels: the correciija factors
for rcctanpii&r p^r.:U are given in Fig, 20.2. 1 -4.

20.2.2 StiHew-Susnoned Wsb and Skin Panels

The design curves shown' in Fig. 20.2.2-2 for the


panels described in Fig, 20.2.2-1, give the maximum
allowable sound pressure irvei to which the panel tan be
subjected for a 300 iir serviceable life period. The service
experience of present jei xirciaft has shown that a panel,
designed for 300. i-r of maximum engine output nou*
provides a total service life adequate for loday'% require-
ments. The curves are plotted for souare panels: the
correction fact on for rectangular panels arc given in Fig.
20.2-7.

20.2.3 Genera.' Design Tips

Applicable to the Design Charts

• All the desifn cu.-ves for aluminum material re pre-


scr.i 2I124-T3; J075-T6 may be usee if the paneli are
overriesigned hy 2 dB.

• The edges of all webs and cutouts are assumed to be


machine* 4 , except (l i edges may be fheared in **0"
condition prior to lieal treat or (2) euges may b-
sheaxed in heat-treated condition provided the area
is overdesigncd by 6 cS.

• Countersinks with xnifs edges are allowed only


when the area k overucsigncd by 6 dB. Laminated
sheet mav have a taiifc edge at the internal Uyinz
suHacr with no r*cnalty in decibel nrvcl.

• When diinplmg 3 used, an overdesign of S dB is


icquiicu.

• Whc* %\ A*iwe:ds sre used, an overHcugn of 14 dB is


retired.
• Hou> ir. wcw with diameters under C.25 b are
allowed il the hole is reinforced with a doubter o*
the area is cerdesigned by 3 dli. Ovurdesigr. by only
1 dC is rrquirrd if the holr is flangi'd- Srrrell hole*
filL*<; uith tight rivets dc noi iceuire any reinforce-
ment or ovcrd:sicn.

• Hole; or ru^uM 'u *f fcs with diameters over G.25h


require i:*< acditior of s;»ffeners or each side of the
lioic ui an ow^ssign by 6 4H: only - dB ovcrclesign
is necessary .1 :lx hole is nanjed.

• When Ufcin; bead -type itiff^ners. cunes for design B


(see Wgs. 20.2.2-1 and 20.2.2-2) ere applicable with
the addition of a 4-dB ovcrdesicn; however, the
addition of bead* to a particular desist* »iH **** * n
improvement limited to 5 dB above liic same design
without heads.

page

C iTPUCTURAt ANALYSI S MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMJCS/CONVAJR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

RELATIONSHIF BETWEEN SOUND PRESSURES AND SOUNC LEVELS


SOUND LEVEL ttft!
FIGURE 20.1-1

page (5.6.4

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

LIFE OF B42 FLAP SONIC TEST PANELS

Configuration .

At&afunant

Taac Time at Various. oB levats

Failure
150 dB

180 tfB

1G3 48 '

167 dB

170 dB

0.04 afcet and


piesaadrio.
ft/32 CSKrweu

S3 as

17 ac
-

Skin crack

aW skin doubter A

I. rite

Unbonded

doubter
&02CSK rwmta

3 min
S4 MB

3 min
7«c

-
-

Skin ft rib crack

i i

-»=c=±=ar

a 04 akin doubter,
pnmed rib & enete;

Me tai bonded
doubter;

S/32 CSIC r*«a

25 mM
5 aae

-
-

Rib crack

0.04 ihin. doubter 4

p-iewdrib;
Meteibonded

douhter 4 fib;
S/32C5K rivtts

8 min
10 aae
-

Skin crack

"-IF

ii

a04 akin, doubter.

pnMd rib *• *n>e,


huulbenrwd

OMMr, fiu « ««9««;


Striven

< 50 min

1 mm
3tac

315 *es
23 mc

Skin crack

004 stun, doubter.

preeHd rib ft angle;


Shall 433 bond

daubiar. rib * angja;


5/32 rivet*

>S0mfn.

None
0.02 akkw

a04 deuoter pfaaMd


angj«*wed.

Mambondad
ddn laminate
doubter ft angle;

5/32 rive*

1 min
30 mc

Skir crack

T
OJSsklnv

044 doubter, preemd.

anotaeftweti:
She! 432 bonded
• atinlamMata

doubter ft angle:
bV33rwatJ

15 mc

Skin crack

MetaJbondtaBMSSOS
Shell 422 iiBMS 3-17

Above ttat tknea era evaragaa of aevorst epesimena


FIGURE 20.1.3-1

page is.c-5

STRUCTURAL Af^AI MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMiCS/CONVAlB AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

FATIGUE DESIGN CRITERIA FOR BONDED HONEYCOMB PANELS

page (5.6-6

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

page i5\ fo-'i


fTPMCTURAL A NALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SONIC FATIGUE SE51GN CMTEMA FOR BONDED HONEYCOMB WEBS

V4

NOTE: C*«««lor«iu«(w*t:«»^«t.»ZMforoor«eiiof

FIGURE

page 1 5 . - * 3

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

CORRECTION FACTOR FCR RECTANGULAR PANELS


a/b R«L201
KOTO: Urn ttiit curvv to comet rnwta frwn Fif*. 30.2.7-1. 20-2,2-2. and 20.2.2-3 w*«n
par** art net aouara.

FIGURE 2CU.1-4

page is. ^-3

gjqnf^TURAL ANALYSI S MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMtCS/CQN VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

FATIGUE DESIGN CRITERIA FOR STIFFEN ER-SU?PORTED WEB ANO SKIN PANELS
i I »

' — f — i L - J — flf

0.7t (rrwiJ-'pJ l—j I 1


4t(truni li

Cfftiand ritit

cwtfig for dosiru A 4 8

(Do not cfwrMttttl tfcin mo.)

■ 1 (mini

(i) DESIGN A

H f

at* tnwm-* y
(hi DESIGNS

Holur* / If
(SMNottr-/

t-t

(d DC51GMC

No lor*' J
l 1— !

Bowdod

(cC DESIGN 0

No*** 1 []
ttoiNotti

M.2C1

MOTX; Ctg^— filer no bond: if bondrt io «dd*tion » I w ii ii ^ in u MW *«w oW *i 3d!

FIGURE 2Q.Z2-1

page >S". t./o


STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS- MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

2& )

page is. / I

STRUCTURAL ANALYSTS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS

DIVISION

CORRECTION FACTOR FOR RECTANGULAR PANELS


FIGURE 20.22*3

page is.<*.!Z

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 16.0

EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS OF DETERMINING STRESSES IN A STRUCTURE


ARE PRESENTED IN THIS SECTION

PA3E

16.1 STRAIN GAGE 16.1.1

page I G • ^« I
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference I

Stress Determination Prom Strain Measurement a

The object of experimental at re a a analysis Is to determine the stress


distribution in a structure from strain measurement. If the directions of
the principal stresses are known, only two strain measurements are required.
It can be shown by Hoolce's law that if the directions are known, the stresses
can be obtained by making use of the following formulas t

cr 2

2 ( e x +H€ Z )

I'll'
< e 0 + Mej

(i)

(2)

where

• Pclsson ' a Ratio

■ Principal atress in one direction

■ Principal stress at right angles to cT^


« Strain in the direction of O*^

« Strain in the direction of C7" 2

* Modulus of elasticity

shearing stress will occur at 45° to the principal at]

and
is found as follows i

2lfpJT) ( € 1 ' € 2>


Shear Stress

(3)

If the direction of the principal stresses are unknown, the problem is


sonewhat more complicated. Consider the axes shown in Fig. 10. 9. 3-6.

—A 7

Fig. 10.9.3-8

The general equation for strain. at angle 0 with the results from a

45 rosette is as follows:
0O8

20 + sin 20 .

where

the shearing strain,

page 1 c». 1 - 1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

In Fig. IO.93-9. the strains measured


along the (A), (B), and (C) axes can be used
to calculate the principal stresses which
act along axes (1) and (2). When a 45°
rosette Is used, the strain along (fi) Is
measured on an axis at an angle of 45° to
the (A) and (C) axes. The angles (AOB)
and (BOC) are 45°. Axle (2) Is at an
angle of 90° to axis (1). The strains
along axes (A), (B), and (C) will have
the following relationships with the (x)
and (y) axes of Fig. 10.9-3-8

C-y

A-x

0, -0 C

Fig. 10.9.3-9

* +

- e

2
5c - Cy

(5)
(6)
(7)

^x -

(8)
(9)

(10)

By using the equation for maximum shear and Hooke ' s law, the principal
stresses can be obtained from the following formulas.

[Ja^c - -A-ya^- e B )2 + . 2( e B . e c ,2] . . (12)

°2 - 2
^max,

" °V 2( f A

■ <V 2 + 2 < f B

■ e c > a

f a - e c )

(13)
With the fundamental equations and the solution of the 45 rosette , expressions
for other angles may be obtained.

Mohr ' s Circle

The use of Mohr ' b circle la very helpful in the reduction of strain gage
data. It Is a convenient graphical solution, especially If the strain Is
measured at angles of 45°.

page i l . I - 2.

STRUCTURAL ANALY SIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

The U5 0 or Rectangular Strain Rosette

Mohr's circle la conatructed ao that the vertical axis represents a hear


atraln and the horizontal axis represents the axial strains. The axial
strains measured by the U5 0 rosette are plotted on the horizontal axis. The
center "C will always be midway between € a and £" c - (Ref. Pig. 10.9-3-ld

oc
T

(15)

7 /2 Axis

\ € Axis

— f b — — -

f c

€.+ € 0

1 *
<C ! J

— 1

Fig. 10.9.3-10

Point "A* can then be located since triangles CBP and CAE are congruent and
AE - CF. Since f a €" b . and £ c are 45° »P*rt f the radii CA, CB, and CD
will be 90° apart. The radius, R , can be obtained as follows:

- v

CE)

(AE)'

(16)

where
CE

^a

AE --7—5 - b - '

Prom the geometry of the circle.

(17)
(18)

AE

oc - 6

b.

OC + R,
Principal Strains

(19)
(20)

OC - R,

(21)

and

20 -

tan' 1 !

(22)
page 1 4. . i . 3

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMtCS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

EXAMPLE : Assume that the three strains from a 45° rosette are
6 m - .700 at 0°, 6 b - 400 at 45°, and f c - 300 at 90° ,

expressed In micro-inches per Inch. Pind the principal strains and principal
axes of strain and compute the principal stresses if

E - 30 x 10' 6 psl and (1 - : 0.3-

First, locate the center of the circle, which la at a distance


Oc - ^ a ^ ^ c - 700 + 3°° . 500 to the right of the origin. Compute the

radius, R , from the right triangle whose sides are


CE . € » - C <= - 700 - 300 . 200 and

AE - OC - 6 b - 500 - 400 - 100. Therefore,

R - ~\J{200) 2 + (100) 2 - 224


and

. -1 AE 100 m o£ £0
20 - tan ^ 2o"0~ '

The direction of the maximon principal strain, € x , is 0 - 13-3° clockwise


with respect to the direction of € tL ^

The principal strains are € % - OC + R - 500 + 224 - 724

and 6" y - OC - R - 500 - 224 - 276.

Prom Eq. (l) and Eq . (2), the principal stresses are

- E( fx + U^y) - f 30xI0 6 ) (724-K? 3x276 )10" 6 - 26,600 pal


1 -M l-(0.3) a

and

- . Ef + U?x) m ( 30xl0 6 )(276-H3. 3x724 )1Q- 6 . i6t2QO pal

MOTE: A positive atrain aignifles tension . Positive and negative strains


are to be added algebraically.

page i^.i.f
Require!
Solution

Max. Normal
Stress

^max .

H- 1 1

^3
Two-Oage

Rectangular

Delta
f i + f;

ITT

=7iT + rr/T

VT/J

T- Delta

fa* , 1

Hln. Normal
Stress
Kax. Shearing
Stress

Angle Prom
Oage 1 Axis
To Max.
Normal Stress
Axis. Q n

(e 2+ /ifi)

f lt^2+ f 3 - 1

ffl+f» 1

E
2U+/IJ

5 tan" 1

2C g - (Cx^)

| tan" 1

tf£ ( ^3>

tan" 1 a <^ 3 )

TABLE 10. 9. 3-1

Relations Between Strain Rosette Readings


and Principal Stresses

STRUCTUBAl ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

REFERENCES

Experimental Stress Analysis

10.9.1 Sweet, H. J., SRO-35, An Introduction to the Photoelaetlc


Coating Technique Called Photostress , 1959-

10.9.2 Perry, C. C. and Llaaner, H. R. , The Strain Page Primer ,


McGraw-Hill, 1955-

Kelly, F. L . , SRQ-33, Introduction to Electric Strain Pages , 1958


Murray, W. M. , and Stein, P. K. , Strain Gage Techniques ,
M.I.T. Press, 1959.

Alexander, M. H. , Interpretation of Rosette Strain Page Data

page i&./jL

20^
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 17.0

PI AfiTir, ANALYSIS

ANALYTICAL METHODS, FOR DETERMINING STRESS IN A STRUCTURE


BEYOND THE ELASTIC RANGE, ARE PRESENTED IN THIS SECTION.

PAGE

17.1 BENDING STRENGTH IN PLASTIC RANGE 17.1 .1

17.2 SIMPLE BENDING - 17 - 2 - 1

17.3 COMPLEX BENDING 17 - 3 - 1

17.4 INTERACTION 17 - 4 - 1

17.5 PLASTIC BENDING MATERIAL PROPERTIES 17.5.1

1 7.6 BENDING MODULUS, SYMMETRICAL SECTIONS 1 7.6.1

17.7 MINIMUM PLASTIC BENDING CURVES 17.7.1

17.8 ELASTIC-PLASTIC THEORY 17.8.1

17.9 BENDING NEAR LIMIT LOAD 17.9.1

17.10 BENDING MODULUS FOR ROUND TUBES 17.10.1


17.11 SHEAR STRESS IN ROUND TUBE 17.11.1

page 17.0.1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference G

INTRODUCTION

The conventional team theory (tased on the assumption that a plane section
before tending remains plane after tending) gives a linear distribution of
strain and stress in the elastic range (i.e., up to the proportional limit).
In the plastic ranee, hovever, although the strain distribution is assumed
to remain linear, the stress distribution corresponds with the stress-strain
relationship for the material. An approximation of this distribution has
been obtained, which enables the prediction of the effects of the shape and
material properties on tending in the plastic range.

The methods outlined in this memo are also applicable to the calculation of
the static bending strength of notched teams (teams with stress raisers) of
ductile material provided the geometric properties are tas^d or: net area at
the notch- For instance, when holes for fasteners are press nt in either or
both tension and compression flanges of an "I" team, the methods described
are applicable provided the section properties are based cn the ne t section
through the holes.

This Stress Memo shall not be used for round tubes. Bound tubes shall be
analysed in accordarce with Section 17.1C.I

SUMMAHT

I Simple Sending - Synanetrical Sections

II Simple Bending - Unsymmetrical Sections

III-A Shear Flow - Simple Bending - Symmetrical Sections


III-S Shear Flow - Simple Eencing - Ur.symme tri cal Sections

IV Local Crippling - Simple Sending

V Complex Bending - Symmetrical and Unsymr.e trical Sections

VI Shear Flow - Complex Bending

VII Interaction - Bending (Simple or Complex) and Shear - Ultimate

VIII Interaction - Sending (Simple cr Complex) and Tension - Ultimate

IX Interaction - Bending (Simple cr Complex;, Tension and Shear -

Ultimate
X Interaction - Fending (Simple cr Comdex) and Compression -

Ultimate

XI Interaction - Bending (Simple or Complex.}, Compression and

Shear - Ultimate

XII Interaction - 3ending (Simple or Complex ) , Axial Lead, and Shear -

Tield

page n. ! - 1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1.3 Reference 6


SIMPLE BE "PINO - SYMMETRICAL SECTIONS

1 Use following method when resultant applied moment vector is parallel to a


"principal axis which is also an axis of symmetry.

Principal Axis

Axis of Symmetry— /
Determine the "section factor"

■E

Applied Moment

I/c

(if k> 2.0, use k = 2.0)

Q m is the static (first) moment, about the principal axis, of the area
between the principal axis and the extreme fiber.
I is the moment of inertia of the whole section about the principal
axis and c is the distance from the principal axis to the extreme fiber

Note: When section being checked contains holes, Q m and I are to be


calculated using the net section.

Figure 1 below gives k values for various types of sections

Flanges
only

k=l

I , C , or box

k=l to 1.5
Thin
tube

k=1.333

P-ect-
sngle

k=1.5 ; k =1.273 PG.H.IM

Liamor.d

k=1.6?8 k=2

Figure 1

BEND IMC- STP.ESS at the extreme fiber due to any applied moment, m.

1. Determine mc/l
2. Enter the graph (plastic bending) with mc/l and obtain the maximum
stress, t m ] at the extreme fiber, for the proper ''section factor" k.

BENDING STRESS at an intermediate fiber due to any applied moment, m.

1. Obtain the stress at the extreme fiber from Section I-B above.

2. Enter the stress-strain curve with this stress and obtain the
maximum strain e^ at the extreme fiber.

3. At the proper proportional strain e v of the intermediate fiber


which is at a distance ^ from the principal axis, read the
corresponding stress.

page .'1.2.)

2/r

ftJgUCTUR AL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAJR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

I. SIKPLS BSKDING - STOTTHIOL Sections , (Cont'd)

D« MARGINS OF SAFETY in pure bending. The margins must be determined


from the bending moments since stress is no longer proportional to
moment*
1, Enter the graph (plastic bending) with the allowable ultimate
tensile stress Ftu to obtain an rcc/l Talue for the proper
"section factor" k*

Kote: Figure 5 has "been included for convenience in order

to avoid interpolation between 1c curves on the plastic bending


graphs but may be used only to determine vl tinu.te (or yi eld )
mc/i values for symmetrical sections-

2« Multiply this value by i/c to obtain the allowable ultimate moment

3. Repeat (1) uiinz the allowable yield stress Fty to obtain the
allowable yield moment !!y*

4* The margin of safety on an ultimate basis:

nu u

-mu * n additional (multiplying) factor of safety, if any; other-


wise use j mu • 1

my is the appl jed ultimate moment*


The margin of safety on a yield basis
(M^S. )

J m
=7 y

is an additional (multiplying) factor of safety, if any; other-

wise use - 1.0,

tty Is the appl led yield moment.

This method of determining bending allowables has been substantiated


by tests on aluminum alloy castings And forgings, and on magnesium
forglngs of relatively thicic-walled sections only.

page H-2-2

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNA MICS/CON VA IR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
T£ SIMPLE PENDING - L : MSYKy£73ICAl SECTIONS

Use following method when resultant applied moment vector is parallel to


a principal axis which is not an axis of symmetry.

Frincipal Axis— ^

— Applied Xo merit

A. creak the section down into the two parts on either side of the prin-
cipal axis. For each part , compute Q m , I, and I/c about the principal

axis of the original complete section- Compute k = — — for each part,

I/c

In utilizing Figure 1, the k value for each part cocputed as above will
be the same as for a symmetrical section composed of the giver, part
and its reflection about the principal axis of the original section-

Note: When section being checked contains holes, Q m and I are to be


calculated usir.£ *he net section.

B. XARCIKS CF SAFETS in pure bending.


1. Enter the graph with the allowable ultimate tensile strtss Ftu and
the k value of the part 'with the larger c to obtain an mc/l value
for this part.

2. Obtain the allowable maximum strain (es) in the part havinp the
smaller c: ,

smaller r

I e s = — e u

l larger c

Enter the graph with this strain e s and obtain the corresponding
stress from the stress-strain curve. For this value of stress and
with the k value for the part with the smaller c, obtain an mc/I
value for this cart.

3» Multiply the mc/l value for each part by I/c of each part and add
the two to obtain total allowable ultimate momer.t .'- -u«

h. Repeat 1-3 using allowable yield stress F^y and vie Id strain e v
to obtain the allowable yield moment My

5. Obtain ultimate and yield margins of safety as explained pg.\7.2.2.


C BENDING STRESS due to any applied moment, m. This car. be obtained only
by trial and error. Select several values of strain for extreme fiber
of part having larger c, and for each value of strain compute corres-
ponding moment, as explained above. Plot total moment against strain;
the strain corresponding to the given applied moment is then the actual
strain at the extreme fiber, and the stress at any point in the section
can be founc therefrom by obtaining the proportionate strain at the
point in question and reading the corresponding stress from the stress-
strain curve.

page n.2.3

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

-TH SHEAR FLOW - SIMPI£ BSIPIHG

The methods outlined below shov bow the classical formula S^/l nay be modified to
approximate the shear flov at any fiber when the material has been stressed is
bending beyond the proportional limit. The formulas are applicable when bending
is about a principal axis and the shear load Is perpendicular to this axis.

A. SYMMETRICAL SECTION - Principal axis about which bending occurs is an axis


of symmetry.
Determine:

££, k, and © « —
1 y k

Static Monte nt

Q « Static Moment

If 6 < 1, use e ■ 1. I, c, and_k


ere defined in Section I-A and y is
the distance from the principal
axis to the centre id of the area
between the section at which the
shear flow is being determined and
the extreme fiber.

Principal Axis

Enter the graph (plastic bending) with nc/l, and for the proper k and S
values, determine R.

Shear flow;

SQ

UNSYMKSTRXCAli SECTION
axis of symmetry.

Principal axis about which' bending occurs is not an

2.

Break the section down Into the two parts on either aide of the principal

axis and compute k ■ ^JZ - or *ach part as outlined in Section II-A.

By the method of Section H-C, determine the strain produced in the extrer.:
fiber by the applied moment. Use the extrfime fiber on the same side of
the principal axis as the section for which the shear flov is being deter-
mined.
3.

k.

5-

6*.

7.

For this value of strain of the extreme fiber, and the k value for thi
corresponding part, determine the mc/l value from the curves.

Compute

A i ®i + V 7

(if 9 < 1, use 6 - 1). (Ref. Sketch in IH-A


above ) .

Enter the graph (pis tic bending) with the oc/l value determined in 6tep
3 above, and for the k and 9 value of the corresponding part, detersiine

Shear flow,

(I is the moment of inertia ol


about the principal axis.)

;he entire section

When the shear flov Is being determined at the priiiclpal axis, compute
values Uit"-5 both parts of the section and use the larger.

page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMlCS/CONVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Iv LOCAL CRIPPLING - SIMPIZ 3S?DHC

A. . Assume critical portion of section is developing its crippling stress.

B. Enter the stress-strain curve vith this crippling stress and determine
the strain of the critical portion e y .

C. Determine the proportionate strains of the extreme fibers e a and e t .

(For a symmetrical section e fl


SYMMETRICAL SECTIONS

1. Enter the graph (plastic "bending) with the strain determined in C


and determine the corresponding stress from the stress-strain
curve.

2. For this value of stress and the 1c value as determined from Section
I-A, obtain the mc/l value.

3. Multiply this nc/l value by i/c (I and c defined in Section I-A) to


obtain the allowable moment M vhich viU subject the critical
fiber to its crippling stress.

U1ISYMMETRICAL SECTION

1. Enter the graph (plastic bending^ with the strains determined In


C and determine the corresponding stresses from the stress -strain
curve.

2. For these values of stress and the corresponding k values as deter-


mined from Section II-A, obtain the mc/l values.

3. Multiply eech of the two mc/l values by the corresponding i/c

(I and c defined in Section II-A) and add the two resulting moments
to obtain the allowable moment, M, which will subject the critical
fiber to its crippling stress.

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference u

"Y CCHPIZX BEKDIHG - Symmetrical and tlnsymnetrical Sections

This coalition occurs vhen the resultant applied moment vector is nox.
parallel to a principal axis.
Let X and Y represent two mutually perpendicular centroidal axes.
Let X' and Y' represent the principal axes.

X 1

Moment vectors are designated by double headed arrovs and are to be


interpreted by the left hand rule (i.e., point left th'-cb in direction
of vector and natural curl of fingers will designate the direction of
moment ) .

m « the applied moment about the X axis, the rodent being positive
x vhen it tends to put compression in the "upper" fibers.

ia » the applied moment about the Y axis, the moment being positive
' vhen it tends to put compression in tha "left" fibers.

0f ■ The angle tha X' principal axis makes with the original X
axis, the angle being positive vhen measured in a counter-
clockwise direction.

Any case of complex bending nay be resolved into two cases of simple
bending about the principal axes of the section. The principal axes are
defined as mutually perpendicular centroidal axes, about which the cements
of inertia are a maximum and minimum respectively and about vhich the product
of inertia ia zero.

page •

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

"V COMPLEX Br^PINS - Syrnr.qtrlsal and Unsymnetrical Sectioos (Cont'd)

A. Determine the principal axes X 9 and T* • If they cannot be determined


by inspection, obtain I x , Iy» and Ixy about any arbitrary pair of
centroidal axes* Then

, 2Ixy
tan 2 0. — —

T - T

A y -x
B. Using the X' axis as a reference, determine allowable moment M*' as
described under simple bending. (Sections I anl U)

C. Using the Y 1 axi3 as a reference, determine allowable moment fcSr* as


described under simple bending. (Sections I an! II)

D. Determine applied moments abort the principal axes.

m x' " 3*x cos d ♦ my sin ^


ajyt ■ -n x sin & + my cos ^

E. Determine moment ratJoj.

Rbx'

and

Rbyi

P. The margin of safety, in pure bending, is given byi


where Jm is the proper additional factor of safety depending on
whether a yield or ultimate margin of safety is involTed.

NOTE i Computing U.S. in this manner is always cnrwervatiTe and


for certain shapes of section way be rery cor.Terrativs.
A more precise method has not b*en d«Teloned»

page n. 3.5.

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Vi SHEAS FLOW - COiffI£X BIDING

A. Resolve the applied shear force into components parallel to the


principal axes". Denote the component parallel to the Y' axis by
S yl and the component parallel to the X' axis by S^,.

B. Obtain e , and 9 , as explained in Sections III-A-1 and III-B-U,


vhere su^scripts^x 1 and y 1 denote the exes to be used in computing e.

C. Determine the degree of plasticity, c< . If no axial load is acting,


o< is obtained as follows:
Assuming elastic (My/l) stress distributions (about both principal
axes), obtain the greatest total stress in the section due to the applied
ultimate loads. Denoting this stress by ' total > obtain

tp

"total

Then ,

1 -5

vhere ^ » \ x . + \ y > (Section V-2)

If cx < 0 3 take <=< => 0

Obtain shear stress correction ratios, R:


r , . i + (e , - i)

R y( . i + •< (e yI - D

Obtain shear flovs q^, and q^.,

page

Bending
STRUCTURAL A NA1 YSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference (=>

INTERACTION - BEJIDIN5 (Sizple or Complex) and SKTAR - Ultimate

The maximum shear stress in a beam usually occurs at the principal axis, vhere
the bending stress is zero. The maximum bending stress occurs at an extreme
fiber, vhere usually the shear stress is zero.

In - the elastic range , the distribution of shear


and bending stress is usually such that the most
critical point in the section is at either the
principal axis or the extreme fiber. This is true
on a rectangular section since the shear distri-
bution across the section is parabolic and the
bending distribution is linear. If the shear dis-
tribution had been elliptical every point in the
cross section vould be equally critical In ccm-
binded stress based on circular interaction.

In the plastic range however, the distribution of


the shear stress as veil as the bending stress
differs from that in the elastic range. This
results in intermediate points vhich frequently
become more critical in combined stress than
either the shear stress at the principal axis or
the bending stress at the extreme fiber.
Parabolic
shear

lliptical J
shear

Bending

Shear

To find the most critical point vould require calculation of cccbined stresses
at a series of points across the section. This procedure vould be not only
laborious but also probably incorrect (conservative) since there vould undoubt-
edly be some redistribution of stress avay frca the most critical point, although
the exact nature of this redistribution aprears to be extremely difficult to
determine*

Therefore the folloving procedure shall be used


A
Obtain

. vhere m and M are determined a3 explained in Sections I-


' u u

and II-B

For complex bending, R_ - R DX i + R^,


obtained from Section v-E.

vhere

and R

oy
B. Obtain

. vhere f is the maximum shear stress based on shear


' s

flovs obtained according to Section IU. (The maximum shear stress does
not alvays occur at the principal axis.)

For complex bending, R e is determined as follows:

(l) Obtain maximum sheer stresses f , and f . based on shear


flovs determined in Section VT» y

< 2 > ?«' -

anrt B sy 1 " F
su

su

(3)
3 * a , 2
sy'

page H-^- 1

fiTRUCTURAI ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

' INTERACTION - BE HP HP (Simple or Complex) and £K^3 - Ultimate (Cont'd)

C CBTAJ5 MARGIN OF SAFETY from the interaction curve of Figure 2. Note:


" The margin thus obtained is not a "true" margin of safety, since its
Yariation with applied load is non-linear; but if the calculated
margin is positive the true margin is positive, and if the calculated
»arSn is negative the true margin is negative. The margin of safety
as computed above shall be used for formal stress analysis.

If the "true" margin of safety is desired, it may "be obtained "by a


trial and error procedure in which the loading is varied (all loads
varied in sane proportion) until the loading is found for which the
margin of safety as determined ebove is zero. This loading becomes
the allowable, and the true margin of safety is given by:

Allowable Load _ ^
" Applied Load "

D. THE MARGIN OF SAFETY, obtained in Section C


above does not Include possible local inter-
action of shear and bending stresses at points
such as A in the adjoining sketch, at which
a substantial shear stress necessarily occurs
In combination with the Tnarlminn bending stress.
Such points must be .checked separately , al-
though Judga-ut will have to be used in border-
line cases as to whether this situation exists.
Ordinarily points such as B in the sketch,
even though highly stressed in both shear and
bending, are protected by possible redistri-
bution, hence are adequately covered by the
interaction of Section C above, and should not
be checked locally.

To check a point for local interaction, obtcin true shear stress accord-
ing to Section HI ani true bending stress according to Sections I-S and

compute R. - and R - , a=& obtain the margin of safety _

* *tu su
on the basis of a circular interaction curve:

M.S.- . 1 0 - 1

tm « is not a true margin of safety - refer to discussion in Section C


above*
For complex bending, the same problem may exist and should be
Invest i^ted in a comparable manner.

page /7.<?*2

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Urr^RACTIOr? - BSnDUX- ("Simple or Complex) and ErSIOIT - Ultimate

D.

Obtain

, vhere a and M are determined as explained in Sections


I-D and II-B.

For complex bending, R. « R. , + R. , , vhere R. , end R. , are


determined from Section V-E. cy

B. Obtain

A F

tu

, where P is the applied axial tension load and

A is the cross sectional area


Ac

C. Obtain
If the section is unsynnetrical, take c for the side

for which axial and bending stresses are of opposite sign.

For complex bending, obtain both (^jO x i Bcd ^k^y 9 * ^


obtaining (55-) t > * f tn * section is unsycaetrical about the

for the side for which axial stress and stress

,Ac

x 1 axis, take c x ,

due to m x , are of opposite sign. Obtain (£§-) v r analogously

Obtain [Y] fron the Table I ? is a material plasticity factor

equal to zero for a perfectly elastic (brittle) material and equal to


1.00 for a perfectly plastic material (rectangular stress strain diagram).
F.

Obtain fnj free Figure 5-

For complex bending, obtain both n , and n , from Figure 3

V V - + n D

Plot R., R. on Figure k as point A. Draw OA and extend to its inter-


section B with the appropriate curve according to the value of n
obtained in Section E. Determine coordinates of Point B and designate
then as R^' and R^' .

Margin of Safety for combined be nding and tensio n is given "by:

R7 1

M«Sa

or
M.S •

IOTEPACTION - BENDITC (Simple or Complex), TE?i5I0!T, ard SHEA? - Ultimate

When shear acts in addition to bending and tension, the calculation of


shear flow as explained in Sections III and VI and the interaction of shear
and bending (Ref. Section VII) must be modified.

A,

Follow the procedure required in Sections VIII- A through VIII-F

page (7.4.3

c; T RtJrTURAL AM Al YSI5- MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIH AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

B.
C.

E.

f.

6.

OTTOH - BSHDPC (Stole or Cmiex). an* SHEAR - Ultimate (Cont'd')

Assuming elastic stress distributions- (stresses given by P/A and


£/l)obtaiB the greatest total fiber stress in tfa* section due to
the applied loads. Denoting this stress by f total , obtain:

'to

*t f

and
total

'tD

'total

Plot these values of R, A « point D in Figure k (D will lie on the


straight line GAB). T3 T>

Obtain a - OA, b . GB, and d - CO in Figure U. For convenience, it


impermissible to take a, b, and d as the selections of OA, OB, and
GD, respectively, on the R t or axis.

D. Obtain the degree of plasticity, ~c

a - d

If a< < 0, take •< - 0


Obtain 6 as explained in Sections IH-A-1 and III-S-U

For ccmplex bending, obtain 6 X , aai © yl , as explained in


Section VI-B.

Ccmwite fa - 1 + (9 - l).j Note: R will have a value between


iXKe nllPg-tenslon in elastic rang^ and 6 (bending-tenaion fully
plastic ) •

For complex bending, obtain both

1 +
1

<e x , - i)

♦ •< (e y , - i)

Compute maximum shear stress, f , obtaining shear flow frcm:


<l - *T

vherc R is determined in step F above. (The Taxlnun shear stress does


not always occur at the principal axis.)

For complex bending, obtain maximum shear stresses in berth direct


ion, f f and f , based on the shear flews:

page 4. 4

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

*\^T DTTERACTION - B5HDDP (Simple or Complex), TENSION, and SHEAR - Ultlrrate


(Cont'd)

vhere the R values are determined in step F above and S , and

S . are the shear forces parallel to the x' and y 1 axes respectively.
Obtain

su

For complex bending v

- f

sx

sy r

vhere P.

6X

sx'
su

and

sy*

F su

Obtain the bending-tension utilization factor, ■= ^


b were found in step C above. ' ■

, vhere a and

OBTAIN MARGIN OF SAFETY from the interaction curve of Figure 2, enter-


ing vita R and U . Note: This is not a true nargin of safaty -
Refer to discussion in Section VII-C.

Consider at least qualitatively the possibility of substantial shear


stress occurring at the sane point a3 laximum fiber stress, as in the
I section sketched in Section VTI-D.

IKTERACTIOPi - BSHDDC (Slrple or Complex) and COMHttlSSION - Ultimate

A. Obtain

B.

vhere m and M are determined hy Sections I-D and II-B.


u u

m u must take account of secondary bending.

Por complex "bending R. * + R. . vhere R. , and R. , are

determined from Section V-2and must take account of secondary


bending*
p
Obtain R « — vhere P * applied axial load and P is the axial
c P c
c

load at vhich the member vould fail in compression.


C. Margin of Safety

H. S <

2tf

page

STRUCTUR Al ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

~YT INTERACTION - BSHDI7C (Simple or Complex), CQ-CTE5SI0N, and SHEAR - Ultinate

A. Follow procedure required in Sections X-A and X-B*


B. Plot R c , on Figure k as point A. Drav OA and extend to it3 inter-
section B vith the curve n « 1.

C. Follow procedure of Section IX-B through EC-K replacing R t vith R c and


other tension subscripts with compression subscripts.

INTERACTION - Bending (Simple or Complex), Axial Lead, and Shear - YIELD

The yield margin of safety of a "beam under cabined leading shall be


obtained by means of S.M. 70, Section II, except that ordinarily only
the point of maximum fiber stress and the point of maxi^iun shear stress
shall be checked, Whenever shear stresses are present, however, at
points of maximum fiber stress (such as point A in the I section shown
in Section VII-D) the shear stress and bending stress shall be combined at
such points.

Yielding of Compact Structure

To investigate yielding of a compact structure (crippling or buckling not


pertinent), under the action of two dimensional combined stress, interaction
curves should not be used. Instead, a maximum "equivalent" stress ratio R
is computed and a margin of safety obtained therefrom:

MS = -i- - 1
R

I is given by the following formula (which is based upon the "maximum dis-
tortion strain energy" criterion for yielding):

R = \f*ni 2 + Rn 2 2 - R n 2 + Rs 2
R fl is a normal stress ratio due to combining direct stress and bending stress
and is given by:

Rn = Rt + Rb or R n = Rc + Rb

Stress ratios due to direct or bending stress are positive for tension and
negative for compression; care must be taken that signs are correct . Sub-
scripts 1 and 2 indicate directions which are mutually perpendicular.

In evaluating R t or R^ F ty or F cy should be chosen as the allowable accord-


ing to whether the applied stress is tension or compression. If it is

page 11.

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNA M ICS/CON VA IR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Yiel ding of Concaot Structure (Cont'd)

deaircd to taie aocount of tha difference In yield allowable between with-


grain and orosa-grain directions, rather th*n to aasure oonserrativoly that
the alloToble i. always the scalier of the t^ro, then the "l* and 2' direct
ion* should be chosen to ooineide with the grair. direotioas ard fit, or Eo,
and H t£ or 2^ eash evaluated usinj it3 appropriate yield allovtblo.
E 3 is a shear stress ratio due to coabinins sinple shear aid torsional shaar
and is given byi

where E^s »=d Est *re stress ratios for sinple uhsar *rd torsional shear,
fi*, and Rat ray - be coabined to gire S« only whon f ea a:*i f a t »ot in the
saae or opposite direotionaj and they must
be oriented with respect to the norsal
•treasoa at shown in the adjacent ghetoh
(for otherwise the stress condition is no
longer tiro dieenaioLal )« The sose sign
oonrentlon eust be aaed. for both Eas ard
igf

f a v should be taiea as .577 Fty

crosa-gr^* 4

;rain

f g ty *ay be approxir&ted as*

sty
+ ' Fty - (F.tu - ?eu)

Fbu " *ta

111 a 1 a are eraluated for the st=e point in tha atruoture.


*ay have to be ohected to find the nost oritioal one.

Severn! points

23)

page I7.4-.7

c
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference t>


TAB IE I

Material Plasticity Factor, t (Re?. Section VIII-D)

and

Plastic Bending Figure Index

MATERIAL ' JL figure

ALUMUUM ALLOTS

201U-T6 Die Forging (L) .91 6

202k-?k Extrusion t<.250 (L) 68 7

.2505t<3-00 (L) 88 8

7075-TS Extrusion t<.250 (L) -93 9

7C75-T6 & -T6*51X Extrusion .250£t<3.000 (L) . . . .93 10

7075-^6 Die Forging t$2.00 (L) 92 11

356-T6* Sand Castins «75 12

MAGNESIUM ALLOTS

ZK60A-T5 Extrusion (L) .83 13


AZ63A-T6 Sand and Permanent Mold Casting . . • . -5** l 1 *

AZ9IC-T6 Sand and Permanent Mold Casting .... -5^ 1^

ALLOY STEEL

Condition ts£.l87 91 15

Condition N t>.l87 91 1°

H.T. 125 ksi 93 17

H.T. 150 ksi - 95 13

H.T* 180 ksi 9o 19

H.T, 190 ksi 95 20

H.T. 200 ksi -9^ 21

H.T. 260 ksi (L) 91 22

H.T. 260 ksi (T) 97 23

TITANIUM ALLOTS

5Al-2.5Sn Bar & Forging - Annealed -98 2k

6A1-4V Bar & Forging - Annealed -96" 25

- STA t*1.0 95 26
- STA 1.0«t<a.O 95 27

- STA 2.CKt<3.0 95 28

6Al-6V-2Sn Bar & Forging - STA 1.0<t<£.C .... .95 29 -

. STA 2.0<t^3.C 95 30

- STA 3.0<t^;.0 95 31

8AI-IM0-IV Plate - Duplex Annealed t^2.00 ... .96 32

13V-llCr-3Al Plate - Annealed t^.250 .97 33

- STA t<.250 69 3k

HOTS: (L) - Longitudinal (T) - Transverse


STA - Solution treated and aged

page n . S". /

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL D YNA MICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

rnuu 9«

VltlMU ut YUU «•!*»« *T -T '*r Bywtrua SmUom

Nifmtlui Alloy
Mem Tc«v*r*tur«

toik-iC du ror|i««
trot-ld btraatoa

t * ,t50

,2V> < I < 3-00


T07J-T6 mnialM

t < ,»5o

« -1651 ftrtiualia

t < 2,'«

AZ£)JUl6 h Auy:-v>
2

H
J)

H
C

>

■0

>>

o
rn

in
5

-<
(/>

(/>

>
z
c

UltlMt* «nd IltU Vtluaa or for Sywatrteftl bottom


Alloy Steal
Rous Tea pcrmt urc yCO

ttoterlnl Dc»lgi»tlo« Curve


Coalition * t < . L37 1
Conrfltimt N I > .187 ?
K.T. 125
H.T. 1)0 kal
K.T. lflO V*l
H.T. 190 hat
H.T. 200 kal
1.0 1.1 1.2 1-3 1> 1-5 »-7 16 l -f ? 0 I.T. S60 kit (L)

* N.T. 260 k«l (T)

CD

33

C
ID

1>

O
<A
t)

3
5
5:

z
>

-<
en

10

>
z
c
>

VHtmU ui IUU •» -y

TltMliM Allity
Rota Tcapcratur*
far tawtrl*kl fettloN

fU
O

CO

yu lv ft ror«ln|

AnnttUft 1

tU-W lir 4 rerttM

Ajw&led f

ST* t % 1,0 )
bta l.o < t c t.o *

ST* s.o < t « ).o J


6A1-6V .?3a W/ ft rorilag

(JT» 1.0 « I < f.O 4

S» »,0 < t < 3.0 T

ATA 3.0 «■ t ^ «.0 B

&U.1MU-1V ilaU

DupUi AtjmhIW t t f.O V

l]T.UCr-lAl FLtU

W» l( .250 U

2:
>>

■v.
o
o
5
>>

in
t>
)>

10

DO

c
o

33

6
-<
in

>
z
c

■ Brtied o.i HIoLjum CiiftraDleed Value*

fit
O
<D

CO

* J-jw! ou Hlnlrina fitinrnntet.-J Vnlitoo

5
2
o
o

2
3

o
to

to

to
O

H
C
33
>

■<
z
c
>

>

tflttc Moment

Ficims H
B' Hti in in nre ruTric raw.e

POPlt-T 1 * .Mufilnum Alloy "xtmalon .!?50 t t <■ 3.00


(Longitudinal)
Roam Temperature

Q - Static Moment
* on Minn

i'irant?cd Value ■

• Uased oq Hlnlrai Ou*r»nteed Values

Pi

-J

in

rnuw i)

WIDIIO HI THE rtASIIC MHQPt


UOfiOfUT? HubmIum Alloy Extrualoa

Ron Tcapcr-itur*
Q . Static NoMOt

laal Alia

for the apeclal c*m vttara tlw (rise I pal uli


la an axla of a jiMi tryi

• wh.r«| h * 1 /,

Shaar flow at S*ctloa a. a,

Obtain R f roa curves only for at»at« banting


vlth no axial load. Othervlaa HI tart.

c>

H
C
33
>

tl

o
m

-<
en

to
o

-<

>
z
c
>

1 Rua.>4 on Niiupuai Guarantee*' Valuta

1
v>

->3

TJ
ft)

<o

CD

rn
D

Sir"
o

CO

o
rn

0)

-c
in

-<
(/>

>

c
>

* Hunt**, or. Mil, Guaranteed Valuta

1
* Btii-d on Minlfcua Guar* lit ced Vtluei

1 B*aed on Hint* J* Ouarftnt-ecd Values

* l*t-*4 on Hlniaua Guaranteed Valuei

' 'J-ijcd on Mln

• Uaol on Mlnlaun Guaranteed Value ■


3

r-

C
33

Si

</>
•<

(0
6

-<
(/>

>
z
c
>

• Uated on WnLaua Guaranteed Value!

<D
*0

* B«ae4 on MlnLaun Cuarantaed Values

JO

ok")

(A

C
3}

O
to
"O

O
m

</>
-<

0)

>
z
>

-<
(/)

t/)

>
z
c
figurr 27
brndtwi in nr: kastic rawie

6A1-W TlUnlua Alloj Bar anl Forging 1.0 < t < 2.0
Solution Tr.>aUd and Aged
ftocu TV*puii»tnnj

. Stat la Haitt

Q - Static Haint

Principal Aatt

For tho • Fecial caa« whera tha principal uli


la an axla of aya»etry;

"T7c

where;
Shear flaw at Sactlon a-a, • A

Obit In R tram curve ■ only for alaplc bcndlog

5
2

JO

33

>
Z
>

r
-<
>
z

■ Uaaod on Hlnlatun Guaranteed Values

■J

0)

to

CD
BF.runc in tw rt/r.Tic ramj«-:

6ai.1iV TllantuM Alloy Hnr anl forging 2.0 < t < 3.0
Solution Treated mn\ *p,ed
Rom Tea pl> r»t uro

Q - Static Mnant

Q * Statle MwBt

rrlnclpaL Axla

H.0

120

100
Tor the • pedal caae whera lha principal uli
la an axla at ayanelry:

2( W

Shear flow at Section a-a,

Obtain P. (rem curves only for lUaplc be Mine


with do axlul load. Otherwiaa ace text.

H
C
33
>

</)

o
m

in
-<

(/>

o
6

>
z
>

-<

10

>
z

rC
>

r™

• Baaed 'on Hlntoua Guaranteed Valuta


J

«o

ID

-J

0*

enoim n iub «>^rin tunes

6jU-£V-23« TlUolua Alloy Bar aui Forging 2.0 < t ( 3.0


Solution Treated mal Aged
Hoc» Itoaperature

- 3t*tlo Mnent
Q ■ Statle Hoa*&t

1_I

For the apoctal cat* vher* the ja* loci pal uli
la an uli of ajUMtryt

where;

y »

Shaar flow at Section a -a, a^_

Obtain R fro* curves only for sl*pl« bending


with uo axial load. Othervla* aae text.

* Baaed on Klnlaua Guaranteed Value*


• nn HImImm Otumoteed Value ■

* Bated on HIdImi Guaranteed Vtluei

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1.3 Reference 2.

TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR BENDING MODULUS OF RUPTURE CURVES FOR


SYMMETRICAL SECTIONS

These curves provide yield and ultimate modulus of rupture values for
symmetrical sections only. For materials with significantly different tension and
compression stress-strain curves, the necessary corrections for shifting of the
neutral axis are already included. In the case of work hardened stainless steels in
longitudinal bending with all fibers in tension (as in pressurized cylinders), the
transverse Modulus of Rupture Curves are applicable.

It is recommended that Referenced or other official sources be used for


allowable material properties. Where these values correspond directly to the
values called out on the graphs of this section, the modulus of rupture values are
applicable as shown.

Where material allowables vary with thickness, cross-sectional area, etc. ,


only one or two Modulus of Rupture Curves are presented. Therefore, for
material properties slightly higher or lower than those used in the given curve, the
modulus values may be ratioed up or down ( provided the % elongations are
practically the same) .

Section 1.3

page n. 4. /

ffT pn<mjRAL ^ fliygis manual

GENERAL DYNAMiCS/CONVAlR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 17.6

PLASTIC BENDING

MINIMUM BENDING MODULUS OF RUPTURE FOR SYMMETRICAL SECTIONS

PAGE
CARBON STEEL AISI 1023-1025 17.6.4

AISI ALLOY STEEL A 17.6.5

A-286 17.6.7

AISI 301 17.6.8

AISI 321 17.6.11

PH 15-7 Mo 17.6.12

17-4 PH 17.6.13

17-7 PH 17.6.14

19-9 DL AND 19-9 DX 17.6.15

ALUMINUM

2014 17.6.16

2024 17.6.17

6061 17.6.20

7075 17.6.21

7079 17.6.24
A AISI ALLOY STEELS INCLUDE AISI 4130, 4140 t 4340, 8630, 8735,
8740 AND 9S40.

pagt

STRUCTURAL A NALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

TITANIUM

PAGE

COMMERCIALLY PURE 17.6.27

Ti - 8 Mn 17.6.27

Ti - 6 AL-4V 17.6.28

Ti - 4 Mn-4AL 17.6.28

MONEL

K-MONEL 17.6.29

MONEL ALLOY H-6.23


page n.£-3

STRUCTURAL ANALY SIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNA MICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

STRUCTURES MANUAL

Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for Symmetrical Sections

Carbon Steel AISI 1023-1025

page n. £ .*?

Minimum Banding Modulus of Rupture Curves for Symmetrical


AISI Alloy Steal, Normalized, s 0. 188 Thick

Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for Symmetrical Sections


AISI Alloy Steel, Normalized, > 0. IBS Thick
160

120

100

(ksl)

ao

40

20

i
i

i
-f-

1
1
1
Ultln

Mie,-j

~ Ro

jm T

■m

X*

at
ure

1
i

>
+
■ 1 "

7
i

s
. 1

i
1

i
1

— i —
Y

lei

d -
- 1 1

1
1

l
i
:
-
-

1
— i—
"V
+

—\ -
-h
r m - 30, UIIU pSI

K ly - 75, 1100 psi


E 29 x 10 f * ps

-i —

-t ■
— i —
i -

T
r. iung;i(ion = iji
\

~r

i .
-t-

4-
I
i

i
— i

— , — ,
+

i
120

(ksl)

60

20
F( U = 90, 000 psi
F|y =70.000 psi
E = 29 x 10 6 psi
Elongation = 231

K/>
H
3D
C

H
C
33

1.0

1.2

1.6

i.e
2.0

Cj

o
m

-<
(/>

-i
rn

(/>

>

>


CO

*>
z
c
>

Minimum Bondinf Modului of R«*ur« Cunr.i lor 8ymm*trlc.l 8.cIlon.


A1SI Alloy 8U*1. Hut Tr«*t*d
-
■■
.1 Ultimate |
1 1
ton

-
" R


>
-r

rie

d :
/
>*
r.

125

00

D D

it

;»i
■ IU ■

t'|y - 103,000 p

E - 2> l I0 6 p

il :
•1 :


El

Dltf

lllo

II *

23'

t :
i ■;■
Li
1.0 I-* 10
Mloimum Banding Modului ol Huplura Curvaa for Symmetric*! Sactioiw
AISI Alloy Steal, Heat TraaUd

Minimum Banding Modulus of Rupture Curves for Symmetrical Sectlona


A1SI Alloy »•«]. Heat Treated

Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for Symmetrical Sections


AISl Alloy Steel. Heal Treated

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for Symmetrical Sections

A-286 Alloy, Heat Treated


page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

1
a

-3
o

•c

I!

n
n

£ 1

3
?!

0 35
3 <

1 =

9M-

s :

• as

ii

■ "

i s

*3
page i /

2*1

Minimum BtodiDf Modulus of Ruptur* Curvai lor 8yinm*lrtc»l Stctloos


Coavmlr AitroQUtlcB 3/4 Hard AISI 301 Stain Um Su«l SbMt

(_<,fGX. 0-TIOO5)

J J u

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMlCS/CONVAtR ANO SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
r

Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for Symmetrical Sections


17-4 PH Stainless Steel - Heat Treated - Bars and Forgings

MlalBM ModutM of luptur* CurvM for 9ymm«tr1etl BocUons

lt-1 DL (AMI UM) ft lt-t OX (AMI tttt) KaJaloM KmI

Mt

ItO

IM

(kit)

2'.
Room ttmpartturo

7^

Ultimitt

F| H -H.tOt pal
■ E -If.tKlOtpil

EIOM>ltlOB - S0%

2:

7*

7
7*

Minimum BomUiic Modulus of Ratlin Curm lor *moMtrlcal BocUom


lt-tDL (AMS 6627) A lt-t DX (AM8 6131) BtaUUit SUol

l.t

1.8

■ —
1

t.t

llllllHiliiliPiiillllliiii

t.t
o

r-

c
o

31

Cj

to
tj

O
rn
(n

-<

>

t/)

>

c
>

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for Symmetrical Sections


2014-T6 Aluminum Alloy Forgings, (Transverse) Thickness £ 4 in.
page I7.£».n

Mini mum Bsodiof Modulus oi Ruptur* Curvai lor aymmstrlcal Sections


1024 -Tl Aluminum Alloy flbss* t Plats - Hssi Tr salad. Thickness s 0.250 in.

(<-rec . Qca-A--2 so/4-)

Minimum Banding Modulus o( Rupture Curvea tot Symmetrical Hecllons


2024- T3 L T4 Aluminum Alloy Sheel 4 Plata - Heal Treated. Thickness * 0. 60 In.

140

120

100

<ksl>
60

40
1":
'ill
: F

fi4

00
1
: F

y - 40. 000 pii


= 10.5 X 106 p
: E

— t:

nil

mat

•.!!
i E

on

[ad

on

12%
>
.

JO IT

Ti

mp

era
ur<

1-:
1
Yle

df
1.0

1.5

2.0

(Site . <o-Ck- A.- 4*>o/*)

Minimum Banding Modulus ot Rupture Curves (or Symmetrical Sections


2024-T3 Aluminum Alloy Clad Sheet I Piste - Ho at Treated. Thlckneii 0. 010 to 0. 062
In.

Minimum Bending Modulus ol Rupture Curves (or Symmetrical Sections ^


2024- T4 Aluminum Alloy Clad Sheel L Plate - Heal Treated. Thickness 0. 25 to 0. 50
in.
120

100

(ksl)

B0

60

i
1

_)...
-r

\
-|-

~c

+
■-» —

i
i .

4—

J-

-r
"i
4-
y

-M

!-

1
._!_._.

_L.
— i —

llltin

na
e

- F

- f
tu = «2, 000 psi
tJ » 40, 000 psi
- 10.0 x 10*> (is

-i-

— i —

±
L :; '

i
5 : ~

- E

— t—
rA-
t Elongation = 1 1%

\
r
i

r

_ i_
i
i-

...

A~

4-
a*

Roon

n Ten
rtfM>r&

lu

-e -

-h
-4-

-4-
1
— t—

L— ,
1

-r

i
L_
i ■

4 —

!
1

>
■-

■ !

— i —

1
i

4-

i .
~h

i
1

■ i


L _

— t —

-~r—
i
i

; Yield
i_

1
1
r

r
1
—r—

1
!

— j—
-1-
1

— i —
1 ■

i
r

4-

: i

t/>

H
3)
C

1>
C3
Ol

rn

o>
■<

Ol

CO

>

z
>

<

t/)

2
>
z
c
>
r

1.0

1.5

2.0

2tjc
I

Minimum Bandlof Modulua ol Ruptur* Curvo (or Symmetrical Section*


20M-T6 Aluminum Alloy CI id SfcMt - tteat TrMUd t Aged. Thlcknew < 0.064 in.

<;tructurai anai ysis manual


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for Symmetrical Sections


6061-T6 Aluminum Alloy Sheet - Heat Treated & Aged. Thickness aO. 020 in.

(ksi)

2Qc
I

^ 1

page n.fe>. Z)

Minimum Bending Modulua of Ruptura Curvaa for ■ymmalrieal Socllonc


10TS-TI Aluminum Alloy Clfed Shaat ft Plain. TtdckMaa *. 03t In.

Minimum B««*nf Moaihu of Buptiira Curvna for •/mmalrlcil Scellont


TOIa-TO Aluminum Alloy Bar* Bbo+t ft plain. TOcknaia x .031 In,
1M
.

/
--

7
»

- 1

1.0

M E
at

F|. - 10,000 pal


\

" 1

7 1

E
■lor

- f

& ■

Ion

10
- 7

« pal i

_..

iM

: .i:
i^.

tlm

il"

at*

r-


-

i:
ii;

't:


...

7
r

t::
•f-
7


/
\w.
iif:

7
oor

n T

ami

:?r

»ri

lur

: i
/

- R

■r

■lb
! 1

::r
7

.!;.
i:

7
7
7
7

Yl

•Id
\
— 1-
i
r..
I

■ i —
~tf

in

lit

lu

.i:

i.:
.!f-

1.

nit

1.0

L8
I

l.t

3
2

o
-I
c

>

O
</>

o
rn

</>
-<

6
>
>

r-

-<
t/j

[/)

c
>

c
Minimum Bandlnf laodulua of Ruptura Curvaa (or Symmetrical Sections
1075-Tft Alumlaum Alloy ExtniakMS. Thlckneaa s 0.28 la.

Minimum Banding Modulua of Ruplura Cur«e lor Symmetrical Section*


7O75-T0 Aluminum Alloy Die Forfinga. TTilckneee * 3 In-

z.
m

l.o

~T- ■ ■ ■
F|u ■ 75.000 pal
Fly - OS. 000 pal
a E - 10.S x 10« pal
— 1

inn

mai
Elonfalloa " 7%

• -
y
i::r

7T.:
i . ; ■
4
field L

y
r.:
1 .

n T
1

L ttttti-
2.0

<*•!)
r * 1H Ann nal

ji:

Ultimate i

• tu — r
F|y " OS. 000 pal
E - 10.3 x 100 pi
Elonfallon - 7%
-rr:

1
✓*
J
s

Yle

d ■
i:
atu

re


HOO

m 1

1-

emper
.U.

1.0

. 2Qc
" I
1.5
3 I

JO

c
o

3J

tn

O
rn

</)
■<

</)

0
5
3:

-<

Z
IC

>

qTRUCTURAI ANALYSI S -MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for Symmetrical Sections


7075-T6 Aluminum Alloy Hand Forgings Area < 16 in

page il.<*. Z4

J
Minimum Bor-Un. Modulu. of Huptur. Curv.. for Symm^rlc.l Mjo«
7079-T6 Aluminum Alloy Die Forging. (U>ntftudir*l> Thlckn... *6.0 U.

160

140

120

100

80

60

L Ul
1

i- . ia null nc
ri u i—

F|y - 64,000 psl


E « 10.3 x 10 6 pt«l

Ulti

ma
El

ongallun *

-i
•1
in:

re

J
:::\
TTtl

ROO

Ten

•i
i
all
. .i

;!■!
Yie

<*.
Id

!
1 1
is
1 —
1

1.0

l.S
2.0

Minimum Bondl* Module ol Huplurt Cur,., lor *m«-*rl»| |*^«"


-Tt AltiBlBum Alloy Hmnd rorH»|i (*ort Trumrtt, IMckMM

Ul^Diyn. Mo*.lM ol Our*, for Symwlrleol SkUom

tlTI Tf Alw«l M . Alio, H~i r.rglo<i - <UM Tnmr»> nioto... «• ta.

ISO

110

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for Symmetrical Sections


7079- T6 Aluminum Alloy Hand Forcings - (Longitudinal). Thickness ^6 in.

page il.U.^l

2 <=?3

If Iftlnim Bonding Uodului of Kuptur* Cvrvw for Ifauotrtetl ioctli


Ti-IMa TlUalnm Alloy

( 1

Minimum Bending Modulu. o( Ruplare Curve, for Symmetrlc.l Section.


TI-4M/1-4AI Tluntum Alloy

260

250
220

<ksl)

160

no

— -

1 1 1 1 1 1
-

Itoom

Te

mp<

ure
"I
-

-
%

j
F.

J.O

)0 t

si


/

F|y - 130,000 p3t


E * 15.5 k I0 G |>

1
f

E
oni

[all

on *

12

7-

1 — 4
R
Ull

Ima

te

/

/
I

/
/
/


/

t
-

r
. Yield
-J.
M

* <
il

i"

1.5
2tjc
1

2.0

fiTptJCTUR AL ANAfYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

^ Data Source. Section 1 .3 Reference Z.

\ SECTION 17.7

PLASTIC BENDING

|U1fMIMI 1M PLAS JT. RPNniNfi CA 1RVES

STEELS

PAGE
CARBON STEEL AISI 1023 - 1025 17.7.3

AISI ALLOY STEEL A 17 ' 7 ' 4

A-286 17.7.9

AISI 301 17.7.10

AISI 321 17.7.24

PH 15-7 Mo 17.7.25

17-4 PH 17.7.26

17-7 PH 17 - 7 - 27

19-9 DL AND 19-9 DX 17.7.30

ALUMINUM

2014
2024
6061
7075
7079

17.7.32
17.7.34
17.7.40
17.7.41
17.7.46

A AISI ALLOY STEELS INCLUDE AISI4130, 4140, 4340, 8630, 8735.


8740, AND 9840.

2 1*1

page n.l.l

GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

JfTANlUM

Ti - 8 Mn
Ti - 6 AL-4V
Ti - 4 MrMAL

K-MONEL
MONEL ALLOY
AZ61A
HK 31A-0
2K 60A

PAGE
17.7.51
17.7.52
17.7.53

17.7.54
17.7.55

17.7.56
17.7.58
17.7.60

page n.l.Z
MlBlnua PlMUe Curw
AIS Alloy m—l, NormtHs*d. lllckMat >•.!•• h.

Hlnlmum PUatlo Boodlaf Cimaa


AIM Alloy «mI, NoruaUtad. > •. 1H IWck

Minimum Plastic Binding Cunwa


A1S1 Alloy Stael. Norm»llMd, ThlckiM *0. IBB ta.

0.002 0.004 0.00« 0.001 0.010 ^

« (InctMi/lnch)

Minimum Plaatle B*adlnf <>•■"»••


AW Alloy KmI, Haftt Tmlid

Minimum PUfttlc Banding CurvM


Altl Alloy BMt, H«U Tr*iUd
«.oo4 a.oot-

• <lncfc»/lKk)

>

Wnlmum PUatJc Banding Curvsi


A IS I Alloy *••), IWtl Tr«ud

k - 2.0

It - 1.1

h - i.s
k - 1.26

k - 1.0

Minimum Plaatlc Bandlnf CunrO


AISI Allojr StMl, Hftt TrtiUd

ma

0.002 0.004

5
2

r-

H
33

C
o

H
C
3J
>

006 0. 0OB 0.010 0. 012 0. 014


< (inch«/lncb)

<n

o
m

•<
to

in
6

-<
CO
m

>
z
c

Minimum Flaatlc tondlnf Curv»«


AIM Alloy KmIi. HmI Traaiwl

•.•1 0.04 O.M O.Oi 0.10 (

• (Incbci/lnck)

Minimum Pintle Binding Curvaa


A19I Alloy ShI. Hut Treated

UO

110
14*

Hi
(kill

lflO

,110

40

'1

-1
■1

i:;

1
Room Tcmperitura

i::

t-

Hi

K:

4
i

i::

iT
in

r_
LV

. i::

13

K
i:;

1- 5"
IS

f-
u;

L j

MM

1 (1
•i

?!

•V
flu

fly

111.000 pit

«* A w tfli
£

1 '

-rt:

:n-

V
t

rrf

•a

— - :

F" = •■■ .1 1* 1
*

*!

;i:

IT"

LIU
1
!ti:

H
3!

h
if

i#
:ir

rfij
pi

Z 3=
■J-

it=

s-i

3::
:cr.

:r±
r
j"sl

*:
*
f

j.
f>

-f

t\.
l>

■f*
/


n:

r
-*
/
.T-

y
**-
t

=
t

r.
!:. r:.
:

1!: +
.It
/
i

id

h
ill
if

j:

M
tr.i
Uii

k -1.0

k - 1. •

k - t.tt

k - |.«

0. 001 0. 004 0. 0(M 0. 001 0. 010


( (Inckca/lnck)

0.011
3

3)

fttialMia HuUt ■mAbi C«n««

( (laehM/lncfc)

Ml* mm rUotta Ckrna


l/| Uu4 Am Ml MalatoM ft«al frMl-fcr TmIh «r TmmrM Cm*nhI«

Dl
O
CD
k - I.M

k - I. ft

in

IUrIbub PImUc B*odla( Cam*


1/1 Hir4 A19I 301 Sui*1«b> SmI Ami -for TmiIn or Trumn* Om*i*mIm

MHH

Sill

mi
nip

3
3

1>
o
o

o
o>

o
m

•<

3J

c
n

H
C
3)
z
c
>

:>

t 'i

Minimum PlaiUc B«odinf Cwrv««


1/2 Hard A1SI 301 SulbUu 8u«l An) - for LMgUuftul Cum^n—l—

k- l.tt
H

O
— I

3J

t/>

o
rn

o>
"<
to

to

to
O

<

in
z

Minimum PlkiUc Banding Cunraa


S/4 Hard AISI 301 SUInl... tt.et-for T.n.lon or TrmivitM Compraailoa
.nd Sir... Bellev.d M.lorl.l - (or Tension or Tranavoraa Compra.tloa

UJbIbum Mutts BaaAaf Qirvaa


1/4 Bard AM 301 Btafeloaa 8U«1 Aaal - for Tauten or Tranawaa Compraaaloa
ud Straee lUUawl Malarial - lor Taaaloa or Traaavaraa Coupraaaloa

ID

360
320

260

240

too

k - t.e

- i.i

k - 1.6

k - 1.14
k - 1.0

120

DO
C

5
2

r-
O

5:

o
o

o
o
rn

</»
-<
to

m
g

6
5:

10

c
>

0.O4 o.oe o.oa

• llnchei/tncm

0. 12
MIiIhub FUiUe B*odia( Corvoo
Cpavalr MtroMtflci SpMlftl J/4 Hort AMI Ml SUlolOM Bool Moot
(or T«Mloa or Triaovoroo Comproooloo

t.tOt 0.004 0.000 0.0M 0.010

• (iBCooo/tach)

MlalniiB MaatU %mm*m C*rf»


Fall ftual AMI 1*1 lUlklMa ftaal OW-fer Taaalaaar Traaawraa Compraaaloa
tt«l irm MUavaal Material - for Taaaloa ar Co«ati«»ioa

iBsseBfi^s&SM

ill yp/i^

■c-r*- -ra--TO3Kt:;-Jiai- J »r.]rT ;ti t J Lin diB iir CiS IKh -T-

•.■!"!»! 35 ?g SKIS
flBBMSMSBIiSBSSiiiiiSSi

Minimum PUitla Banding Carrot


rail Hard AMI 101 ftinlui Saal Shoot- for Tanaloa or TriniwrM ComproMioa
and* Straaa Rallaratf Malarial - for Taaaloa or ComprooJoa

141

tOf.

1M

<«-<>

4ff
■*=

-:

!.
-

11:

I-

r*

n;

i-
t:i;

:n:

- - ■

i:::

ri:
i:.

nn
i

v.:

!FH

rr.:

.~.
t:.

n::

t:r

[i;:

i::
I 1

J'

; j:

7TTT

■!:■

mr
ui:

ttoo

fan

»l»

rill

rt

:l:

rr:

2f

■THI- r

"i
st:

V
:rr:

F(« ■ llS.OOOptl
Tiy - 149.000 aal

E -M.OxlOOpa
riMniiMi ■ al

1!:

i~
:i:.

-A

:i:

i:::
/

fr:

rt:

V
1

i*

■.n

i
n::

i!

j\
3:

iH!

s
rt;
xi:
k::

11;:
-A

tn
n:

:t::

5?:

Ira
Bin

Ja

»ai

l::

i:::
r-

ii:;

I'l

!:::
zr.

rt:

•Ml
n:r

■f

.a.

;;t.
tz?.

iili'
tx
s

in:
lit.

tw
►T
/
>

K-
]o

Cu

r»a

F
E
::i
rs

E!

^r 1
k - f.a

k - l.T
k - 1.1
k - 1.X1
k - 1.0

I.00Z 0.004 0.000 0.000 0.010

• (tnch«*/tnch>

1
FaUHoN AW Ml ■ilihi* Waak steal fcr UafliMdlaoJ CMaprMalo*

T3

h - 1.0

k - l.f

k - I.S

k - I.

k - 1.«

IMalawa Plutle a«odliif Curvaa


Full H*rt A IS! HI SUIbWm *-•« »«r Loofltudlul <*«««Mlaa
300

F| H - lift. 000 pal


F cy - 00.000 pat
Lujt c - t« i 10* pal
Elonf>llM la UulM -

no

rrm r i",

iiiiiiiiiai'iPiiliii

HKaBMtSMPBBinS

2:
k-I.O

k- l.f
k -i.o
k-l.tt
k -i.o

IftlBlnw Mutt* BMdlH Otrttt


Kxtr* M*rt AMI >•! lUlatoM tU*l •» Imww C»«p »*■•»••
uJ Kraaa Mataritl - tor T— I— f C»w»ra»1—

t.Mt *.«m • •*•

13

11

•.•14 ••!• t.tU •


* |lDCh»/lnch|

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAJR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Minimum Plastic Bending Curves


for PH 15-7 Mo (RH 950) Stainless Steel Sheet & Strip
Thickness 0. 020 to 0. 187 Inches

page n.1.25

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

rs
Minimum Plastic Bending Curves
17*7 PH Stainless Steel

360

320

280

240

200

(ksi)
k * 2.0

k = 1.7

k = 1-5

k * 1.25

k = 1.0

160

120

« (inches/Inch)

page 11.7- 2.3


I.

Mlnlmua PImUo BmdlBf Qwvm


U-.DL (AJIB .621) * «-•!» (AM6 HIH

k- 1.1*

0.02 0 M 004

« (Incbai/tnch)

Minimum Pltallc Banding Curve*


1I-9DL (AMS 5527) k lv-lUX (AMS 6639) StalnUl* BU*I

0.002
0,004 o.ooe
■ (Inches /inch)

0.008

0.010

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Minimum Plastic Bending Curves


2014-T6 Aluminum Alloy Extrusions. Thickness s . 499 in.

0. 002 0. 004 0. 006 0. 008 0. 010

« (inches /Inch)

page n.l.j*
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Minimum Plastic Bending Curves


for 2024-T3 L T4 Aluminum Alloy - Heat Treated - Sheet L Plate. Thickness *0. 50
Inches

0.02

0.04 0.06 0.08

c (Inches/inch)

0.10

0.12
page n.'i.'as

MlftlnwuB Plultc •*«•*« CunrM


M14-TJ Aliualaun Allftjr Cli4 StoM ft PWU - H*« TrMtol
WcIdmm to •. Ml la.

Minimum Plutlc Bendlaf Curv*


2024-T4 AlunlDum Alloy Clad Ant ft PUte - HmI TrtaUd
ThlcknMt 0. 26 to 0. SO la.

01
CD

MIrIdmu* Plull« BcoAbj Ctirvaa


III4-T4 AlumlBua Alky CM *Nt u4 PiaU-Hart TraaUd
TUckr»aa t, II lo M la.

k - l.T

k - 1.1

k -I t

k - l.T

k • 1.1

k - 1.0

3
3
r-

0)

o
o

0.004 0.00t
« Hnch«a/incn|

1>

O
rn

(/>
-<

(/>
6

>
>

-<
t/>

c/)

>
z
c
>

MUI— FUrtto Mm** Crnrn* . •

1
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL D YNAMICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

M^imum Plastic Bending Curves


2024-T81 Aluminum Alloy Clad Sheet - Heat Treat, Cold Worked and Aged

Thickness < 0,064 In.

c (inches/inch)

page n.T. 39

•Ml-T*

bei

k-l.l
b-l.t

k-l.tt

!ifiii?BBBf§aEB§i

iSPBSBBHUBBBBl „

iliiiiesBBBBBflgB
BBBBBBfiaBBMBflBs
fliiBflRBBBBBgsHBtt
bbbebbgbbbsbbbbb

IBflEBBBBflBBBg"'
——————■»—«■— JBBS3BBBIBBBBB

IggieiiigiiilllilPiigigiigiil

•••I t.N

MIhImum PlMlle Curw


tlt-T Al tin I win Alloy Clfti »Mt * PUU
llUckMii il.Mli.

Minimum PI title Bawling Curraa


10TI-Tt AllwBlaum Alloy Clad »•* * Mala, nidnwai « ».OJI ta.

c <lBcb«a/lnch)

Ulolmtua Plutla Bwdiaf CnrvM


7078-Tt Aluminum Alloy Extnutou. Tfctckiwia * •.SI 1b.

« (InchM/loch)

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNA Ml CS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
Minimum Plastic Bending Curves
7075-T6 Aluminum Alloy Die Forgings. Thickness ^ 2 in.

« (inches /inch)

page n.1-45

CTPlirTURA l ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMIC&CONVAM AND SPACE SYSTEMS DtVtStON

~ Minimum Plastic Bending Curves

7079-T6 Aluminum Alloy Die Forcings. (Transverse)


Thickness s 6.0 in.

i
:>

Minimum Plutle hndln| Curvai


707»-T« Aluminum Alloy DU Forcing! (Longitudinal)
Thlckneai * 1.0 In.

140

k -1.0

Minimum PUitlc Bcndlnf Curv««


TOTt-TC Alutntoum Alloy Dlt Forging! (Longitudinal)
Thtckneii 5 1.0 In.

-J

Minimum Ptutlo Banding CurrM


7071-T0 Aluminum Alloy Hud Forging (Long TbmwmI
lUcbMl * • U.

ft)
O
ID

-J

140

120

100

k • 2.0

k - 1.7
k- 1.1

k- i.»

k • l.t

Mint nun Ptutle Banding Curvu


7070-TO Aluminum Alloy Hud Forging* (Long TriniwrMl
TfclckMM * 0 In.

0.01

0.02 0.03
« Uachu/lnch)

0.04
0.06

0.002

0.004 0.006
« (tncb«l/lnch)

0.010

QjRlir.TUR AL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNA MtCS/CON VA IR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Minimum Plastic Bending Curves


7079-T6 Aluminum Alloy Hand Forginga (Longitudinal)
Thlckneai a 6. 0 In.

page n.L**
Mai mb VtM«« 9it*H ChnM
H-4A1-4V TllHtaB AUaf

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Minimum Plastic Bending Curves


for Ti-4Mnr4Al Titanium Alloy

k*2.0

k = 1-7

k = 1-5

k - 1.25
k - 1.0

0.02 0.03
< (inches /inch)

page 1-J.-7.53

{STRUCTURAI ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

page n.7. sq

-v

Minimum Plutic B«ndlaf Cum*


AZtlA Magnulum Alloy rorgtagt (Loo#1tudln*i)
Minimum Plutic Bandlnf Curvai
AZtlA Mkfneilum Alloy ForgIi*a (Loofltudliial)

(till)

« (Inches/Inch)

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNA MI CS/CON VA IR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1.3 Reference 2 •

17.30 ELASTIC-PLASTIC ENERGY THEORY* FOR BENDING

17.30.01 GENERAL

The Elastic-Plastic Energy Theory is defined as an extension of the Elastic


Energy Theory** into the plastic range of a material. This section will consider
only energy due to bending stresses which may be in the elastic or plastic range,
or both. Plastic bending curves found in Section 17.7 will be required. Deflections
of statically determinate structures due to bending with any or all fiber stresses in
the plastic range can be readily determined. Partially or completely plastic
statically indeterminate structures can also be solved by procedures similar to
those used in the Elastic Energy Theory. Other elastic theories could have been
extended as well to include plastic bending effects but the Elastic Energy Theory
was chosen due to its simplicity and common usage.

Elastic theories are accurate only if no part of a structure Is stressed


beyond the proportional limit of a material (no plastic strain). In structures
designed to stress levels beyond the proportional limit, the error of an elastic
deflection analysis is dependent on the amount of plastic strain involved. In some
cases this error may be as much as 100% or more . Therefore when deflection is
a limiting factor and plastic strains are involved, an analysis such as the Elastic-
Plastic Energy Theory should be used.

• Tha ElaaUc-PlaaUc tmrgf Theory ni davolepod tor tfaa Btroctaxoa Muul uduw know* to
«xlat la any othar
paMfcattem,

Tha ClMtle Caarcy Theory la alao lam u tha Theory of Vtrtaal Work.

page n.s.l

STRUCTURAI ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
17. 30. 02 DISCUSSION OF MARGIN OF SAFETY

In calculating the margin of safety at yield or ultimate, deflections must be


considered as well as loads and/or stress levels, etc, ; e. g. , although a positive
margin of safety for a structural element may be shown on the basis of loads,
excessive deflections may occur. If the deflections are then the most critical
design condition, the margin of safety becomes

Permissible Load _ (17.30.01)


Applied Load

where the Permissible Load is the calculated load corresponding to the maximum
permissible deflection. Equation 17. 30. 12 may be used in obtaining a permissible
load level for a maximum permissible deflection by a trial and error process.

17. 30. 03 ASSUMPTIONS AND CONDITIONS

1. Energy is conserved; i.e. , the external work due to a virtual load


moving through a real deflection is equal to the internal strain energy
developed during that deflection.

2. Plane sections remain plane; i.e. , the strain is linearly distributed


across any cross-section.

3. Poiason's ratio effects are negligible.

4. The deformations are of a magnitude so small as to not materially


affect the geometric relations of various parts of a structure to one
another.
page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

17,30.04 DEFINITIONS

dA - cross -sectional area of an infinitesimal volume, dV.

c - distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fibers of a cross -section.

fi - real deformation of an infinitesimal volume, dV, in the x-direction.

A - real vertical deflection of a beam at the point of application of a


virtual load.

€ - total (elastic plus plastic) strain of an infinitesimal volume, dV, in

the x-direction.

c - extreme fiber strain of a cross-section.


b max

F - virtual normal force acting on dA.


v

m - virtual bending moment In a beam due to the application of a virtual


load.

W - external work equal to a virtual load moving through a real deflection.

internal strain energy equal to a summation of internal virtual forces


times their real deflections.

Q . virtual unit load.

- ^virtual bending stress on dA due to m.

17. 30. 05 - DEFLECTIONS OF STATICALLY DETERMINANT BEAMS

Consider the infinitesimal volume dV of Figure 17. 30. 01(a) and (b)

f . EI (17.30.02)

T> I
v

F - stress x area • 1 dA

.1 dA (17.30.03)
6 . e b dx (17.30.04)
W i

page n.& 3

Since plane sections remain plane,

b b

max

(17.30.05)

and

max
(17.30. 06)

By definition,

W - QA

(17.30.07)

W. • I F 6

(17.30.08)

or

Since energy is conserved,


W - W,

QA « IF J

(17. 30. 09)

• (17.30.10)

Substituting Equations 17. 30. 03 and 17. 30. 06 Into Equation 17. 30. 10 and

since Q Is equal to unity,

J A J 0 "a**

iC
xnCi

(17.30. 11)

rs

page n.*>ft-

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

But. by definition, I » J y 2 dA,

L mf b

1 A , f E2i dx (17.30.12)

J o °
Equation 17. 30. 12 can now be solved graphically to find A. ^bjj^ can be
determined from a plastic bending curve for the applicable material as shown
in Figure 17.30.01(c). Enter the F b (modulus of rupture) scale with Mc/I
and move horizontally across to the plastic bending curve for the specific
cross-section; this intersection locates the corresponding ^b^^x P n the
€ (strain) scale. For beams with varying cross-section, c may be a
variable.

page n.&.S*

STRUCTURAL ^MALVfilS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Figure 17.30.01

(a) Beam Cross-Section


dx

"61
(b) Differential Volume. dV

-Plastic bending curve

c (In. /in. )

(c) Plastic Bending Diagram for


Beam Cross-Section

^^^^^ SJ^^ff

(d) Real Load Diagram

(e) Real Moment Diagram

(f) Virtual Load Diagram


(Real Deflection Shown)

(g) Virtual Moment Diagram

pagt rr.&.t

gypilCTURAL ^ ^VSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAUICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

30.06 EXAMPLE PROBLEM

A rectangular beam, simply supported at the ends, is subjected to a con-


centrated vertical load at its center. Find the vertical deflection of the beam at
its center.

Material : 2024-T3 Aluminum Alloy Plate


Beam dimensions: 1/2 in. * 1 in. x 20 in.
Load: P » 400 lb

PROCEDURE :
1. Apply a virtual 'unit load, Q, at the beam center and construct the
virtual moment diagram, m.

5.0 in.-lb.

page I 7. £> . ~7

cTpnpTUPAl ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMJCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

2. Construct the real moment diagram, M.

2000 In. -lb.

3.
4.

Calculate the real bending stress. F fa , for each value of x by ;


Mc

F b- i

Enter the plastic bending curves in SZC.V*»©*S H-"7


(at k - 1. 5 for a rectangular cross -section) with each value of F b from
Step 3 and determine for each value of x.

5. Multiply the value of m by the corresponding value of to obtain


a value of m € b max * or eacn value °' **

6. Tabulate the reaultt of the previous step, (eee Table 17. 30. 01).

7. Con»truct i plot of n> t^v.. x and determine the are. under the
curve. Thi. are. repre..*. f m c^dx. (S^ Figure 17. 30. 02. )

pagt n.&.8
QTRIirTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

8.

Calculate A:

m c,

max

dx
(Ref eq 17.30.12)

* 0. 250 in.

max

dx - 0. 165

by graphical
integration
)

- 0. 661 In.

*By an elastic analysis , A was found to be 0. 6104 in.


which is 7.7% in error. Partially plastic fiber
stresses existed only over the middle 8 inches in this
example. The elastic. analysis would be considerably
more in error for higher loadings and/or beams in
which the plastic stresses exist over greater lengths;
e. g. , beams of constant moment, etc. _

page n.a.3

c T Rii<rruRAL W vslfi manual

GENERAL DYNAUICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

EXAMPLE PROBLEM, X vs. m€ bmax TABLE


Table 17.30.01

M.

Mc/I.

1 V"

X,
IB.
m,
in. -lb.

*■*»

in. -Ib.

ksi

In. /in. * 10" 3

in. -lb. * 10 " 3

1 o
0

.5

4. 8

, 4570

. 2285

1.0

400

9.6
.9140

. 9140

1.5

600

14.4

1 3710

2. 0565

2.0

800
| 19.2

1. 8280

3.6560

2.5

1000

24.0

2. 2850

5. 7125

3.0
1200

28.8

1 2.7420

8. 2260

3.5

1400

33.6

3.14

10. 9900

8
4.0

1600

38. 4

1 3*80

15.2000

4.5

1800

43.2

4.64

20. 8800
10

5.0

2000

48.0

I 5. 83

29. 1500

11

4.5

1800

43.2

4.64
20. 8800

12

4.0

1600

38.4

3.80

15.2000

13

3.5

1400

33.6
3.14

10. 9900

14

3.0

1200

28.8

2.7420

8.2260

15

2.5

1000
24.0

2.2850

5.7125

16

2.0

BOO

19.2

1. 6280

3.656

17

1.5
600

14.4

1. 3710

2.0565

18

1.0

400

9.6

.9140

.9140

19
.5

200

4.8

.4570

.2285

20

* 0

0
page n.ajo

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

EXAMPLE PROBLEM, x vs. m€ bmax PLOT


Figure 17.30.02

5 10 15 20

x (inches)

page n.£>. H

r
STRUCTURAL ANAI MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIB AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1.3 Reference ^

SODJZCTi 'Fatigue Cons iderations for Parts Subjeot to Frequent Applications


of Near-Limit Loads and Farts Dooigned by llodulus of Rupture.

INTRODUCTION

Many parte In various coupononts of the airplane ero subjected to frequent


applications of near-limit loads during the servico life of the airplane.
The biggo*t proportion of parts so affooted are thooe on which the loads
result frca hydraulio pressure, and from other prec-ure syotoma such aa
cabin pressurixatioa. The linkage, attachnent lugs and other carry-through
parts of the landing gear retracting mechanism, hinges and latches of cabin
door and emergency exits are typical examples of parts falling into euon a
category. Components of some control systems where tho operating loads are
oloae to the r ,r<w "" design loads may also be affected.

It is readily apparent from the examination of any typioal S-H curve that
the number of load applications that can be euctainod when high loads are
applied are relatively low. Thus to insure adequate servioe life it be-
comes necessary to provide limitations on tho degree of exploitation of the
-.t^^ otatic strength of materials, in addition to the normal practioo of
good dosiLi avoiding or minimiiing stress concentrations wherever possible.
Another category of parts requiring special consideration from a fatigue
standpoint are those designod by the use of bending noduluo of rupture. From
the" standpoint of fatigue, the critical stresses are those aotlng at tho
surfaoe of the part, and by virtue of the faot that the plasticity of a
material Is exploited in determining the modulus of rupture, the true surfaoe
■tresses on ptfrta tutfjeoted to bending loads, compared to those under « ial
loading, -are relatively higher when operating at the some percentage of ul-
timate strength. This oan be verified by examining any of tho curves in
secru fl.O For example In Figure 14 for stoel at a 180 ksi level

it can' be seen that a member with k = 1.6 being loaded to half tho allowable
moment would b« subjected to a true surfaoe stress of 79% of matorial
strength compared with 50% when loaded axially in tension. The difference,
of course- is dependent on "section factor" k, being sero f or k - 1 and
varying to a maximum value at k =2. It is therefore obvious that some
limitation on the exploitation of modulus of rupture is necessary when the
spread between operating loads and design limit loads is not large.

In order to provide adequate strength and insure trouble-free servioe during


the useful life of the airplane, this memo establishes policies for the
detail design and analysis of parte falling in the categories discuosed above,

This memo Is not applieable to the shell components of the airplane since
fatigue problomo" in sueh structure S3aT"be given more detsiled oons idoration.

page n.S.)

pTptJCTURAI ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
The application of procedures covered by thi» memo trill In many c«ei
result in larger and thereby heavier parts, the weight penalty

in an IndiTidual case may be small, the effect may become considerable


in the aggregate. Therefore, extreme care and judgement are to be
exerolaed in a electing components to which thia memo is to be applied.
All o opponent a ao oho a en are to be ealled to the attention of the Projoot
Structures Engineer for approval with regard to use of thia memo.

I # Parta Subject to Frequent Applications of gear-Limit Loads

Parte and syatems falling into this category may roquire a formal
fatigue analysis. It ia difficult, by the use of the expedient of re-
duced static allowables, to aooount for all possible combinations of
loading configurations and life roquiremont*. However, if a formal
fatigue analysis ia not made, the following requirements shall be ad-
hered to.

A. Bonding modulus of rupture shall not be used for parts loaded


In bending.

B. . The allowable ultimate tensile stress, beading or axial ahall be


baaed on P^ of material, reduoed as follosni

Alumlnun Alloys Reduced Allowable


2014, 7075, 17178, 7079 .60 P^

2024 r tu

Stool
260 kai and higher *6° r tu

180 ksi and lower **° r tu

For steel with mlnlflsns speoified heat treat varying between 180
and 260 ksi, linear interpolation of the reduction factor may be
used.

In mine SCCTio^ 1<t.C> for the design of lugs all

foremla* containing F^ as a poramatar ahall u*e the roduood value of


Ptu for the pertinent material. When doing ao, fitting and coating
factor*, and the minimum margin of eefety requirement* may be M|lMt-
ed. however, the "proviaion for bushing" requirement U to be retained
and the lag designed with the hole based on bushing diameter rather than
pin diajseter. Thi* would also be applicable to any other • tress memo
or source of reference containing formulae having P^ as a parameter.

Por the .election of the pin six* in connection with tap or alexia
type^nd. of part* in the category under consideration, the normal .hear

able ultimate (mc/l) atre*a shall not exceed the F^ (unreduced) of the
pin material.

page

ftjnUCTURAl ANALYSIS MANUAL ^


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
i

III. Parts Dosignad by Modulus of ftupturo

This fiatogory la distinot from that covered in Section II above primar-


ily in the degree of difference between operating and dosign limit
loads, tthile Section II covers the condition where the operating and
design limit loads ore practically the same, this section applies to
a condition whero the operating load is an appreciable percentage of
the design limit load. Landing gear components are typical examples
of parts which have such loads frequently applied, due to landing or
taxiing*

In the design of parts subjected to bending -whore the spread between


operating and design limit loads is not large, thus making these parts
potentially critical in fatigue, the use of plastic bending allowables
shall be limited as follows.

A. The "section factor" k in SemorU H.O

usod in determining the ultimate bending strength shall


be taken as the actual value of k or that obtained from formulas
given bo low, whichever is lower .

k =
-(■h)

.63

•83

for steel parts

for aluminum parts

where K- is the estimated stress oonoentration faotor applicable


to the section of the part being cheeked. Values of Kt for some
sections and types of "stress raisers" may be found in S&M. V*-©

Where k oomes out less than 1 use kFtu ** ta» allowable stress.

B. The procedure speoifled under III-A above is applicable to "compaet"


section- which, under bending loads, fail by rupture. For sections
in bendinr, oritieal on the compression side where failure is by
orippli*s# the applied tensile stress on the tension sido may be
low enough to preclude any reduction in allowable loads.

C. Tubular members require special consideration. At low «Jue* of D/t


tubes fail by rupture and at larger values of D/t tt y .f^ 1 * .
plastio or elastic buofcling. In order to oover the full range or
possible variations in l)At **• following procedure is to be used.

1. For tube under consideration determine D/t.

2.

From Figure 1 SG<=T. P7- M detormino the aotual

"section factor" designated by k^..

From equations in III-A of this memo compute "section faotor"


dooicnatod k^.

page n.3

3-73

STRUCTURAL ANA! YSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
Xix. porta Designed by Modulus of Rupture - Con*t«
C. Con't.

4 # If kg < ka» determine the allowable bending stress from

f «^o. 3 i^ T »W H.lo using lr 0 . Compare with F*u from S«_T.


n.to end use the lower ralue.

If ^ > determine tho allowable bending strength fromSKr.n-K)

5. Another oategory-of parts nhere the modulus of rupture is not to


be exploited oonsiate of those parts where the stress distribution
is not precisely known or where restraints are present to restriot
deformations thereby preventing fulfillment of the baslo aseump-
tlons of the bonding theory* The intersection of an axle and
strut la a 1"~<Hti C gear is a typioal area where such a oondltion
exists* In suoh oases the allowable stress shall be taken as the
*tu °* material*

IV. The prooedures outlined herein are to be used for the design and pre-
liminary analysis of seleoted components* For final analysis write
op, the normal analysis methods are to be used, with the resulting
higher p^gina 0 f safety shown. To preolude the possibility of these
higher margins being usod to salvage parts not conforming to drawing
requirements, it is to be lndioatod that these margins are due to
fatigue oonoiderationc and are not to be used for salvage*

r
pag« i"7. 5. <f

STRUCTURAI ANALYSIS - MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIff^ND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1.3 Reference 28

FIGURE 2.8.1.1. Bendiitf modulus of rupture for round low-alloy-suet nibini.

2-204

page f~7. 1 o - J

3 7 iT

Q T RHHTURAL ^ NAIYSICI MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Sourca, Section 1 .3 Raf«r»nc» S


page n,to*Z

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNA MICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference 6

SUBJECT: Shear Stress in Rouiii Tubes

1. TrtniTorco c^d I.eu^itudir.cl Shear- (7/ith Ecrdi-g)

SO

Tho conventional ferrule for sheer stre;c, f c «= -2- , hes btcii extsrded

bl

to tho p?Rstio rrjigo tnd nay be expressed C3i


f „ - Rxi

f B * the trcasverso and longitudinal sheer stress

a.czu ^ ^ 9 noutr?l_ tjzi* cf t round tube


S ■ the shear loc.fi at tho scetior.

A » tho cro3s ! «rccticr*J. fjgc

R " c fiietc" dfociid-wt vook the 2. rc/cio cud

tho degree of plf.tioity


The f tat or, R, any bo deter*tin-d in tho follcvi:\s x±zj->:\:?i
t. C&lculcte f D ■ ™ , the replied bor.5! v.f, ctross tt the section*

b. Froa Fig- 1 obtain the section faster, k, for the prcoor 2. ratio,

c„ Froa the equations in Tf.blo I c^lcv.lr.tc the C v?. 1 uo for tho proper
k Taluo, f^, end alitor id. Thc^ C is Ices th?r. or cqurl to rcro
all of the Eiteritl at ths cooties, is i- tho elastic rengc. Then
C is equil to ens or greater, all of th* ratcrirl at tho section
is in tho plaatio rtugo. Iateruos?if-.t; itluoi- of C represent th?
degrca of plcsticity.

d. Fatsr rig, 1 T/ith the 2. r^tio and obtain ths R valve ecrrespe'idir;
to tho C Talu*j cslcul&tad f-bovc.

page t~7- l I. /

yrpnrmiBAL ANA1YSIS MANUAL 0*


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

TJhen the sheer stress is determined in the above Banner, the ultiaate
allov/able ahetr stresc for the n&terial shall bo used in calculttins
tho ocrcin of ecfety.

2. Trcrssvorso Shear Stress (Eithout Ecndins)

TJhe-n only sheer exists, cuch as in tubular sheer bolt-lug comoctioni,


the shear stress shall be ealeulatcd by rseans of the forault.

avo

«here:

■ tho average eheur stress o?er tho section

• the sheer load at the section

• tho crort-aectioncJ ere*

Tfhon shear stress io dotercincd in this manner, tho Allowable ultirato


and yield thow stresses chr.ll be doternlnsd fro.*a Fir. 2. Tho yield
allowabloe in Fif» 2 are such as to lisdt percent set to 1% of ths
ortcido dianotor.

page

0S

TABLE I

rnnmrr™* ^aticii of «g

Hater id
and

H.T.

90,000

95,000
8

125,000
150,000
180,000

ft, * 10-3 .^50


82'!i - 42

fv r. IP" 3 ■ 55.
8Gr. - 46

f t xlO-

3-90
lie* - 76

146fc - 131

ft T 10-3- 14Q

170* - 150

24ST

fv r. IP" 5 - 30
5eic - 24

SHEAR STUBS XH RO^P TOES

p.Outaide Pitf-tor of Tub.


t - *U1 Thiokn»M of Tub*

p«gt |7-l 1-4


FIG. 2

ALLOWABLE TRANSVERSE SHEAR STRESS (TTITHOOT BEND I HQ)


ROUND 4150 STEEL TUBES

Ultimate

Tie Id (.01 D e»t)

on *ooh ourre, F au <1.50 F ey |


• » F >1.50 F_ w . For normal -

ou ' "•y*

throughout*

rs

4*
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMlCS/CONVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 18.0

RINGS, FRAMES & ARCHES

ANALYSIS METHODS FOR RINGS FRAMES AND ARCHES ARE PRESENTED


IN THIS SECTION.

PAGE

18.1 RIGID RINGS 18.1.1

1 8.2 BENTS & SEMI-CIRCULAR ARCHES 1 8.2.1

18.3 RIGID AND FLEXIBLE RINGS 18.3.1

18.4 REDUNDANT FRAMES 18.4.1

page l&.O.l
Data Source, Section 1.3 Reference 5

3 6.1.0 Rigid Rings


Sign Convention

Moments which produce tension on the inner fibers are positive.


Transverse forces which act upward to the Left of the cut are

positive..

Axial forces which produce tension in the frame are positive.

Fig. B 6. 1.0-5 Positive Sign Convention

In-Plane Load Cases

Coefficients to obtain slope, deflection, bending moment, shear,


end axial foVce along with equation* for these values are given for
some of the frequently occuring load cases.

R - RING RADIUS, IN
E - RING MATERIAL YOUNG'S MODULUS, PSI

I - RING SECTION MOM. OF I , IN 4

P - APPUED LOAD, LB.

M 1 - APPLIED BENDING MOMENT, IN.-Lfi.

M - RING IN-PLANE BENDING MOMENT, IN. -LB.

Q - RING IN-PLANE SHEAR FORCE, LB

N - RING IN-PLANE AXIAL LOAD, LB

A = RING IN-PLANE DEFLECTION, IN

0 - RING IN-PLANE SLOPE RADIANS

1 m ANGULAR DISTANCE FROM DATUM, DEGREES

+M

NOMENCLATURE

Flexible ring analysis is given in Section 18.3


page t e> . I - 1

STRUCTURAL A NALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

B 6.1.1 In-Plane Load Cases (Cont'd*


Index

£3-

4. 1 p

5. j p

V
6,

7.

(7)

p —

9.

10.

TP

11.

12. p ?
13.

<±)

M'

14.

15.

<+>

M X / "

16.

M' M'

17.

&

18.

^^^^^^^^
19.

P 0 -Pmaxcosfl
'max

?0-PmaxCOs(2i3

21. ? ^- p -axCos

22.

23.

P . — \ .P

^ ^max

?^"P =ax COS0

24.

25. P^-P-uxC*
+b cose
+c cos 2 2)
page i 2.

■o

.20
.1 6
.1 2
.08
.04
0
.04
JOB
.1 2
.1 6
.20

33

o
H

o
tn

•g

Ok

-<

j>

>

z
c
>
20* 40» 60* BO' KX)« I20* MO* 160* 180* 200* 220* 240* 260* 260* 300* 320* 340*

41

A)

0>

00
3

15

H
C
3)

* 2& 4<r 6cy eor loor i2<r i4rr i6or leor zoor 22or 24cr 260* zoo* 3ocr 3aor 340*

in

in
-<
</>

8
o

-<

>
z
c
>

* 20* 40* 6(T 80*

200*

240* 260 #

>• 320* 340*

O
010

02

005

-005

010

s
8

D
C
O
H
C
33

rn

-<

<
if}

>
Z

c
>
r

160* I80 # 200 s


240* 260° 280* 3O0 # 320'

CASE 6

20
16

.12
08
.04
0
-04
-06
12
-.16
-20

^ r 20* 40* 60* 00* 100* I20 # 140* I60 # I80* 200* 220* 240* 260 - 280P 300* 320*
340*

t
i

CP

.016 -XM

X)5

CASE 6

=■ 20* 40T 60* 80* 100* I2tf Wtf 160* lOtf 200* 22Cf 240* 260* 28(T 300* 320' 340*

O
in
O

(/>

■<

to
o

c
o

z
>
r~
-<

m
>

z
c
>

A>k a fB?

CASE T

^ * 20* 40* 60* BO* KX>* 120* 140* 160* 180* 200* 220» 240* 260* 2B0* 300* 320* 340-

0,
CASE 6

T3
ft)
O

-04

-08

2tf

4(f 6GT BCf KXf I2(f !4Cf KCf KKf 200* 22CT 240* 260" 290* 3O0T 320T 34CT

s
8

o
m

to
O

J}

c
o

H
C
3]

-<
z
c
>

CASE 9

AO
O

5
3

C3

H
3J
C

>

</>
D

o
rn

CO

in
6

-<
CO
>
z
c

20 # 40* 60" 80* 100* 120* I4<f I60 - wf 200* 220* 240' 260* 280* 300* 320* 340*

■o

01

0>

K A K ff

40 60
100* 120* MO* 160* 180*200* 220* 240* 260* 280*300* 320* 340* 360*

T3
O

ft

IG

CASE 12

20

16

12

06

04
O
-04
-OB
-.12

-I

-20h0|

-6

i
\

zt 40* 60* eoT »oo # co*

M»K K PR

Mrf ~**f W? 206*220* Wt 260* 28tf 300* 320* 340*

3)

>
r

>

-<
55

CP

O
J

20* 40* 60* 80* 100* Off MO* BO* BO* 200* 220* 240* 260* 280* 300* 320* 340*

to
08
06
.04
02
0
-02
-04
-06
-08

20

16

12

06

04
0

04

08
12
16
20i
j

r
A

<

CASE 13 U

71

i
-

P = 20* 4Cf 60* BO* lOdf |2<J MO* 160* l8Cf 20(f 220* 240* 260* 28(f 300* 320* 340*

3
3

<0

O
rn

to

to
g

Co
O
>

•<
(/>

>
c

K K

A B

20

CASE 15
A.irliBf

5 m

31
C

H
C
31

-<
CO

>
c

^ * 20* AO 9 60 # 80* 100* 120* MO* 160° 180* 200* 220* 240* 260° 280* 300* 320* 340°

S
0)

— ■«

10

-1.0 —

f.

20* 40* 60T

V:
7

erf

-A
V

s
\

CASE 16

M'K M M

WOT BO* MO* 160 160* 200* 220* 240* 260* 28cf 300* 320* 340*

S
I

5ko
31

H
C
3]

*<

>
z

0)

8
3

^5

MR2

CASE .16

fa 20* 40* 60' 80* 100* 120* MO - 160* 180* 200* 220* 240* 260* 260* 300* 320* 340 #
CASE 17

-o

CP

.008

20* 40* 60 - 80* 100* 120* MO* 160* 18.0* 200* 220* 240* 260° 280* 300 # 320* 340 #

0>

020
016
012
ooe

004

-004
-008
-012
-016
-020

A K A EX

<f>* 20 # 40

60 - IOO 0 I20 # I40 B 160* 180* 200' 220" 240° 260* 280* 300" 320- 340<

VP

N
10

6
.4

.2
0
-2
-.4
-6
-.8
HO

zi

7-
A

CASE 19

M*K« P,

MAX

M MAX
Q,K Q P MAX 1 '

n " k n p max r
p 'Pmax C0S *

K M-°
K„.0
s

fit 20* 40* 60» 80* KXP 120* 140* 160* 180* 200* 220* 240* 260* 280* 300* 320* 340*

CO

3)

H
C
31
>
-<
t/>

CO

(0

o
z

CASE Z9 ~

J
M

^<k. 20* 40* 60* BO" 100* I20 - 140* 160* 180* 200* 220* 240" 260* 280* 300* 320*
340*

CASE 23

04
03
OZ
01
0
-01
-.02
-.03
04

20* 40* 60 # 80* 100* 120* 140* 160* 180* 200* 220* 240* 260° 280* 300* 320° 340°

K M *Q

.20
16
12
06
04
0
-04
-08
-12
-16
-20

CASE 24
MAX cos* "'"m™

4SIN f °- K 0 P

■< pi

(fi » 20* 40* 60 - B0 # 100* I20 # 140* I60 # 180* 200 # 220* 240 # 260 # 280* 300 #
320 # 340'

o
5

31

c
o
H

3J

CO

>
z

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

B 6.1.1 Ir.-plane Load Cases (Cont'd)

Deflection curves for the three basic Load cases due to shear ana
norrral forces are displayed on the following pages. A shape factor
(/3) that 'is to be used with the curves for shear, deflection of various
cros s -sections is tabulated below.
Cross-Section

Shear Area

Shape Factor, (3

-F-F

Area of Web
Aq= th

= 1. 00

"X"
Entire Area
A Q = bh

p x 1.20 for b > 0. 50h


£ = 1. 00 for b < 0. 50 h

Entire Area

Aq= 2r r t
w m

2. 00

radius of gyration
with respect to the
neutral axis

Entire Area
i 2a)(w-2t»

Fig. 36. L. I- I

lfo?J

If the flanges are of


nonuniform thickness,
they may be replaced
by an "equivalent"
section wnost f\in^es
have the same width
and a red a* those- of
the actual section.

page lo.i.si

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

B 6.1.2 Out-of-oUne Load Cases


Sign Convention

The following sign convention is given to define the positive


directions for out-of -plane loads.

Moments which produce tension on the Inner fibers are positive.


Torque "T" and lateral shear "V" are positive as shown in Fig.

B 6.1.2-1.

+V

Fig. B 6.1.2-1

page 5 5
QJptJCTURAL J ^ftlVSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

B6.1.2 Qut-of-Plane Load Cases (Cont'd)


Index

3 ' «Li

n ,

"A
! v

r \\
" J)

3it
2

For all

cross sections

Fig. B 6. 1.2-2

Pa -
APPLIED OUT-OF-PLANE AXIAL LOAD. LB.
APPUED OUT-OF-PLANE TORQUE* IN.-LB.
APPLIED OUT OF -PLANE ■MOMENT. IN.-LB.

"1

RESULTANT RING BENDING MOMENT, IN.-LB.


RESULTANT RING TORQUE. IN.-LB.
RESULTANT RING SHEAR LB.

page IfcuKSS

cTfltirrruRAL an^I Y? tfi manual

GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

References

1 MacNeal, Richard H. , and John A- Bailie, Analysis of Frame-


Reinforced Cylindrical Shells, Part I - Basic Theory. NASA
IN D-400, 1960.
2 MacNeal, Richard H. , and John A. Bailie, Analysis of Frame-
Reinforced Cylindrical Shells, Part II - Discontinuities of
Circumferential-Bending Stiffness in the Axial Directions.
NASA TN D-401, 1960.

3 MacNeal, Richard H. , and John A. Bailie, Analysis of Frame-


Reinforced Cylindrical Shells, Part III - Applications.
NASA TN D-402, 1960.

rs

page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1.3 Reference 3

3 3.1.4 Particular Solution uf Bents and Semicircular Arches


In chc t-ibl^s chat follow, formulas for computing reactions are
given f t several load cases. In all cases constraining moments ,
reaction, and applied lo.iUs are positive when acting as. shown and

I 2 h

for cases 1 through 18

for cases 19 through 28

HM"7

page 1

ftTpiJCTURAL ft|^lY*'S MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Particular Solution of Seats and Semicircular Arches (Cant c")


T-ale 3 5.1.--1 Reactions and Constraining Motaencs in
"Two Lecced Rectancular Bents

I . VERT. CONCENTRATED

LOAD

ic 7 5

1 l Y

v -fife

A L
V £ - Q - V A

30ab

2Lh(2K + 3)

FOR SPECIAL CASE : a - b • J


0

At m u

i H

V A " V I 2

30L
8h(2K + 3)

LOAD

Q - V,

30«b

5 c x /q

M A I
V.

2Lh(K + 2)

M . Oab [ _1 (b-«)|
M A L L 2(K ■*■ 2) 2LC6K + I) J

Oab f 1 ^ (b - a) 1

' t" L 2(K «■ 2) 2L(6K * L) J

FOR SPECIAL CASE : a - b - -

2L

M A ' ' 8(K + 2)

j. HCRIZ. C0SCSST!UTE0
LOAD U L

h I

7
v-21 h a - q - h e

Z 2h L h 2 (2K ♦ 3) J
FOR SPECIAL CASE: b - 0. a - h

I t

& Hp H- - S. ■ ?•

page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSTS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

B 5.1.4 Particular Solution of Bents and Semicircular Arches ■ fCont ' d)


Table. B 5.1.4-1 Reactions and Constraining Moments in
Two Legged Rectangular Bents (Cont *d)

4. H0R1Z. CONCENTRATED
LOAD

! t1

C
B

II
A

■2

Ea ^*a
3Qa 2 K

Lh(6K + 1)

2fb

2h 2

[ h h

b + K (b - a)

h(K + 2)

m 2± r b(h^^ we? + h .

A 2h L h(K + 2) (6K

-2i T -b(h + b + bK) ^


^ 2h L h(K + 2)
Q '

3aK

1) J

3aK

(6K + I) J

FOR SPECIAL CASE:


30hK

0. a - h
L(6K + 1)
' H E * 2

u m 2h£2L

"E 2(6K + 1)

5. VERT. UNIFORM
RUNNING LOAD

wed

— b -*| l :

— L —

u
L

where

1/

3 f x l * *t\ 3wc f

*2hL2K*3J" 24Lh(2K + 3)1

12dL-12d 2 -c 2

Xl - . ZL-\ 2 d- . 6^ * 3^ + 4c 2 . 24d 2 '


*1 24L L l L J
- ^£-[24^ - 6^ + 3^i + 2c 2 - 43d 2 + 24dll
^ 24L L L L L J

d * L - ± - £

2 2

24L

FOR SPECIAL CASE : a


vL 2

0, c ■ b ■ L, d ■ ^

4h(2K + 3)

nn

page i &> * 2 ■ 3
flTRUCTURAI ^iNAI Y^ 1 ^ MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

B 5.1.4 Particular Solution of Bents and Semicirc ular Arches (Cont'd)

Table B 5.1.4-1 Reactions and Constraining Moments in


Two Legged Rectangular Bents (Cont'd)

6. VERT, UNIFORM
RUNNING LOAD

r-m

d ■ L - t - x

a b

2*2

7. VERT. TRIANGULAR
RUNNING LOAD

J.

U 1 : X H

d - L - * . »

3 3

V A " ~ L(6K + 1)

X x and »re given in case 5

V F - wc - V A
3(X, + X-)

x i + h

x, -

M.

2h(K + 2) A 2(K + 2) 2(6K + 1)

X 1* X 2 . V X 2

? 2(K + 2) 2(6K + 1)

TOR SPECIAL CASE : a-O f C-b-L,d-|


vL

V A " V 7 ' T
H -

vL 2 M , „ wt 2 H

4n(K + 2) M A ^ 12(K + 2) i, Jt

« "cd

v a ' "ST
v F - T

v .^fa + lO

V A 2L V 3 /

WHERE:

3 f X 3* X 4l 3wc [ c 2 j2
2hL2K + 3 J 4Lh(2K + 3) L 18

wc IV c 2 51c 3 . c£b 2 1
- 2L Ll" + 9~ + SIOL + 6L " d -1

x 4 2L I L 18 810L 6L -1

• L

FOR SPECIAL CASE : a-o, c-b-L, d « j


H -

vL

8h(2K + 3)

page lb. 2-^

<V5°
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

B 5.1.4 Particular Solution of Bents and Semicircular Arches (Cont'd}

Table 5 5.1.4-1 Reactions and Constraining Moments in


Two Legged Rectangular Bents (Cont'd)

8, VERT. TRIANGULAR
RUNNING LOAD

X7I7

d - L - t - —

a 2b
3 " 3

. vcd + ^ X 4 X3 and X4 are


2L L(6K + 1) given in case 7

3(X 3 + X L )

h + X 4

H -

2h(K + 2)

A 2(K + 2) 2(6K + 1)
. X 3 + h S " X 4

* 2(K + 2) 2(6K + 1)

FOR

SPECIAL CASE : a-o, c-b-L, d - j


at I 1

6 L 10(6K + 1)

¥ F
H -

M A 1
*F '

■[

20<6K + 1)

wL

8h(K + 2)
2
wL'
120

120

K + 2 6K + 1

_ K + 2 6K + 1 i

9. H0RI2. UNIFORM
RUNNING LOAD

I L

D \

2L
H A - w(a - c) -H,

x i4

'T,-

- a

v(a 2 - c 2 ) + K v(a 2 -c 2 )(2h 2 -a 2 -c 2 l ]

4h au3/ w .

8h J (2K + 3)
FOR SPECIAL CASE: c-o, b-o, a«d-h

*V- Hp

2L
H A - wh - H F

ff ' wh I . K 1

t* " 4 I 1 + 2(2K + 3) J

page 5"

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

3 5.1.4 Particular Solution of Bents and Semicircular Arches (Cont'd)

Table B 5.1.4-1 Reactions and Constraining Moments in

Two Legged Rectangular Bents (Cont'd)

10. HORIZ; UNIFORM


RUNNING LOAD
"IS..

^3 "c

h a

• L

Li

v(a 2 - c 2 ) M A
V " ~2L • L" - L

H A ' - c> " H F


w(a 2 - c 2 ) X 5 , X 6<* ' 1}
H F " 4h .. * 2h 2h(K + 2)

.WHERE:

X B - fd 3 (4h - 3d) - b 3 (4h -3b)

5 12h 2 L

M,

lib 2 [

a 3 (4h - 3a) - c 3 (4h -3 c)

<3K + 1)

- c 2 )
]

2 LK +

2(6K + 1)
3K

2 6K + 1 J

My

a 2 - c 2 !
(3K + 1)1 - 1 - ' - X,

2(6K + 1)
3TC

2 6K
FOR SPECIAL CASE: c-o, b-o, «-d-h:

x 6 r i 3* i

2 LK+2*6K+1J

V -

vh 2 *

L(6K + 1)

H A ■ wh - H F

vh(2K * 3) M , yhjr i8K + 5 - — L


*F * 8(K + 2) M F 24 I 6K + 1 K +

+ 1 + K + 2 J
A 24

30K
6K

page 4

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

B 5-1.4 Particular Solution of Bents and Semicircular Arches (Cont'd)

Table B 5.1.4-1 Reactions and Constraining Moments in


Two Legged Rectangular Bents (Cont'd)

11. H0RI2. TRIANGULAR


RUNNING LOAD

A
. A

a,

it
ii

7 - fj- (a 2 + ac - 2c 2 )

. w(a - c) m

n k 2 F

2h (2K +3)h

WHERE
x 7 -

3(4d 5 +b 5 ) - 15h(3d*+0 +

4 iL 4.

120h A (d-b)

. 20h 2 (2d 3 +b 3 ) - 15bd 2 (2h-d) 2 j


FOR SPECIAL CASE: b-c-o, a-d-h:

V -

wh;
6L

H A
7K

h - 2& i i + -

7 12 L 10(2K + 3)

r r 41

12. HORIZ. TRIANGULAR


RUNNING LOAD

V - ^ (2a + c)(a - c)

KX

10
J ii

A 2
WHERE:

F 2h h(2K + 3)

[~-30h 2 c (a 2 -c 2 ) + 20h 2 (a 3 -c 3 )

* 10 " 120h 2 (a-c) L

+ 15c(a 4 -c 4 ) - 12(a 5 -c 5 )

FOR SPECIAL CASE: b-c-o , a-d-h:

3L

wh f 4K + 5 1
10 [2K + 3 J
page

STRUCTURAL ^[.VSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

B 5.1.4 Particular Solution of Bents and Semicircular Arches (Cont'd)

Table B 5.1.4-1 Reactions and Constraining Moments in


Two Legged Rectangular Bents (Cont'd)

13. HORIZ. TRIANGULAR


RUNNING LOAD

H,

M,

v
*7

r(a 2 + ac - 2c 2 ) \

6L " L L

(K-l)

WHERE
X

>(*?> + ac - 2c 2 ) ^8 f9

12h " 2h 2h(K+2)

8 60h 2 (d

-15
(h+b)<d 4 -b 4 ) - 12(d J -b J )

20bh(d

3- b 3)]

v . Ji |l0d 2 h 2 <2d-3b) + 10bh(4d 3 +

^ 60h 2 (d-b) L n
b 2 h-b 3 ) - d 4 (30h+15b) + 12<T + 3b 3 I

<3K +

Mi

ac - 2c z )
2 L K +

2(6K + 1)

3K i

2 6K + lj 8

(3K

Mp

+ 1) + ac - 2c 2 )] .

X s r i 3^ l

2 [* + 2 " 6K + 1 J
2(6K + 1)
3K

2 6K
FOR SPECIAL CASE: b-c-o

V-

4L(6K + 1)

A 2 O I

_ vh(3* + 4) „ wh^

H F - 40(K +2) 60

wh 2 f 27K + 7 3K + ? 1
M A - 60~ L 2(6K +1) K + 2 J

27K+7 1
2<6K+1) " K+2J

page I cV- 2 . &

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

B 5.1.4 Particular Solution of Bents and Semicircular Arches- (Cont'd)

Table B 5.1.4-1 Reactions and Constraining Moments in


Two Legged Rectangular Bents (Cont'd)

14. HORIZ. TRIANGULAR


RUNNING LOAD

W D
h:

-4

V (2a + c)(« - c) _ «A . ^7
6L L L

_ w(2a 2 -ac-c 2 ) X ll . X 12 (K ' ^


F 12h 2h 2h(K + 2)

where
X

11 60h 2 (d-b)
r 4 5 3 4 1

5hd -3d 3 -20hdb J -12b (d+h) I

12 60h 2 (a-c) L

15(h+c)(a 4 -c 4 ) - 12(a 5 -c 5 )
- 20ch(a 3 -c 3 )

M,

[ 3K+1 J^vi2ai^cil . x

11

2(6K + 1)
3K
Mi

hi r 1 + jli

; 3K+lJ - x„

2(6K + 1)

3K

*22
2

K + 2 6K + 1 j

FOR SPECIAL CASE: b-c-o, a-d-h

7 * 4L(6K + 1)
m wh(7K + 11)
"F 40(K + 2)

M_ - ZtL. r 2 IK + 6
^ 40 L 6K + 1

wh'

A 120

87K+22

_ 6K+1 Kt2 j

K + 2.
page ie>-2.3

STRUCTURAL A NfrlVfilB MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

5 ,1 # 4 Particular Solution of Bents and Semici rcular Arches (Cont'd)

Table B 5.1.4-1 Reactions and Constraining ^Moments in


Two Legged Rectangular Bents (Cont'd)

15. MOMENT ON H0RI2


SPAN

M I,

•A

A E
I t

3(b • L/2)M
Lh(2K + 3)

FOR SPECIAL CASE: a-o, b-L

7 --

CP

_ 3M
H " 2h<2X + 2)

16. MOMENT ON H0RI2.


SPAN

M 1*

H -

M A'

«E '
FOR

6(ab + I K)M
L 3 (6K + 1)

30> ■ a)M
2Lh(K + 2)

t p 6abOC+2) - L raOK+31 - b(5K-nl

. L 2L 2 (K+2)(6K+1)
■ VL - M - M A
H -

SPECIAL CASE : a-o, b-L

6KM
L(l + 6K)

3M

2h(K + 2)

■ DM

CP 1

tffff /777T

A 2(K + 2)(6K + 1)
page (&.£./£>

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

B 5.1.4 Particular Solution of Bents and Semicircular Arches CCont'd

Table B 5.1.4-1 Reactions and Constraining Moments in


Two Legged Rectangular Bents (Cont'd)

17. MOMENT ON SIDE SPAN


C D

'/JTJ7
L —

i, t,

v IV
18. MOMENT ON SIDE SPAN

. 3 [ K(2ab+a 2 ) + h 2 ] ^

2h J (2K + 3)

FOR SPECIAL CASE : a-o, b-h


L

3M
2h(2K + 3)

M A^ «E^

6bKM

L — •

■ 5
h

«/

i .

t E
M

hL(6K + 1)
-M

A 2h 2 (K+2)(6K+l)

M - VL - M - M.

E A

H . 3bM t2a(K-M.) + b I
2h 3 (K + 2)

[ 4a 2 +2ab+b 2 +K(26a 2 -5b 2 )


+ 6aK 2 (2a-b)]

FOR SPECIAL CASE: a-o; b-h

H
6 KM

H -

L(6K + 1)
3M

2h(K + 2)

M . M(5K - 1)
A 2(K + 2)(6K + 1)

Cr 1

fTTTf /7T7T

page 1 1
CTRMftTUR Al ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

B 5.1.4 Particular Solution of Bents and Senicircular Arche s (Cont'd)

Table B 5.1.4-2 Reactions and Constraining Moments in


Triangular Bents (Cont'd)

19. VERT* CONCENTRATED


LOAD

Q - v T

r -2£

D L

h *- L 2a 2 (K + 1) J
20. VERT. CONCENTRATED
LOAD

V A " Q - *D

D 1- L 1 2 a 2 J

Qcd

2£i + -

Lh 6La 2 h(K+l)

b(3K+4) - 21
M A * . 2

Qcd

6**(X+1)

Mi

+ 2(2L+b)(a-H:) + 3ac
£<a+d)(3K-*0 - 2(a+c)j

*D

Oe 2 d
2a 2 (Z + 1)

21. H0RI2. CONCENTRATED


. LOAD
I c

H. ■ Q - Ht

^ h L L 2h 2 (K + 1) J

page /&-2. /2

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

B 5.1.-* Particular Solution of Bents and Semicircular Arches (Cont'd)

Table B 5.1.4-2 Reactions and Constraining Moments in


Triangular Bents (Cont'd)
22. HORIZ. CONCENTRATED
LOAD

4 a D

PL

. d(h+d)
2 h 2 y

H -2£

^> Lh
b +

6h-(K+l)

H A - Q - H D

l(h+d)(-b{3K+4] - 2L)
+■ 2(2L+b)(h+e) + 3ac

Qcd r

*CK + 1) L

A 6h2(K + 1)

(h+d)(3K+4) - 2(h+c)

(h + 2c + d)
6h*(K + 1)

23. VERTICAL UNIFORM


RUNNING LOAD
. w

v a - [ l - k ]

C 2L
8h

L 1 + K J

24, VERTICAL UNIFORM


RUNNING LOAD

V A - v* |1
r .32*:

C 8L

H -

24Lh(K

L'-t] ■

£ b(10 + 9K) + 2L a 1

A 24<K + 1)

H V

va
c 24(K + 1)

V5

page ;2>

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DtVIStON

B 5.1.4 Particular Solution of Bents and Semicircular Arches (Cont'd)

Table B 5.1.4-2 Reactions and Constraining Moments in


Triangular Bents (Cont'd)

25. HORIZ. UNIFORM


RUNNING LOAD

vh 4
2L

*C

wh f 4b , 1.

8 L L K +

26. HORIZ. UNIFORM


RUNNING LOAD

3wh*

^ [ b(3K + 4) + a]

u wh'(3K + 2)
^ 24(K + 1)
M

C 24(K + 1)

27. APPLIED MOMENT


AT APEX

M T * - bK 1

hLL K + 1 J

page ie>.2-/<7

STRUCTURAL ANALYSTS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMlCS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

B 5.1.4 Particular Solution of Bencs and Semicircular Arches (Cont'd)


Table B 5.1.4-3 Reactions and Constraining Moments in
Triangular Bents and Semicircular Frames
or Arches (Cone ' d)

28. APPLIED MC
AT APEX

3MENT

Xs 2

v .

2L

3M(a - bK)
2hL(K + 1)

m - m

A 2(K + 1)

M
^ 2(K + 1)

29. SINUSOIDAL
NORMAL PRES

^—^\ 1

b - c- .

SURE
1

1 b(lb/ia.)
R U

/ bS

!in e V t

V - ^

h -r*

cr 2 r i
Mg ■ — (ji-2S)cos 9 - n + 3 sin 5j

(Positive moment acts clockwise cn


section ahead . )

page \s

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

3 5.1.

Particular Solution of Bents and Semicircular Arches (Cont'd)

Table B 5.1.4 Reactions and Constraining Moments in


Semicircular Frames or Arches (Cont'd)

30. SINUSOIDAL

NORMAL FR£SSUR£
b(ib/in.)

b - C sin 9

CsR

<-3* 2

32

cr 2 r « 3 - 10*] -

cr z r

2 J
. 31974CR

05478CR

M e - CR

[■

81974 sin 8

. .84018 +£f 2 ' (|- 3)

(Positive moment acts clockwise on


section ahead.)

31. UNIFORM NORMAL


PRESSURE
b(lb/in.)

M - 0 at all points since pin points


permit a uniform hoop tension.
T, where:

bR

page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSTS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

B5.0.0 FRAMES
References

1. Timoshenko, S., Theory of Structures , McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,


New York, 1945.
2. Sutherland, H. and Bowman, H. L. , Structural Theory , Fourth Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1954.

3. UiLbur, J. B. and Norris, C. H. , Elementary Structural Analysis . First


Edition, McGraw-Hill. Book Co., Inc., New York, 1948.

4. Grinter, L. E., Theory of Modern Steel Structures , Vol. II, The


Macmillan Co., New York, 1949.

5. Perry, D. J., Aircraft Structures . McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,


New York, 1950.

6. Argyris, J. H. , Dunne, P. C, Tye, W. , et al. t Structural Principles


and Data , Fourth Edition, The New Er3 Publishing Co., Ltd., London,
No date.

7. Roarke, R. J. , Formulas for Stress and Strain , p 1120, Third Edition,


McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., Nev York, 1954.

page i&. 2- n

STRUCTURAL ANALYSTS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 2 Reference I

Circular Rlnga
Rigid and Plexlble Rlnga

The equations in Table 4,3-2.1 can be used for both rigid frames and
flexible frames. Por a flexible frame, calculate the relative stiffness

KR 3

f ac tor ,

d -

QtR
EUT

or d •

where

RtG
1 +

Ot L.

Kt'R

where:

t' -

average skin thickness


modulus of elasticity In shear (skin)
mean radius between skin and ring neutral axis
modulus of elasticity in tension and compression (frame)
moment of inertia of frame

distance of frame to rigid base (for example i distance


to a wing spar) "I# 0 " ehould not be less than "R/2" or
greater than "2R."

thickness of a fictitious "stringer akin" with a cross


sectional area equal to the sum of the stringer areas
and the part of the skin area that is effective In
resisting longitudinal stresses.

When a ring is assumed Infinitely rigid, the relative stlffneas factor, "d,"
Is zero. Curves of various values of "d" are plotted In Figures 4.3.2.2
through 4.3.2.31. Prom these figures, the appropriate coefficient "C" can be
determined for use with the equations In Table 4.3.2.1.

When a ring la assumed infinitely rigid, the


shear flow distributions , ^ and ^ , are
assumed as shown in Pig. 4.3.2-la. If the
ring Is assumed finitely flexible, the
shear flow changes from a sine wave to a
pattern shown In Pig. 4.3.2-lb.

The curves as shown in Pig. 4.3.2.2


through 4.3.2.31 have been derived for the
Ideal case of a continuous circular shell-
supported frame of constant SI with any
system of applied loads in the plane of the
frame.

Rings which vary considerably from the


Ideal case may be handled with reasonable
accuracy by approximating "equivalent ideal conditions."

The results of any system of loading may be obtained by breaking the


system down Into a series of Individual radial, tangential, and moment" components
and superimposing the individual results.
Pig. 4.3.2-1

page 1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Approximation Method When " t," "R, " or n V > Doe a Not Remain Cona tant

The relative Importance of the akin thickness at any point Is proportional


to the Intensity of the shear flow acting on the ring at that point. The skin
thickness need be considered over the first primary wave of shear flow (load
to shear reversal as noted on plots), a trial, using an assumed thickness,
may be necessary to locate approximately the first primary shear flow wave.
Then the average effective skin thickness may be obtained as follows:

(1) Obtain the actual weighted average of akin thickness over


approximately the first primary wave of shear flow for both
the fore and aft aldea of the ring.

(2) If "L " la leaa than the radlua of the shell, the effective
thickness on that side of the ring should be Increased by
the ratio R/L Q .

(3) Then "t" la the average thickness of the skins on each side
of the frame.
The ring radius, "R," and the moment of Inertia, "I," need to be constant or
slightly varying only from the loading point around through the region of
appreciable bending moment. If "R" and "I" vary slightly In this region,
use average values of "R" and "1." If "R" varies considerably, overlapping
assumptions may be applied. If "I" varies considerably, an approximate
equivalent moment of Inertia may be used as follows :

j, m length of arc

where the length of the arc and 2 (ds/I) are continued over only the region
of appreciable bending moment. For a case of varying curvature the approxi-
mate point on the actual ring for which the coefficients apply may be

obtained by laying out around the ring a distance of R© Inches,

lflo

where "R" is the assumed radius and 0 is measured In

degrees from the loading to any point on the assumed equivalent circle.

Where one adjacent ring of approximately the same flexural proportions

it

la similarly loaded, use . m 1 OtR ;

2" £TC

where both adjacent rings are similarly loaded, use (d • ^ ).


Procedure

1. Select the appropriate equation from Table 4.3.2.1

2. Calculate the relative stiffness factor, d.

3. For any particular type loading, obtain the appropriate "C"

value from one of the curves in Figures 4.3.2.2 thru 4.3.2.31.

>

4. Substitute the value Into the equation selected in step 1.

page

QTRUCTURAl ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAWCS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Summary of Assumptions

When using the foregoing equation, and tb« curves In Figures 4.3.2.2
through 4.3.2.31. it »hould be noted that the mathematical derivations were
based on the following assumptions:

1. The frame is of constant initial curvature and constant


flexural rigidity.
2. She supporting skin is of constant thickness and continuously
attached- to the frame.- — -

3. ihe skin shear flow is proportional to the tangential


deflection of the ring with respect to "rigid structure."

a. The frame complies with the assumptions for the flexure


theory of curved beams with uniform rectangular cross
sections .

5. All loading is in the plane of the frame.

6. me distortion of the frame, under loading, alters the


sldn shear-flow distribution but does not alter the
geometry of the frame.

7. The stein shear flow acts along the elastic axis of the
frame.

8. Tfce frame undergoes no axial deformations.

9. The structure Is loaded within the elastic limit.

NOTE: „ - - M.o denotes graph is symmetrical snd the moment

has* the same sign whichever way "0" is taken.

HP1HLHENCES
Wignet, J. Z.. C-bs, E. and Znsrud. A. F., H.A.C.A. 929. Analysis of Circular
Shell -Supported Frames . Washington, 19**

Additional rigid ring loading conditions are given in Section

page \£.5»3

-J

TABLE 4.3.2.1

FORMULAS FOR DIFFERENT


LOADING CONDITIONS

Radial Load

Tangential Load
Moment Load

Applied Rotation

Applied Horizontal
Displacement

Bending

If a Mihf

■ - C PR

■ • C PR

m m C M

. - C <*0 ¥

M m f At

" C m* x"
Shearing
Force

3 - C, p P p

3 " C, t P t

3 " c » 5

Axial
Force

F - C ap P p

' " C »t't


Shear
Flow

a " C P

* qr v

T
(lb/ln.)

(lb/ln.)

a ■ c -~
(lb/ln. )

Tangential
Deflection

AT " b- -"kT r r-
AT - b " - e *tj*

Radial
Deflection

* R --"8 c A R t £

- - S 38" ^ra

Sectional
Rotation
■ represent* Internal resitting Moment
M represents external applied sioaent

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

0 - Degrees

Pig. 4.V2.*

£3

XI
01
d
CP

3]

H
G

>

-<

C/J

c
6

0 - Degrees
Pig. 4.3.2.5

.30

TJ
Al
O

■'I. '
1"
JUCIAL LOAD COEFFICIENTS
FOR AH APPLIED ?AN0ENTIAL LOAD \

•FTr

-.20

o
</>

o
rn
s

H
C

-<
en

Q - Degrees
Fig. 4.3-2.10

o
0>

0.5

»d - o -

d - io
d «

SHEAR PLOW AND TANGENTIAL DEFLECTION

COEFFICIENTS FOR AN APPLIED TANGENTIAL LOAD

180

o
as

o
rn

o>
-<

CO

cn

H
C

3)
l>

r-
>
z

-<
c/i

>
z
c
>

: - ROTATIONAL DEFLECTION COEFFICIENT S


\ FOR AN APPLIED T A NO EM HAL LOAD

PI
Where: plus Zip represents
clockwise rotation. fr

60 BO 100

0 - Degrees
Fig. 4.3.2.13

120

140

180

5:
o
d

o
rn

C
O
H
C

>

>
Z
>

-<
in

>
z
c

4#>

0\

Fig.

3 HE AH FLOW AND TANQENTIAL DEFLECTIOH


COEFFICIENTS FOR AM APPLIED MOMENT LOAD
s

a:
>>

o
5

CO

to

H
3J
C

H
C
3J

Z
-<

>
z

0 - Degrees
Pig. 4.3.2.18
0 - Degrees
Fig. 4.3.2-22

Q - Degrees
Fig. 4.3.2.23

5 a
0 J

•1

Pig. 4.3.2.26

■o
01

CP
</»
It

180

5F-

o r-
>

51?

c
>

8000

"D

o

-1000
d - fcoo

= ROTATIONAL DEFLECTION C0EPPICIENT3

= tOfi A SYMMETRICALLY APPLIED ROTATION


p - 180°

E= RO TATIONAL DEPLBCTION t

= =z Where j plus

^§ represents clockwise
- : V -"^OOolji? rotation In radians

cT - 2000 .
: d - 1000
20

180

•< fin

o
t/>

i>
o
m

CO

s
CO

3)
C

H
C
33
>

>
z

•<
Eo

>
z
c
>
r
to

0 - Degrees
Fig. 4.3.2.31

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

REFERENCES
4.3.0
4.6.0
4.7.0

Peeryj D. J., Ph.D., Aircraft Structures , McGraw-Hill, 1950


Grinter, T. E. , Ph.D., C.E., Theory or Modern Steel Structures
The Macmlllan Company, 1956.

Peery, D. J., Ph.D., Aircraft Structures , McGraw-Hill, 1950

Bruhn, E. F. , Analysis and Design of Aircraft Structures ,


Trl-State Offset Company, 1956.

N.A.C.A. 929

Peery, D. J., Ph.D. , Aircraft Structures , McOraw-Hlll, 1950

N.A.C.A. TN 2661
N.A.C.A. TN 2662

page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTFMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 J3 Reference &


REDUNDANT FRAMES

SUBJECT: Structural Deformations by Method of Pictorial Integration

Introduction

This nemo presents several tables which facilitate the'determination of


deforaations of structural members due to bending moments • Thee© values
may be used to advantage in the analysis of cimple redundant structures.

A. OUTLIN E OF HETEDD * DSK)RKA,T3D1!S

In order to find any deformation in a structure duo to any external


loading, proceed as follows I

1. Draw the moment diagram duo to the actual loading* Denote these
moments by Mq»

2. Remove the actual loading. Apply a fioticioua load equal to unity


at the point where the deformation io to bo found. This unit
load must be of such a typ» Rnd applied in such a mannor that
(load) r (deformation) - work* for example, if the doformation.
to be found is a rotation, the unit load must then b© a moment*
Draw the moment diagram for this unit load. Denote these moments
byl!*.

3. Compute deformation from the f onrala


whore S oft is given in Table II for various combinations of
moment diagrpras M c tud M AO

page Ife.^- '

5°°

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

OUTL ttra OF IICTIOD - PSFORKATIOXS (ConV d)

Table II frill bo found inapplicable to curved members.

OUTLINE OF METKOD - ANALYSIS OF REDUNDANT STRUCTURES

In order to determine the redundant foroo3 end momenta in a etructure


for T.-hich it may be assumed that only bending-moment deformations
affect the magnitudes of the redundants, proceed as. foil omit
1, Cut the otructure at convenient point3 to make it statically

determinate. Denote the redundant forces or noaents by Xa* Xb#

2. DraTr the noment diagrams for Sa ■ 1# Xb " 1» eto., acting on


the statically determinate structure. Designate these moments
lib* etc «

Zm Draw the moiaont diagram Mq for fehe actual applied loads acting on
the statically determinate etructure. (Use same sign convention
as in Step 2.)

4. Evaluato the variouo %'o ivhich *111 be needed in Step 5, by neana


of Tabic 3 I and II*

5. Determine X a# etc,, by substituting in the following formulas:

Soa

One dogx'ea redundancyt X A «■ - f—

etc.

Two degree redundancy! Xa


- 0

page \£> m 4.Z

STRUCTURAL ANALYS IS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMJCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

C. EXAMPLE:

Determine the deflection at any point C


in a simply oupported boom with uniform
load*
First draw the bending moment diagram
Mo for the actual loadingi

Next apply a ficticious unit load at C


and draw the resulting moment diagram

Then obtain the formula for l 0A from Table II, Case 4(j), and
compute &oa*

'oa

EI

1 i _Ll£2. i ♦ &

s L 1 *—^

if T t 2 L* + L* J
jptL
24

page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

page l£>-4.^

ctTRUCTURAI ANALYS IS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

TABLE II - .VALUES OF £

mi

-p- x* d^Ttt^d as f L )L M. ds for any Iwto i^omcisT dJ*jJ"a*ii Km *nd


I

inn or Txei

T T T

Lac

Ki)

Z!

Lcc f
2 L

L
| Ctrel» - »rc length S

Lac
2

1(c)

.J
d

Lc.(o » Q
2

(J)

t L_Y _J
V L^ojR/S A fl

2 La*

I t— T,

Kd) »
f

KD L

2nd do^re*

Lac
3

.<*>
r

i.

3rd dsjrso

Ls?
4

Ka) i

.4'A dosrao

1(h)
* -J

Lao £

page i *:4.5

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

TABLE II 'contlnvncO

paga ia.4.£

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAW AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
Tt.3LE 13 (continued)
£ ie defined aa ^JJ li a tny «o=»nt ciacress 1^ and i%

Cue

S m or &

2(q) ?

Lac
12

Uo

20
Lao
SO

page IB. 4. 7

STRUCTURAL A NALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

& „ is defined as

l'ACLE Ij (CcaUnusd)

ds for tny tvso moment di egress 1^ and Mjj

C&B3

Jin
S ^ or S m

3E £

3(») T

± L(2ao + 2bd *ad + bc)

3(0

Lo(a + b)
5
2nd degree

3(b)

Lc(a. ♦ b)
4

3(j)

d degree

— (3
12 (3

3(c) _J
3(k)

,3rd degree

L — *■!

Lc

20

(4 ft + b)

3(d)

^4
Lo(a. - b)
6

3(1)

i_

4th degree

30 (5 ft ♦ b)

3(f)

3(g)
page ie>.4.

STRUCTURAL A NALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

TABLE II (Continued)

is defined aa ^ ds for any trro moment ditgranfl and >\j

Case

^ nm " xsb Cfiso

Jin

XT
±

4(a) 1

TThen e — g

Lao
3

4(b)

Lao (L a - E* - f a )
6 ho
Trtien e ^ g

4(h) ^r^- — li^fT^.2..- e ^ + -^l

-*j©J^f — 6 f fL fglj

4(0

TOien • ^ C
6 hL

4(o)

2nd degree

^ t r- -,
4(j)

*•> J_!J

Khen e < g

Lao He 8 h~|

6 Ls L r J

4(k) I

2nd degree

Lao |7 h h»l
When e > g

3rd degree

Tfhen e ^ g

Lae
2

4(») •

s4th degroe

Laef7 h h« h s h 4

a ^ .|i o|i* r i»- + l^i*


4(g)

Wion e ^ g

Lao f *
— 2 hL

page* ie>.*.s

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 19.0

THERMAL EFFECTS

Thermal stress analysis methods, for various common structural

elements, are presented in this section.

19.1 GENERAL 19.1.1

1 9.2 BEAMS AND COLUMNS 1 9.2.1

19.3 FLAT PLATES 19.3.1


19.4 BOX BEAMS 19.4.1

1 9.5 BOLTED JOINTS 1 9.5.1

19.6 THERMAL BUCKLING 19.6.1

1 9.7 THERMAL STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

WITH MSC/NASTRAN 19.7.1

page 19.0.1

11.2.0

gypi^TURAL A^ftlYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAWCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 3 Reference I

THERMAL STRESS ANALYSIS


General Discussion
' Thermal stresses may result from conditions such as:

a. Unequal heating causing a non-linear, non-uniform temperature


distribution within a beam or plate (If there are no external
restraints, the stresses will be self-balancing),
b. Unsyimnetrlcal heating through the thickness of the plate or beam
producing bending moments with, or without, external restraints
(a linear temperature distribution through the thickness with no
external restraints produces no thermal stresses In a homogeneous
material ) .

c. Heating of a plate or beam attached to a cooler sub-structure,

d. "Soak" heating or cooling of the entire structure when the


components have different coefficients of thermal expansion.

Thermal stresses can be added linearly to load stresses If the total


stress is below the proportional limit of the material (above the pro-
portional limit, the sum of the thermal and mechanical stresses can be
obtained using a strain analysis).

Wthoda for Determining Thermal Stresses in Stable Structures.


General

The following three equations will give the total strains in the x,
y, and z directions.

[<r y -^(<r,* <r x >] +c<(t-t 0 )

(1)
(2)

(3)

Where: c* is the coefficient of thermal expansion and "T 0 * is the

reference temperature corresponding to zero thermal stress.


"T" Is the temperature at the point (x, y, z).
The equations for stress in the x, y, and z direction* are:

ot S(T-T )

v j j E £ - <* E < T - T o>

°y ■ u^!a-2^ ) ( € « + s * € « } * ti^tt * y i-*m

(5)
(6)

page
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference f

In the plane ■ trees case ( 0" - 0), these equations become

<T -

01 -

1-M

EOC(T-T rt )

E0C(T-T 0 )

(7)
(8)
Por uniaxial conditions (O^. " 0# 0* E - 0)

°x " E € x " Kot < T - T o> " S [ f x -°<< T - T o)]

(9)

Beans and Columns

A. Uniform Heating

Typical applications of the thermal stress equations Involving


uniaxial stresses are:

1 . Full Restraint of a Uniformly Heated Bar (Stable Structure)

(a) Prismatic bar restrained against expanding In length-


wise direction.

Heated Bar

Fig* 11.2.1-1
P - -AXOC(T-T 0 )

CT ■ -XCC(T-T 0 ) Minus sign Indicates compressive stress,


(b) Restrained prismatic bar having a gap, heated uniformly

Pig. 11.2.1-2

page 1*5.2. 1

ypgnCTURAL AyA|Y^^ MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

ir e/l>, oc(t-t ) , p

If g/L < OC(T-T Q ) , P - -EAOC(T-T g ) + ^

CT- -EOC(T-T 0 ) + ^

2. partial Restraint of a Uniformly Heated or Cooled


Prismatic Bar

Partially Restrained Rod and Spring


Fig. 11.2-1-3

C - Spring con 3 tant for "V at it. final temperature "T

P - -

(i)

Note : The spring may represent an clastic structure


where "C" is its spring constant at final
tempera tor* .

3 Two Bars at Different Temperatures

Two bars are attached such that the cold bar restrains the

expansion of the hot bar. The bars are a«umed to remain straight
no bending.
(1) Hot Bar

2) Cold Bar

(End supports prevent angular rotation only)


Pig. 11.2.1-4

page 1 5-2.1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

d 1 - -EiOC^V'oK

where

2 (T 2 -T 0 )
(2)

and the subscripts correspond to the respective member a

Three Bars at Different Temperatures

If three bars are heated and each at a different


temperature, the stress Mould be: (Bars are assumed
to remain straight).

(End supports prevent angular rotation only)

<r 3

where:

Tig. 11.2.1-5

-^l <V T o> c l


-E 2 Of 2 (T 2 -T G ) e 2
(3)
W
(5)

fWil l~i V*2 E 2 ( V T ° ) ^ oc 3 E 3 (T 3- T ° ) 1

s~i3

page '^-2.5

General Equation

The general equation to be used for any number of bars


(no bending} la:

U x -E,
(6)

where subscript "1" refers to the bar In question, and "P" ia


the externally applied axial load.

B. Beams With Varying Temperature

The following equations are to be used for thermal stresses when


the temperature varies through the depth of the beam.

Centrold

X
+

-c

Centrold

(a) Uniform Thickness (b) Varying Thickness

Pig. 11.2.1-6
a. Uniform Thickness
<f x - -OCE(T-T 0 ) +

2c L

OC E(T-T 0 )dy

(7)

+ f CSC *(T-T_)y dy

2c"V-c

Note:

(1) If the beam la restrained from expanding and bending,


drop the last two terms,

(2) If the beam Is restrained from expansion but la free


to bend, drop the middle term.

(3) If the beam is restrained in bending only, drop the


last term.

b. Varying Thickness

If the beam has a varying width through its depth and Is


symmetrical about Its vertical centerline, the above equation
has the following form

page 13.2-4

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNA MICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Where M I 2 " la moment of Inertia about the centroidal axis,


and H t" la a function of V as shown in Pig. 11.2.1-6(b).

Prismatic Bara With Linear Temperature Gradient


Between the Two Faces

The following caaea are typical for bars subjected to a linear


temperature change between the faces:

Caae 1
Restrained rectangular bar, both faces at uniform temperature.

(8)

Pig. 11.2.1-7

. EIOC(T 1 -T 0 )

is)

t
(10)

max

Caae 2

Pin-ended rectangular cross section column with end load, "P".


Both faces at uniform temperature.

Pig. 11.2.1-8
page 19.?.. 5

gTqilf:TURA | ^fJAI YSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

This becomes a
due to temperature

beam-column a. a result of "e," . the eccentricity

*T ~~ 8t

IL?|I (Euler's eq.) <")


L

(13)

(e 1 - any initial eccentricity


that either adds to or
subtracts from e ? )

p < e rinal>

n—^r wjM^gn for Determining Stresses in A Member Sub^cted to ^


External Force. , Moments , and With a Temperature Variation in the Z
«jid "z" Directions

y -A.

Fig. 11.2.1-11

0~i - E i

/"« * £-i Wi^i'W

E. A
i"l

- K^C^-^J (15)

Where

M - Moment about the z-axls


z

H y - Moment about the y-axis

NOTE:

This solution applies to


prismatic bean with
constant cross section.

page 1^.2 . C

STRUCTURAL A NALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference I

1 refers to the 1 th element ; A 1 la the area of the 1 th element


y k z are assumed ae the principal axes

( T i~ T o^ 18 a functlon of y and z ' and 18 lnde P endent


of the x-dlrection.

If no bending in the x-z plane la assumed, the quantity in the


second parenthesis of equation (j 5) will be eliminated.

Flat Plates (Non- Uniform Temperature;

The following equation is the general expression for flat plates with
the temperature varying through the depth only (independent of the lengthwise
directions). (Ref. 11.2.2-1.)

Fig. 11.2.2-1

OC E(T-T 0 )

2c(l-^/J
OCE(T-T Q ) dz

(1)

2c-

-25 ) OCE(T-

T 0 ) Zdx

Note: This equation is not valid near the edges


of the plate.

1 • Flat Plate of Any. Shape . Rotatlonally Ren trained at the Edges


With Linear Temperature Gradient Between Two Faces , Both
at Uniform Temperature

Fig. 11.2.2-2
Z

° Sect. A-A
(Typical All Edges)

page ^*3. 1

GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

(2)

Square Plate Rotatlonally Restrained at the Edges , With


Linear Temperature Oradlent Between Two Paces , Both
at Uniform Temperature
Z

Sect. A-A
(Typical All Edges)

Pig. 11.2.2-3

Near the edges:

EOC

(3)

Away from the edges

(4)
Plat -Plates (Uniform Heating)

The follow^ thermal stress equations Involving biaxial stresses are


given with the assumptions that there is uniform heating, no bending, and
that the edges remain straight and parallel.

1. Uniformly Heated or Cooled Rectangular Plate Restrained in the


x and y Directions Only

f /(>" * ** t / ///////////

cr x -ov - -

Pig. 11.2.3-1

page 1*5-3.2

(i)
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

2. Partial Restraint of a Uniformly Heated or Cooled


Square Plate

The restraint la equal In the "x" and "y" direction.

Note : Frame assume a no

bending but will expand


axlally.

View A-A
(Typical All Edges)

* .Fig. 11.2.3-2

Jhla la an approximate solution only.

(2)
(3)
whs-re

2wt,

Subscripts (1) and (2) refer to the plate and edge


■ember* respectively.

. < *2<V*o>

3* Partial Restraint of a Uniformly Heated Rectangular Plate


- — . a H

A.

(3) —

(l)
zee:

^3)

Fig. U.2.3-3

page \ 9*3,3

c^qinrniRAL ^aivsis MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Sourea, Section 1 3 Refarenca J

cr.
<r 3 - h 3

(4)

(5)
(6)
(7)

^ . fL-^, ^ x € y - UtX/X*! <V T o>]

<r - ^ ff ♦ - U^)^ <V*o>]

y i L 7 J

fy - « 3 (T 3" T o } ]
Using the following equilibrium conditions:

A - bt , 4 - tret of both (2) ■•■b.ra and t la tha


*1 thickness of »e«bar 1

» . »t , a, - area of both (3) »«"ber»


»1 ^
Tha above equation, can be solved for the two unknown.,
" £ x - and -£ 7 ."

Opon determining " € " and " " the .tree. In the plat,
and the edge «-ber. can be obtained by sub.tltutlng back
In equations (4), (5). (6). «"»
Mote : These equation, are approximate.
U.2.A-.

— Inf following equation, can be uaed for approxl-t.lv d.t.nalnln.


the ther-al .tree... of cc.po.lt. .tructure. (box bea-.). Bending of the
box-bea- about the "*" and "r" axl. 1. con.ld.r«l and It 1. a..u**d that
bending .tree... In the co-oonent. of the box bea- are negligible.

page

■STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

-^15)

Typical Composite (or Box-Beam)


Structure

Pig. 11.2.4-1

<r x ■ — 2 [ V H ^
x i a^u 2 ) L y

tr, k^<£x*^*i>
y i (w?) L x

n ^ y *i B r« B -OC I| (T B -T 0 )j

where 1 refers to
the skin component

(T -T )

v n o' where n refers to

the edge Members

where :

- Distance from neutral plane to centrold of 1 th or n th


component .
(1)

(2)

(3)

page 19.4.2.

CTRIirTURAL ANAtVSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

th

1 refers to the i rowrwjncnt


C x and £ y - Strains at the centroid of the structure.

1 - n d L_ - Curvature In x-z and y-z plane, respectively.

The curvatures, 1 and 1 will be assumed to be the sane for all


components of the structure.

The equilibrium equations for Pigure 11.2.4-1 are:

(5)

(6)

Z(«)( M , - t^CT^ A, z, - Hy - 0 <x-z plan.) (7)

2>v«> - A i 2 i - "x - 0 plan#)

(8)

where t

Webs and attachment angles in the "y" direction are not


shown for the sake of clarity.
(1) and (2) - Outer Skins •

(3) and (4) - webs

(5) thru (8) - Attachment Angles

"z" la the distance from the neutral plane of the box beam
to the neutral axis of the individual component,
p - External load in "x" direction (♦) if tensile
Py - External load in "y" direction
H - Externally applied moment about y-axla
H 7 - Externally applied moment about x-axls
((+) as shown in Figure 11.2.4-1.)

Procedure

1. By substituting the stress expressions (1), (2), (3) and (4)


into the four equilibrium equations, and performing the indicated
summation or Integration, four equations are obtained which contain
the unknown strains and curvatures € x , 1 > and 1 _ *

*x 'y ^e_w

2. The numerical values or these unknowns are obtained by the f ^


^simultaneous solution of the four equations.

page
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1.3 Reference /

3. Finally, the strains and curvatures thus obtained are substituted


Into equations (1), (2), (3), and (4) to provide the stress
distribution.

U.Z.S

Bolted and Riveted Joints

A . Bolt Pre-Load Due to Temperature

Bolts and other threaded fasteners, damping one or more thiclcnesses


of materials together and exposed to temperature change after installation,
are subjected to thermal loads which either add to or subtract from
Installation pre-loads.

a w ,-c

Bolt, Washer, Nut


(Same Mat'l)

Thread
T o "

D B-

Bolt Assembly Exposed to Temperature After Installation

Pig. 11.2.5-1
Final temperature of the entire assembly.

Initial temperature of the entire assembly before heating.

Effective diameter of material exerting thermal load on


bolt.; assumed equal to twice D fi

Bolt diameter

Total material thickness (t + t w + t )

a b c '

Cross-sectional area of resisting material based on D^

'B

- Effective length of bolt under load (L g -*■ L r + -| )


I* a - Length of non-threaded shank of bolt

L r - Length of threaded length of bolt not engaged by the nut

Lg - Length of threaded length of bolt engaged by the nut

A & - Cross-sectional area of shank of bolt

A„ - Cross-sectional area of root dla. of bolt


r

P T - Thermal load; (plus (+) Is tension in the bolt; minus {-)


would unload a pre-loaded bolt)

e- - Deformation of the bolt over length, L„

page \5 >5. I

e M - ^formation of the material over length, ^


g - Oap (Inches)
Assume washer deformation to be negligible.

(T-T 0 )(Or a t a+ or b t b *o< c t c j - P + Jjq + ^ (2)


(3)

For a, b, and c being of the ssjm Material, the equation


reduces tot

H» ft iiV^l (j)

(Tension in bolt if T > T Q and C* M >C* b )

If a gap exists and the nut is finger-tight, i.e., no pre-


load, equation (*) becomes i

-g + (T-T ft ) (cx A t A ^oc b t b fcy e t e -CVgLg)

(6)

and equation (5) becomes

-g * (T-T Q ) (CXhVCXbLb)

(7)
page 13.5. 2

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Dissimilar Materials Subjected to a Uniform Temperature Change


Proa the Same Initial Temperature , T Q , to a Pinal Temperature,
T x and T 2 .

- L »

11

If 81

-T 8 a

5 WD

r~

«1 |i

-4 1

g i ii

i
7 s *

4V 2

Fix-Ended Single Bolt

Two or Three Bolt Pattern In Bars

Two* Bars; All Bolts Assumed Concentric In Holes


Pig. 11,2.5-2

for cooling and | (T^-T^ < °<2( T 2 -T c-)|


For heating and J ©Cj .(^-T^j > | CX 2 (T 2 -T C ) |

For heating of bar 1 or cooling of bar 2, or both;


Q ^tyT.) -OCg(yT 0 )

P . j 7 1

(8)

(The force "P" will be compressive In 1 and tensile in 2.)


For cooling and | Of^ <T--T 0 )|>
For heating and I (T 1 -T 0 )j < |cx 2 (T 2 -T 0 )

(9)

«2 ( V T o )

For heating of bar 2 or cooling of bar 1, or both;

o*2<V T o> -P^W


" i + _iTTT

•Hole elongations neglected

page I $ • 5" . 2*

c : T pilCTURAL ^ MfllVSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

(The fore* m f m will »• compressive in 2 and ttniUt In 1)


For riveted Joints g x and are set equal to zero.

P riv.t * 1

^( T^Tj -OC 2 (yT 0 )

i_' — ; i

(10)
C Two Fastened Bars With Fixed Enda Subjected to a Dnlform

Temperature Change From the Same Initial Temperature, T Q , to


a_ Final Temperature , and T 2 -

HfiL

Two* Bars With Opposite Enda Fixed


Fig. 11.2.5-3
(a) Bar 1 and Bar 2 Heated;

^ I ^

(H)

(Both bars In compression)


(b) Both Bars Cooled;
^2

(12)

(Both bars In tension)


For rlTeted Joints g x and gj are set equal to zero

OCA (^-TJ + Q^g^(T 2 -T 0 )

rivet

(Coapresaivc If both heated


Tensile If both cooled.)

• Bole Elongations Neglected

STRUCTURAL A NALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference /


The rial Buckling of Columns and Plates

Buckling la assumed to occur In the elastic range In this section,

U.S.*

Column Buckling

A. Column Buckling Due to Temperature Differential Only

The following general equation can be used to determine the


temperature differential which would Initiate column buckling.

j^X(T-T 0 )j

2 2
c TfMT

L c.

(1)

where
T-T Q - Increase In temperature of column

Column fixity coefficient

C l -

C +

(Also see Eq. 11.2.1(2)

(2)

C ■ Longitudinal stiffness of the restraining


structure (lb/In. )

AS • Longitudinal stiffness of the column (lb/In. )

B. Simple Beam Initially Crooked , Deflected , or Both , With Complete


Axial End Restraint , Subjected to Installation Pre -Load , P^, and
Uniform Temperature Change

Crooked or Deflected Beam at Temperature, T Q

Beam In Compression at Temp., T

Beam In Tension at Temp., T

Fig. 11.3.1-1

P - P l + P th.r«al

P - P ± - KOCA(T-T 0 )

Is tension

Is compression
page 1 S • & • \

c-railfrTUHAL AfJAIVSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Beam In compression :
p. . T^EI

(3)

(5)

Beam In tension:
n . P (e.) fAssimlng tension inaufficient to!

1 [significantly straighten beam J (6)

c Simple Beams (Axial End Restraint Eccentric to the Elastic Ax^s)

Change

Crooked or Deflected Bee*

at Temperature, T.

Beam in Compression at Temp.i T-

Fig. U. 3-1-2

* " P i + P ther»al
. f± - K«A(T-T G )
Bean in compression :

Be as
in Tension at Temp., T

+ is Tension

P. Is Compression

»W P{6 f }

(7)

page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Beam In tension
max

P(e 0 +

(8)

Assuming tension insufficient


to significantly straighten
_beara

U.S.2.

Flat Plates (Uniformly Heated From T Q to )

The following method can be used to determine the temperature


differential causing plate buckling 1

(This analysis applies to loading by thermal forces, only)

Condition 1: Plate Is fully restrained from thermal


expansion In the "x" direction only

<Wcr "
K7T 2 f tf

(1)

Values of "K" can be obtained for panels with various edge conditions
from p&. £. t . 7 7C> <Rt 6. /. tZ

Condition 2: Plate is fully restrained from thermal expansion


In both the "x" and "y" directions.

(a) All edges simply supported:

<Wcr -

12

(2)
(b) All edges clamped:

The following equation can be used if the


plate does not differ much from a square plate

<V T o> cr

12(1-^) *

( t } 2

OC 3(1+ a 2 \ a

,3b 2 + 3a 2

2)

(3)
Condition 3: Buckling of simply supported rectangular plates
when the temperature varies in the "y" direction
and Is constant in the "x" direction.

page

fijqiiCTURAL A ,N^l y g |S MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Heated Plate

Flat Plate With Temperature Varying In "y"


Direction Constant In "x" Direction

(1) Assumptions

Pig. 11. 3.2-1


(a) The plate Is fully restrained In

direction

and allowed to expand In the "y" direction,

(b) All edges remain straight and parallel,

(c) No variation in heating through the plate's


thickness.

(d) Adjacent panels do not affect the stability of


panel to be analyzed, and

(e) Temperature distribution in the panel can be


expressed approximately as a cosine curve.
(See Pig. U.3-2-l(b).)

(2) Equation for calculating critical temperature differential:

<*av
- T )

o'er

' I 3 bt< * E J

where: P Is total load on the plate, pounds

T Is the temperature of the structure


o

'P.

(3) Procedure:

(a) Determine the average temperature in panel (T av )


from the temperature distribution curve ,

pace

STRUCTURAL ANALYSTS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAW AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

(b) Determine the constant "if" from the following aquations:

— f —

av

(T -T )
* max av'

(5b)

Uae the value of N f " which produces the small est value
of

From the curve in Pig. 11.3.2-2, determine

Solve for (* av *T 0 ) using equation (4).

("p " ia negative if it is a compression load)


(•) ( T .„~ T «). »»wt be leas than the value calculated in (d)
if the plate Is not to buckle.

{*») Observations :

(a) If the bracket in equation (4) is 4 °j tne P*n«l "ill


not sustain any thermal stress in the "x" direction.

(b) The value of "B" and " Oc " should be evaluated at the
highest panel temperature.

The average temperature distribution, T av j may be determined


graphically by using the temperature distribution curves "A"
and "B" from Figure 11.3.2-lb.

The sign " $ " can be determined as follows :

If the peak temperature appears in the center

of the panel (auch as curve "A" , Figure 11.3.2-lb),

" 2T " should be taken as minus.

If the valley of the curve appears in the center

(such aa curve "B"), " " should be taken ae positive.

2.0
0

1.0
/
-1.0

+1.0

Critical Values of /3
Fig. 11.3.2-2

page \ 3 . £ » S

^THUfvrunAL A ^ftivsis manual

GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION


J

Intcr-nivct 'mcm.i l r Xictcl J.ng

Thr follow 1m; oouatinnn a:i?iwr that, only 1 thrymnl load la acting
(1) CrlMru.l r.h«Mt*al strnln for clastic hucklinr, between
rl vffto :

[<X(T-T 0 )J

cr

U)

where :

t - skin thickness

L - Length of skin between rivet centerllnes


Equation 2 will give the approximate critical thermal strain
when the bending stress (Induced by the thermal load) equals
the yield stress of the material at the given temperature.

(a)

Procedure :

(a) Prom an appropriate high temperature stress-strain curve


obtain the 0.2* yield stress, and the elastic modulus.

into the formula and determine

Substitute this P

cy

(c) If "T" Is in excess of the assumed temperature used

originally to select a stress-strain curve, the process


should be repeated using a new P cy and modulus, E, at
the higher temperature.
Th er m«T Deflections of Structural Components

1. Simply supported beams with temperatures varying through the depth onlj

Hi h Ti i

Beam With Constant Cross Section


Pig. 11. H. 0-1

page

53^

STRUCTURAL A NALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
Doflectlon of the benm at any point C" :

y-c.

OC yTbdy

(1

b - the width (May be a function of "y" and assumed


to be •ymetric about the vertical
centerline . )

ir "cx " la assumed constant and the temperature varies linearly


through the depth of the bean, then:

(Tj-TJUC-C 2 )

(2)

2h
For " & at the center of the beaa (C - L/ 2 ) :

8h

(3)

The general equation for ^ c along the length "L" , can be written

in Bumation form to facilitate a numerical integration: (See


Figure 11.4.0-2) '

c i-i E* J 1

1-n

i-te+1

(VT 0 )ydA
Ji

Note:

The symbol | A represents the integral over a cross sectional area,

i r r
f

1-n

t
1

— AXj-
1-1

i-2

1-k

k+1

i-k+1
— X- — -I

,x k+r

Fig. 11. 0-2

page l5. £

STRUCTURE ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAlR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

2. Cantilever b»omr, with temperatures varying through the deoth

— T iH |— c —
*
*

4 —

Fig. 11. U. 0-3

The deflection at "C" la :

S -~L^ X

EC*yT dA

dx

(5-a)
If E and I are constant, the expression becomes:

4 - - -

(5-*)

itant, and the temperature varies


linearly through the depth, then:

If E, 1 2 , and OC are conai

^ 2K

(5-c)

Uie deflection at the end of the beam <OK5) is:


S a - - oc(t i; t o )l 2
° — ah

(6)

IT Oc, I* and (T-T 0 ) are functions of "x" , It may be


advisable to uae a numerical approximation to find the deflection
at tn« end of the beam.

— a*!—

■ AXg — -

i-n
1-1

X i

1 *2

' *n m

Fig. 11. U. 0-4

page IS-C.g
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

i-n w r

EOtyT dA

(7-*)

or,

i-n r -.

<7-b)

where "y" or "y^" is measured from the centrold or the croes section

SlJnply - Burported flat plate with temperature varying through the


plate ' a thlckneaa
The following equation gives the approximate deflection In the
center of a aimply-Bupported plate.

' r t/2 1

J OC Ty dy j

81

(8)

where

! . h 3 (l+X/)

t - plate thickness

a - length of plate edge


If T ■

T 1^ T 2 + ( l l' l 2 ) y (linear through the plate's thickness)

then

(9)

where

- Temperature of upper surface


T 2 - Temperature of lower surface

page

c sTPHCTURAL ANA1V5IS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
c

U.S.©

Plastic Strain Analysis


U .S» I

Strains Due to Therma l Stresses Only

Maximum thermal stresses calculated by the uae of elastic equations


■ust be within the elastic range of the material at the final temperature "T."
This may be determined by the use of stress-strain curves.

Thermal stresses may be evaluated in the plastic range for constant


stable cross sections, excepting springs , by the following:

1. Evaluate the erroneous elastic thermal stress, (T > by the


elastic equations.

2. Calculate the actual thermal strain by

3. Locate this thermal strain on the appropriate stress-


strain curve at the final temperature "T" and read the
actual thermal stress.

Strain Analysis of a Beam Subjected to Thermal Stresses and


External Loads

The following assumptions are made:


1. The temperature varies In the "y" (depthwise)
direction only.

2. The stresses are uniaxial. ^gmv

3. Plane cross sections remain plane after bending. ™

b. Stress-strain curves are available for the


material and temperatures of the beam.

5. The beam is prismatic and la symmetric about the "xy" plane.

The beam la considered to be made up of longitudinal strips at various


distances, "y^" , from the neutral axis of the beam.

The strain corresponding to the stress in the 1 strip Is:

where:

£ Q - the strain In the "x" direction at the


neutral axis

jg, - the bending curvature In the "xy" plane

(otATjj, - therual strain of the 1 th strip at distance


"y 1 " from the neutral axis.

Equations (2) and (3) and the following discussion outlines a method
for determining the unknowns, £ Q and ^ .
The summation of forces.

page \Q

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

and the sunnation of moments.

- T CTjl 7 t A A - 0 (3)

where:

3 i-1

A^ - croaa aectional area of the I th atrip


p £ - the externally applied axial load.
(Tensile load is positive )

- the externally applied end moment .-


(A positive end moment will cause a
tensile stress in the "y > 0" portion
of the beam cross section.)

IT the stresses in all the strips are within the proprotional limit,
then the conventional method of section 11.2.1 is used to solve for the
stresses in the various strips.

If the proportional limit is exceeded, a trial and error strain


analysis is used as follows:

Trial values of both £ Q and \/p are substituted into equation (l) to
provide a value of atraln for each strip. The stresses " 0^" corres-
ponding to the strains " C^" are taken from stress-strain curves for the
material at the various temperatures involved.

These stresses are then substituted Into Eq. (2) and Bq. (3). If
the proper values of £ 0 and 1/p have been assumed, then Bq. (2) and
Bq. (3) *re satisfied, otherwise new values of £ Q and/or 1/p must be
tried' until the proper values are obtained.

r37
page ) 5 . G . 11

CTPUCTUHA | ANAI VSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

REFERENCES

11.0.0 THERMAL STRESS ANAL YSIS

U.1.0 Convalr Aatronautica , Structure Manual. Thermal Effect. ,

11.2.0
11-2.1

Section 19-00, 1959

Timoehenko. S. P.. and Qoodlnr. J. M. , Theory, of Elaaticlty , 1951;


Oatewood, B. E. , Thermal Streaaea, 1957
Oatewood, B. E. , Thermal Streaaea , 1957

Convalr Aatronautica Structures Manual, Thermal, Effecta,


Section 19-00, 1959

Timoahenko, S - P. » Theory of Elastic Stability, 1936


Hotchkiaa, H. H. , Thermal Strea. Lecture Notee, Convair-Port Worth,
Advanced Structural Anal ya is Courae, 1959
Timoehenko, S. P., Theory of Platea and Sheila, 19*0

11 2 3 Oatewood, B. E. , Thermal Streaaea, 1957

Hotchkiaa, H. H. , Thermal Streaa Lecture Note., Convair-Port Worth,


Advanced Structural Anal ya la Course, 1959

Schoeller, V. C, SRO-TO-7, Thermal Streaaea In Aircraft Structure.


pae to Aerodynamic Heating , 1959

11.2.2

11.2.*
11.2.5
11.3.1

11.3-3
11.*.0

11.5.0

Convalr Aatronautica, Structures Manual, Thermal Effecta ,


Section 19-00, 1959

Timoahenko, S. P. $ Theory of Elastic Stability, 1936


Convalr Aatronautica Structures Manual, Thermal Effecta ,
Section 19-00, 1959
11.3.2 Hoff, N. J., Thermal Buckling, of Superoonlc Wing Panel.,

- Journal of Aeronautical Science., 1956


Timoahenko, S. P., Theory of Elastic Stability, 1936
Hotchkla., H. H. Thermal Stre.. Lecture Note., Convair-Port Worth,
Advanced Structural Analyala Courae, 1959

Hotchkiaa, H. K. , SRG-3*, Methods of Thermal Stress Calculation , 1959


Oatewood, B. E. , Thermal Stresses, 1957

Ooodier, J. N. , Thermal Stress and Deformation, Joum L of Applied


Mechanics, 1957

Boley, B. A. . The calculation of Thermoelastlc Beam Deflections


by. the Principle of Virtual Work, Journal of Aeronautical Science., 1957
Goodman, 3., and Rua.ell. S. B., Transient Temperature and Streg.
Distributions in Beams , National Bureau of Standard. Report 3630, 195*
Convalr Aatronautica, Structurea Manual, Thermal Effecta ,
Section 19.00, 1959

Hotchkl.., H. U. , Thermal Streaa Lecture Notes, Convalr -Fort Worth,


Advanced Structural Analyala Courae, 1959
page ^.G-l2-

538

STRUCTURAL ANALYSTS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SYNOPSIS

Iftfrm? 1 Structural Analysis wrth MSC/NASTftAN

Complex thermally loaded structures can be analyzed using MSC/NASTRAN. The


capabilities in-
clude linear elastic analyses for stresses and deflections as well as extended
capabilities for the analyses
of structures containing material and geometric nonlineanties.

Location of Thermal Stress Analysis Information in MSC Documents

Table 1 on page 1.3-26 of Volume I of the User's Manual lists the thermal loading
capabilities of the various
elements. This table also shows which elements jjteahave material and geometric
nonlinear capabilities.

Section t .5.1 . page 1 .5-3 of Volume I of the User's Manual describes the method of
applying thermal
loads to the model.
Section 1.5.4, page 1.5-8 ot Volume I of the User's Manual describes how loads are
handled in Su-
pers le me nt analyses.

The TEMPERATURE case control card which selects thermal effects is described on page
2.3-98 of Vol-
ume I of the User's Manual.

The bulk data cards that define temperature dependent material properties begin with
MATT and are de-
scribed beginning on page 2.4-202 of Volume I of the User's Manual.

The bulk data cards that define temperatures start with the TEMP and are described
beginning on page
2.4-347 of Volume I of the User's Manual.

The Demonstration Problem Manual contains two problems that show the use of NASTRAN
for thermal-
structural analysis. The first problem is number D2434 and the second is number D2401
N.
(Unfortunately, page numbers are meaningless in this manual.) 02401 N shows how to
use thermal loads
in SUBCOM's.

The Verification Problem Manual has an example of a structure with thermal loads on
page 3.2403-1 .

Sections 2.6.4, 2.6.5, and 2.6.7 of the Handbook for Linear Analysis contain guidance
in thermal struc-
tural analysis.

page J 3. "7. /
c

5-40

STRUCTURAL ANALYSTS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNA MtCS/CON VA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 20.0

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

BASIC STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES ARE PRESENTED IN THIS


SECTION.

PAGE

20.1
INTRODUCTION

20

.1 .

20.2

DEFINITIONS

20

.2.

20.3

DISCUSSION
20

.3.

20.4

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

20

.4.

20.5

TABLES OF STATICAL VALUES

20
.5.

page 20.0.1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAJR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Sourc«, Section 1 J3 Reference 47


SUBJECT : Sigma, Sample Standard Deviation, and Probability Levels

1.0

2,0

INTRODUCTION

Thia memorandum presents definitions and applications of some im-


portant statistical terms. Graphs are presented by which rapid
selection of optimum sample sizes and estimates of tolerance
factors may be made. Sample problems are included showing some
typical applications.

DEFINITIONS
Population

Normal Population

The uroun of all possible observations o f


values from which a random sample may be
sel ected.

A population whose frequency distribution


function is the Normal or Gaussian distri-
bution function (see Ref. l).

th

value in sample of population

Sarnule size ; number of specimens in sample


Population Mean; mean value for an entire
population.

Sample Mean; mean value for a sample of


size N from an entire popul ati on

zi

i-1

Standard Deviation of entire population; a


measure of dispersion; the r oo t-mean-s quare
of the deviations from the arithmetic mean
of the population:

FT

X)
page

2o.l-

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMtCS/CONVAJR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

_ CONVAIR (ASTRONAUTICS) DIVISION

Data Source, geneiul dynamics corporation

STRUCTURES TECHNICAL IIEMORANDUU NO. 6

SUBJECT : Signa, Sa«ple Standard Deviation and Probability Lerola

2.0 DEFINITIONS (Cont'd.)

■ Sanple Standard Derlation; a neaeure of

diaporeion; a apeeial form of average


deviation from tb« arithmetic noan of tht
staple; square root of tha aaapla- variance:

Varianeo of ontire population,

Sample Varianeo; tho boot anbiaoad ectinate

of <f :

• ■ W . 1 H (N - 1)

Toloraneo Factor; a function of probability


and eonfidaneo levelo, sample also, distri-
bution function, and vhathar ainjlt or twc-
tailad. Rafor to Fi«uree 4 through 7 for
toloraneo faetora for tho Normal Distribution
with 95% oonfidaneo.

'A- value

That loral which would bo exceeded by at


loaat 99% of tho antiro population with 95%
confidonoo; i.e., tbo eonfidaneo la 95% that
at loaat 99% ef tha ontiro population would
•zeood tho "A" walno; determined by X-ko.

•B- Talno

That level which would bo exceeded by at


loaat 90% of the entire population with 95%
confidence; i.e., the oonfldenee la 95% that
at loaat 90* of tho ontire population_would
exceed the "B" value; determined by X-ka.

page 20.2.1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAW AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

COKVAIR fASTRONAUT TCBl DIVTSIOK

Data Sourcn, gemeiul dynamics corporation

STRUCTURES TICIWICAL MPIORAXPUM NO. 9


SUBJECT: Sim**. Sample Standard PoTiatlon, and Probability Unli

3.0 DISCUSSION
Statietloa and probability of far tho engineer powerful taola to orala-
ato tho Turiatione in deeita paranetera. Beoauae etatiatieal methods
are techniquee uaed to obtain, analyse, and proaent numerical data,
tholr applieatien to engineering problems ia becoming increasingly
frequent. Ueana of predicting rara occur rone ar determining awi-
butea af entire populatieoa fro* tho data af mil randomly aoloetod
sampleo aro af particular importance to Strueturea and Doaifn Knfineera.

Uoet aannfaetured article, ara deeicnod to function and te nalntaln


th-ir atrueturel integrity while ozpoaad ta edwerae environmental eon-
ditlona. Deaign lewela of load, atrength, temperature, and othor en-
vironment muat bo more atTtrt than tho azpactod average; e.g., «•
half of tho production of manufactured artieloa deeigned to
lewela would fail. Coot and importance of aiaaion auceoaa require
that tho daaira of aoroapaoo rohioloa bo at high lorola of etruetural
reliability. Tho uao of atatiatlea to aatabliab design allowables,
dealgn loada, and to dotoruino tho probability of failure will aid in
producing atructur.a of .or. optimum deaign *ith predictable atruotural
reliability.

Conaiderable confuaioa exieta concerning the uao of etatiatieal tamo


aueh aa d , tho atandard deviation of an entire population and a, a

ault in 99.8% probability levelsj however, thio la not true ainoe the
aanulo aise muat be conaidered. For example, in leado determination
when only . small random a—plo of data 1. available for
probloaa (defined later), the maximum expected lead aalanlated by uaina;
the noan pluo 3o will reault in leoa than 99.8* prebability. For the
limiting «f " iafiaito aanple also, a- <f and a -3* - value would
reault la a 99.885J4 prebability IotoI.

For eurface-te-aurface niaailoa, Kef. 4 recommends 1 a 99.8< probability


level for tho determination ef limit gust leada; i.e., the limit load*
will not bo exceeded more than two timoo in 1000. For eingle-tail de-
termination of limit gust leada from a normal population, x* k » »•
need where «.2>k>2.9 for 8 <N<©0 and k dapenda an tho sample sixe
of H, ao can be aeon in Figure 4. For more accurate determination of
k, aoo Hof. 1.

1 Tho prebability ef oxoeodaneo for limit incremental gust reominae (load


factor, beading nomeat, eto,), aa stated la Hof. 4, ahall bo not greater
than 0.002 for aurf aoo-to-ourf aoo niaailoa, 0.01 for eurf ace- to-air
niaailoa, and 0.02 for air launched mlaallea. For a particular vehicle,
tho atruotural deolga criteria for that vehicle •pocifiea tho applic-
able probability IotoI a.

page 20.3.1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SUBJECT: Si*aa, Sample Standard Deviation, and Probability Lewele


3.0 DISCUSSION (cont'd)

Table 1 ehowa probability lewela for Itf , 2d , and 3<f walnee for
aingle-tailed and two-tail od distribution problems. Single-tailed
problems generally inrolTo tatabl iahinc, to aomo confidence lewel.
a walue abo-ro (or bolow) which a nroportion (probability lewel) of
tho population would fall* Two-tailed probleaa xenerally inwolwe
establishing, to some eonfldoneo lewel, a rango within which a
proportion (probability lowal) of tho population would fall. Rofor
to Figures 2 and 3*

TABLE 1

PROBABILITY THAT RANDOULY

TYPE

RAKGB

SELECTED Xj IS
IN RANGE
Single-Tailed

• OO to >.♦©•'
Ju. - <f to ♦ oO

84.13*
84.13*

Pro b lama

- OO to /U+ 2d
J*. - 2d to ♦ oO

97.73*
97.73*

- OO to ,A* 3</

99.868*
99.868*

Two-Tailed
Probleaa

<A.-a to A+d

jU* - 2d to yU* 2d
/*, - Zd to 3o*

68.26*
96.46*
99.73*

Notiao thut Table 1 la applicable only if the true population mean


/U. and standard dowiatlon d are known. If it la desired to obtain
- tho aaao probability lowela when only estlaatee ( X and a) of the
true population aeaa and atandard dewiatlon are known* the ranee
haa to be lnereaaod by eh an King the tolerance footer k (k la a
function of tho sample also uaod to obtain X and a aa can be aeon
la Flgurea 8 and 7).

One of the neat eeanaen and baaie atatlatioal ana lye le preeedurea ia
that ef analysing a aaaiple of random data froai an entire population
to determine to aeoie eonfldoneo lewel an expected Uniting ralue (or
range ef waluea) cerreaponding to aa aoeeptable probability lewel.

page 20.3.2
flTPUCTURAl ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMiCS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SUBJECT: 31***, Samulo Standard Donation, and Fra bability Uwola

3.0 DISCUSSION (cont'd)

An example of particular interest to Struotures personnel la that of


dctermininc aa ftllmbli strength from element testa of roadomly
•elected opeelmeao. Fifure 1 ahowa * histogram of data which appear
to be approximately Miull7 distributed . Figure 2 the esti-

mated aermal distribution for_the oatlre population from whioh the


random aample waa selected. X and a may ba computed fraai the data
aa ebewu in DEFINITIONS. It la generally daalrad to obtain "A and/or
-B* waluea (Rof. DEFINITIONS ) • In thaaa oaeoe, tho ene-elded teler-
anoo faator k nay ba detarmiaed from a tabla aa in Rof. 1 or from
Flguree 4 and 5 af thla memorandum.

ConTair-Astronantleo Digital Computer Program No.. 1944 3 '* and 2104


ahonld bo used for aaalyeea to determiae "A- (and "B") reluee fro-
th a data of randan aanplao «aia« ono-aldod taloraneo faatora; e.g.,
to bo 98* oonfidant that 9<X (ar 90*) of tho data from the «|ire
,o»«latieB will exceed tho reeultiag "A- (or -B") ralnaa of X -ta.
Dinital Computer Program 1944 nay ba used only for normal distrl-

botleaa; hewewor, Program No. 2104 aaalyaaa input data aa aermal, log-
normal, aquara root-normal, and reciprocal-normal and printe out the
•A - and "B" Taluaa for aach dlotributiea function. For further in-
formation on inpnt and amtimt fro. Frcgrame 1944 and 2104, aoo Rof. T.

For small aanplo sisos and/or for rapid estimates, Fiouroa 4 and 8
nay bo uaod for tho abewe typo of oaloulationa for tho normal dlatrl-

butiom i.o., for aiagl.-tail.d di.tributi.a P""™**?" » "*f r \


•r lowor limit la to bo ootabllahod to 90* or 99* probability with
95* oonfldonoo.

Flguree 6 and T aro proaontod for two-tailod probloma; •««•.


▼aluea X ♦ aa are to be ootabllahod to tho 90* or 99* probability
lo-rol with~9S* oonfldonoo ao that any walue X 1 randomly aalootod from
tho population la auoh that

X - k> < \ <I ♦ ka.

Aa additional application of Fifuroo 4 and 8 would bo thoir uao an a


mothod to aid la tho aoloetion of tho optimum aumbor of apoelmoaa for
a toot pro fram wo aro tooting eeata, Tohlelo weight acTin^o, time, oto.
muot bo eoaaidarad* In general, Flguree 4 and 6 proaent, for wariouo
probability lewelo, tho relationship botwoon aampla also and to la ran* a
faatora. Figures 8 and 7 may bo uaod to observe, for rarioua aamplo
aisoa, tho offoot of toloranoo factors on probability*,

2 A dlaouooion af tho Normal Distribution la proaontod in Rof. 1


*aef. 8

±B*f._7 .

page 20.3.3
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL D YNA MICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

n t C CQNVAIR (ASTRONAUTICS) division

uaia source, general dynamics corporation

STRUCTURES TECHNICAL UEWORANDUW NO,

SUBJECT: Sign** Sample Standard Deviation, and Probability Levels

4.0 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

4.1 Prablemi

A readonly aeleoted aeaple ef 10 apeoiaeaa (from various lata) of a


particular material and eondltion vara taatad to failura and ultimate
etrengtho recorded. Find the "A Value" ai ultinate strength for the
■aterial and condition using thaaa taat raaalta and aasuming tha popu-
lation to bo normal*

Solution Proeodaro:
Eralnata tha sample aiaan X and tha aaapl a standard deviation a aa
ahovn in Paragraph 2.0, DEFINITIONS. Entar Pigure 4 for N - 10 and
raad k - 3.98 for 90$ probability. Therefore, tha "A Value" would bo
found from X - 3.08a.

Coamonta:

Tha roanlt ia tha boat atatiatleal aatiaata af tha nltiaiata strength


of thia natarial and oonditian at 99$ probability and 95$ oonfidonoo
lovele, baaod an 10 randomly aalaetad apaeiaana. Notleo that If 20
apaeiaana had baan taatad tha "A Valua" would have baan Z - 3.28a
(fron Figure 4) and alao that a far 20 sanplaa would llkoly bo aaallar
than a far 10 aaapl aa.

Figure 4 vaa uaad for tha "A Valua" bacanaa alngle-tailed tolaranoa
faetora waro applicable; l.a.« a single-tailed dlatribntion aa ahovn
in Figure 2 vaa applieabla alnoo it vaa daairad to aatabliah a valua,
at 95* confidence, vfalnh vould ba exceeded by 99$ af tha papulation.
Convair-Astronautleo Digital Computer Prograaa Noa, 1944 or 2104 should
bo uaad for problaaa of thia typo vhan large aaaplaa aro involved*

4.2 Problem;

A randomly aalaetad aaapl a of N apaeiaana of ohaat fraa varlona lota


of atoek purehaaod to a particular apaeif leatlon and aa a particular
naninal sage thickneea vaa aoenrately aaaaurad and tha individual
thieknaaaaa raeordad. Baaed en thia a ample and the aaaumotien that
the population ia normal f it la daairad to determine 99$ probability
valuee for tha expected extremee af thlckneaa vith 95$ eonfidonee for
other aheeta of tha aane nominal thiekneaa and purehaaod to the a am a
opacification.
Solution:

Evaluate tha aample moan X and the aaapl a standard deviation a aa


ahovn in Paragraph 2.0, DEFINITIONS. Enter Figure 5 with the aaapl a
aise N end_read from the 99$ curve the value of k for X ♦ ka. The
value a af X ♦ ke are the deaired aelutien.

page 20.4.1

STRUCTUBAI ANALYS IS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SUBJECT: Stem** S—plo Standard Donation, and Probability LotoIi

4.0 SAMPLE PROBLOIS (Cont'd)

4.2 Conntonta:

Th. oolution r.pr.oout. tho «tr«o ralno. of th. d.air.d ra»«.( I.-..

thoro i. 9B% oonfidonoo that at lout 99% of noaourod waluoa would lio

within thl. raaff. for notorial puroha.od a. th. «ago

aoao .pooifioation. Thin oolntion io an ozasplo of o tw-Uil prtW*


ao in Pi«uro 3 and uaoo_ two-tni*."* toloranoo factor, aa ahown in

PI euro ft.

4.3 Probloon

A randooi .aaplo of 8 .poeimono woro aolootod fron a normal population.


What would bo th. probability lowol at 9ft* oonfidoneo for a 3a raluo
if oinxlo-tailod toloranoo linita aro applicable?

Solution:

floforrin* to Pi*ur. 5 V for N - 6 and X ♦ 3a or X - 3a t tho proba-


bility io 90*.

Diseuooion:

Tho rooult indioatoa that tho 3a raluo (oftom orronooualy *•


aa a "3C • raluo) for a oaaplo alao of ft eorrooponda oloaoly to tho
•B- raluo. Notioo froa Piguro S that for H - ft, a 6.1a ruluo would bo
roqulrod to oatablioh an "A* raluo.

page 20.4.2

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DtVtSlON
Frequency
of

Occurrence

Figure 1: Histogram of Randomly Selected Samplo Data

Frequenoy

of /

Occurreneo /
X - ka

Figure 2: Eatimatod Normal Diatributioa for Population


(Single-Tailed)

page 20.4.3

= riGORI St

tu
o

ro
o

in
V

I*

8IMGLB-TAILBP TOLERANCE LIMITS FOR TUB

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION (91% CONFIDENCE LBVKL)

,A P*pultti*a U**n

m P«paUtloB SUatard D*Tiatl»

I - BftBpl* UtftB

■ - Sfcspl* Btaadara 1 D«Tl«ti««

HI
I*

r
8

o
z

to
t>
i>
o
rn

</>

0)
CO

>
>
Z
>

-<

C/>

>
z
c
>

mum* m

PROBABILITY IN PERCENT

0)
to

CD

IV)
O

>

I*

■FIGURE 7:

TWO-TAILBP TQLBRAWC3 LIMITS FOR THg


M01U1AL DISTRIBUTION (96% CORFIDENCR LKVEJ,)|

Ja. - Papulation M«an

O* - Papnlatiaa Standard DaTtatlaa

T a Saspla If* an

■ - 8aapla Standard Dtvlatlan


5
3

§ c

a:

O
CO

o
m

CO

•<

CO
(o

33

>

c/)

>
z
c
>

PROBABILITY IN

PKRCtNT
I

fiTRUCTUBA I ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SUBJECT! Si*», Saapl* Standard Deviation, and Probability L.-rol.

REFERENCE3

1 Sahnaaehor, J. G., -3tati.tical Determination of Str.njth Prooertioa,-


Con^alr-Aolroiaatlc. R.port A7.S-27-274, 11 Noro-hor 1958, r.wi.od
29 Deeeabor 1969, 37p.

2. Arkin, H., and Colton, R. R., "Tablo. for Statistician.,*


Barnea and Noblo, Inc., N.Y., 1950, 162p.

3. Schua.cn.r, J. a. , and WeClnra, R. E. , "Surray of »ni.t.rml Saf aty, "


ConTair-A.tronaotie. Roport A/.S-009, 4 aaptonb.r 1959, 37p.

4. WIL-U-8850, -Wilitary Sp.eif ication Uiaail.a, Guid.di Stron«th


and Rigidity Requiroaonta, " 22 Juno 1959, 9p.

5. Bo.ktr, Albert H. , "Toloreneo Unit, for Nornal Diatributiona, •


T.!hBiou.o of Staliatical AnelTai. . odit.d by Eia.nbart, Ha-tar. and
Wallia, McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1947, Chaptor 2.

6. UoClnro, E. E-, -Digital Conputor Procraaa and Subrontino. with


strnatural Application.,- C.nTalr-A.tronautic. Structure. Technical
Moaorandnn No. 7, 20 ?• binary 1960, 17p.

7 Ditto.. ?. A., -Stati.tical Datoraination of Strength Propertioa by


DiclUl Coap«l.r <F»«r- No.. 1944 and 2104)," ConTair-Aatronanti..
Raport AZS-011, (la work).

page 20.4.8

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMtCS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 20.5

TABLES OF STATISTICAL VALUES

REFERENCE

MIL-HDBK-5C, SECTION 9.6.4 "MILITARY STANDARDIZATION


HANDBOOK METALLIC MATERIALS AND ELEMENTS FOR AEROSPACE
VEHICLE STRUCTURES.- 15 SEPTEMBER 1976

page 20.5.1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMlCS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 21.0

MECHANISMS

ANALYSIS METHODS FOR SOME COMMONLY USED MECHANISMS


ARE PRESENTED IN THIS SECTION.

PAGE

21.1 BEARINGS 21.1.1


21.2 GEARS 21.2.1

21.3 ACTUATORS 21.3.1

page 2 v.o. \

pTRUCTUBAT ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference

SUBJECT:
REFERENCES

Anti-Friction Bearing Design Data

1.
2.

k
Military Specification KIL-B-T^S
Military Specification MIL-B-603S

Handbook of Insxructions for Aircraft Designers, ARDCM 00-1


?afnir Engineering Data Sheets

5" Shafer Aircraft Roller Bearing Catalog No- 59120

The design requirement for gearings is that static design yield load shall

not exceed the yield load rating of the hearing, vhere

1.00 liait load (AT and FAA)


Design Tield Load - iag UsLt load ( N avy)

For an ultimate factor of safety of 1.5 or less the ult Units load is not critical.
X. BALL BZARSIOS
A. General

Radial and thrust yield load ratings, arJ. yield nonent ratings for A!T cal_L
bearings are given in Table I, for extra vide, double rev, MU bearings xn
Tablell, and for torque tube type bfiOl bearings the ratings are giv^n in
Table HI.

Tables I, II, and III also give the radial ratings of the bearings for an
a^ra^e life of 10,000 complete cycles of 9C* ccHUtiw. TVo cases of
load application are covered, namely
Case I - Load fixed vith respect to the outer race.
Caie II - Load fixed with rtspect to the inner racs.

FIXED
0C7TE3t RACE

FIXED
ECCT RACE

CASE I

CASE II

page 2L J.I

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL 0 YNAMICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
BALL BEABIHCS (Contd. )
B. Bearing Selection

1. Static Considerations

For most applications it is sufficient to select the bearing on the


basis of static allowables using the design yield lead as a criterion.

For example, a bearing on a K&vy airplane is required to support a


limit radial load of 3C0C#

Tield Load - 1.15 x 3000 - 3^50#

From Table I, either ATEOO KP5 or AK201 KF8A would be satisfactory.

2. Life Considerations

In certain cases vhere there are frequent applications of significant


loads and the bearing is subjected to oscillations, it is advisable to
select the bearing on the basis of life as veil as static considerations*
It should be noted the life allowables given belov are besed on 90°
oscillations and are conservative for oscillations of a scalier magnitude.

If a single radial lead Is selected as the basis for determining


life, the average number cf allowable cycles is determined from
Figure 1, where

Life Factor Allied Cy=U= load


10,000 Cycle Load gating iron Tables
The applied cyclic load should never be higher than limit load.

Taking for example the conditions used in the static analysis


vlth an additional requirement that tne bearing be capable of
1*00,000 cycles under 50^ of radial limit load with the load
fixed vlth respect to the outer race- This makes Case I load
rating applicable, (per I-A).

Checking the AH201 KP6A bearing which ceets the static require-
aent:

50£ of Limit Load - .5 x 3000 - 150Q?

Ufe Factor - igg . . 5225

From Figure 1, life - 100,000 cycles

Thus this bearing which neets the, static requirement is not satis-
factory from the life standpoint*

Checking the AH200 KF5 bearing vhich also has been shcr.-m to meet
the static requirement:

Ufe Factor - £52° . ,306

From Figure 1, Life ■ 700,000 cycles

Thus this bearing is satisfactory from the standpoint of both the


static and life considerations*
page 2\A.Z

■ pTRUCTURAt ANALYS IS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMlCS/COHVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

•a at J. -REARISGS (Contd. )

B. Bearing Selection (Contd. )

2. Life Considerations (Contl. )

In cases where a single load level viU not suffice for estimating
servic- conditions, scce load spectrum aust be determined. From
this load spectrum it is possible to determine an equivalent load
to be used in selecting a bearing to satisfy design requirements
The equivalent load nay be obtained from the following relation:

P » Equivalent lend, pounds

- Applied load, pounds


K - Proportion of cycles that P 1 i» applied

The following example illustrates the ziethod of bearing analysis


•tv* selection for a given spectrum loading.
A bearisg on a Ersry airplane is required to support radial
Unit load of 200C# and withstand 60,000 cycles of oscilla-
tions with the following spectra: for 7<# of cycles,
100C# for 25* of cycles, and lSotf for 5* of cycles with
the loads fixed with respect to the inner race. This makes
Case il applicable*

Tield Lead - 1.15 * 2000 - 230C#

T*»« AH201 K?£A beF.r1.ng with a design yield allowable of 2?CC


is satisfactory statically.

p e -'[[70(^) x * +.25(1000)" +.05(1^)*3"^ -

Life Pactor - - • -51©

From Pigure 1, Life -loo.ooo cycles

7h1» cakes the AH201 KF6A bearing satisfactory.

M.S. =. 2.SOO | q ^ 4-. 09


2. 3 00

page
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

BAIL B5ARIECS (Contd. )

C. Combined Loadings - Static

When "ball bearings are subjected to any combination of radial, thrust, and
moment loads the margin of safety shall be determined fraa the following
formula:

where

p , p , m - the applied design yield radial, thrust and moment


r * loads respectively.

P , P , M - the static design yield radial, thrust and moment


r * allovables respectively.

H. NEEDLE AJ1D ROLLER 3SAHINGS

Static design yield radial allovables for HAS 505 needle bearings are given in
Table IV. Static design yield radial and thrust allovables and radial load
ratings for an average life of 10,000 c ample 90° cycles for self-aligning roller
bearings are given in Table V.

For needle bearings and roller bearings not listed in Tables 17 or 7, the allow-
able loads specified by a reliable manufacturer viU be acceptable.

The considerations governing the selection of ball bearings , as discussed in


Section I-B of this memo, are equally applicable to the selection of needle and
roller bearings.

lleedle bear ir 33, in general, cannot transmit thrust or moment loads.

Roller bearings, unless of a special type, cannot transmit thrust but are capable
of transitttng accent loads. A conservative method of analysis for a roller
bearing transmitting monent is as follows.

page

fiTRUCTUBAl , ANALYSIS MANUAL


DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

XI. wrenra AHD ROLLER BSARI25 S (Coatd. )

XXX<
r my

Bearing Stress ■ — ♦ ^f-


Where:

p r « Design yield radial load

zl • Desiga yield moment

A - Pitch Diameter x Roller Length

~ Bore + 0«D.

Pitch Diameter » 0

Oiometer 1
Allowable bear ins stress

1/2 of roller length

1/12 of Pitch Diameter x (Roller Length)


Design Yield Radial Allowable
Pitch Diameter x Roller Langth
BEARIK5S USES AS ROLLERS OTT gtACKS AHD CAM FOLLOWERS

Vhen a hearing is used as a roller oa a track, high localized stressec occur


ia the outer race due to the heading Imposed cc this race. The heading will
overload the halls, needles, or rollers adjacent to the point of contact ard
relieve those further avay. As a result the load that a hearing can maintain
under this type of loading is considerably less than its static desigc yield
radial allowable load*

The following allowable yield loads shall te used for hearir^s being used ss
rollers:

A- Bearings lirted in Tahles I, U, and III - Generally not recosaaecded for


this application - 5.5^ of the design yield radial allcvahle specified in
Tahles.

B. Bearing specially designed with thickened outer races - allowable given


in Table 71.

C. Cam follower, needle hearing - allowables given in Tahle VII.


Tor the allcvahle loads of tracks see p V. I \

page I * 5
3^

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

TABLE I
"AN" BALL BEARINGS

Part

Number

Static Design Yield Allowables

Radial Load Rating - lbs.


For Average life of

Radial

Thrust

Moment
10,000 Complete 90° Cycles

lbs.

lbs.

in. -lbs.

Case I

Case II

AN 200 K3L
KP3
KPl)
KP5
KP6
KP8
KP10

1560
i8eo

2680
5620
7910
11800
liilOO

700

900

1200

2500

3500

5200

6200

58
89
136
370
6hh
1170
1520
1520
1700
21il0
L900
65LO
9320
11000

1260
11)50
2030
3970
5L10
7700
9060

AN 200 KS3L
KS3
KSli
KS5
KS6
KS8
KS10

550

900

llao
2190
2980
3670
5320

100
200
300
300

hoo
500
600

Not
Applicable

550

900

1U0

2190

2980

3670

ii980
L80

770

1200

1890

2580

3290

1)360

AN 201 KF3A
KPlA
KP5A
KP6A
KPfiA
KP10A
KP12A
KP16A '
KP20A

1560
1880
2150
2500
3910
6700
8750
11900
13800

700

900

1000

1100

1700

3000

3900

5200

6100

50

89
Ilk
Hi3
277
598
9L5
1600
2170

1500
1690
162C
1920
2870
L980
5980
7070
71:00

1250

1L50
1600
1710
2550
1)360
5320
61)00
6810

AN 202 KP21B
KP23B

KP29B
KP33B
KP37B
KPL7B
KPL9B

581)0
10500
11300
12700
lUiOO
15800
21)700
27500

IjLOO
1*700

5oco

5600
6L00
7000
10900
12100

1L80
1700
1930
21)20
3150
3780
6880
8520

Ii590
1)650
1)680
L760
L820
1)680
6600
8150

li250
1)360
1)1)20
1)530
1)630
L690
6390
781)0

AN 206 DSP3
DSPli
DSP5
DSP6
DSP8
DSPIO

1L 20
1780
37L0
5100
7120
5C00

200
300
600

eoo

1000
1300

Not
Applicable

1L20
1780
37liO
L58C
63 LO
7760

1220
1600
3300
li370
5570
6860

JT6J

page

21. 1.Q

cfTRUCTUBAI ANALYS IS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMiCS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

TABLE I (Coatd. )

"AIT BALL BBAHIEGS

Bart
Static Design Tield Allowables

Radial Load Ratios * lbs.

Tor Arc rage Life of


10,000 Complete 90° Cycles

Radial

Thrust

Mcmant

lbs.

lbs.

in- -lbs.

Cms* I

Cass II
KB 207 CFF3

DPP5
DFF6
DPrS
0FF1O

2950(1)
5370(2)
11000(1)
15760(1)
23600(2)
28400

1700
1800

uooo
5300
7800
9U00

38 "

91

56
278
590
1500

2950
3550
7360
9690
14100

15300

2830
3020
6250
8120
UdOO
13100

Iff 218 P4

P5

2T70
3260

700
900
414
551

2090
2440

1800
2090

L> Bolts of 190,000 psi tensile strength are required to develop the

radial load sbovxu


2. Bolts of 160,000 psi tensile strength are required to develop the
radial load shown.

TABIZ n

EG3A VIDE. DOUEIS RCtf. BALL BEARDPS

Bart
Sunbex
(Fafnlr)

Static Design Held


Allowables

Radial Load Ratings - Ibo.


Tor ATczmgs Life of

10,000 Ccaplsts 90° Cycles

Radial
lbs.

Thrust
lbs.

Kosent
in. -lbs.

Case I

Case U

EM4K2
3W4K
DW5
DW6

sua

1400
2770
5140
8440
15520

500
900
1600
2600
4700

129
392
882
2010
U860

1050
2070
2600
4220
7610
960
1850
2320
3T4o
6520

tabu in

T0BQJ3E TOSS TTPS BALL BSftBIBOS

Fart

Static Design Ticld AUovables

P-tijjgi Locd Siting - lis.


For Average Life of

Bu«b«r
(Taf&ir)

Radial

Thrust
Monent

10,000 Ccnplsta 90° Cycles

lbs.

lbs.

in. -Lbs.

Case I

Case XX

B538DO
B539DO
B54QDD
B541DD
B5420D

B5*3DD
B544DD
B545DO
B546GD
3280
3750
4220
5000
5950
6680
7980
9220
IOI50

1500
1700
1900
2200
2700
3200
3600
4000
4400

255
329
414
567
825
1130

1470
1690
2290

1990
2050
2110
2170
2220
2260
2300
2340
2360

1820
1900
1970
2020
2X30
2180
2220
2260
2280

IPlnBS
CF213S
CE23BS
XZ25BS
XP25BS
SP333S
IP37BS
KT47B3
XP49B9

3065
9640
10500
11300
12700
lUitOO
15300
24700
27500

1600
2000
2200
2300
2600
2900
3200
5000
5500

Hot
Applicable

4260
4590
4650
4680
4760
4320
4680
6600
8150

3?60
4290
4360
4420
4530
4630
U09O
6390
7840

page 2.1.1.1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

TABLE VT

NAS $0$ NEEDLE BEARINGS


STATIC DESIGN YIELD ALLOWABLES

Part

Radial

Part

Radial

Part

Radial

Number

lbs.

Number

lbs.
Number

lbs.

NAS 5C5-3

2700

NAS 505-12

358C0

NAS 505-1:0

lClilOO

-h

U3O0

-111
L5800

-LL

113500

-5

6100

-16

50900

-LB

123000

-6

9500
" -20

56500

-52

132500

-7

12000

-2h

66300

-56

1L5100

-8
171*00

-28

75700

-60

151*500

-9

22500

-32

85200

-6I1

16L000
-10

28300

-36

9L6O0

TABLE V

SELF- ALIGNING ROLLER BEARINGS

Part

Number
Static Design Yield
Allowables

Radial Load Rating - lbs.


. For Averag? Life or
10,000 Complete 90° Cycles

Radial
lbs.

Thrust
lbs.

Case I & Case II

Fafnir

GDSRPh

GDSRP5

GDSRP6

GDSRP8

GDSRP10
GDSRP12

3025
7350
9600
12500
17700
26900

908

2200

2860

3750

5310

8070

2500
6000
8000
10100

neoo
22000
BR-li

311*0

1660

2600

BR-5

7350 .

L300

6100

BR-6
10100

5800

8500

<M

ft

BR-8

12800

6100

10900

X
CO

BR-10
18600

9300

15500

ER-12

28800

16700

25000

page 2.^- ^ S

fiJRUCTURAI ANALYS IS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
TABLE VI

DESIGN UFT.n AIXCWABISS OF BEARINGS TJSED AS TPACK R0LIS3

Part No,

Radial

Part No.
(FATIIH)

Radial
lbs.

KAS 502 -

9CO
K3L2

200

1L30

K3L3

200

2700

KP3AR11-2

300
8

L3C0

K3LPi8

200

10

6L00

KPltfl6

Uoo

12
10700

KPUR16-2

500

lii

13700

D7R6-2

1000

NA3 503 -

5370
D7R6-3

2000

9370

KfiATJi

500

10

15000

D?Sa3

1000
12

21LC0

DP3AJi

1800

lb

28900

TABtSVII

BES XCOf YIELD ALL0?fr=LZS "Or. CAM ?0LL0mIH3


Part No,

Radial

KAS 552

395

470
5

630

1275

1840

8
2740

NOTES FOR TABIZS VI AflD VII

1. Ratings for KAS502 end HAS5C3 Bearings ^


Table VI and for HA5562 Can Followers in
Table VTI are based on an average life of
100,000 revolutions.

2. For track allowable loads see p. 2.1-1. U

page 2WI.9

5.

(T

FIGUHE 1
CYCLES

CTPyyTUBAL AN A 1 Y^ 1 ^ MANU AL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source. Section 1 2 Reference ^

SUBJECT: AlloT/ablo Eecring Load - Roller on Track

Introduction

The problem of analysis the strength of a roller on a track can be re-


solved into two parte: (1) the surface strength of the track, and (2)
the strength of the roller. In par. (1) of this memo are contained •
formulae for calculates the surface strength of the track. These
allo^ble loads nil produce a slight amount of brinellin S of the surface
of the track. As the roller goes over the track, however, the surface
■work-hardens and the amount of brinelling diminishes.

1. Allorable Log.d on Track

The allowable yield load for a steel roller on a steel traok is given
by the equation

P ST - 0.77 x 10- 6 (Ftu) 8 ^

and for a. stool roller on an alralnum track by tlie equation

Pal - 1.43 x icr 6 (F^'va

Wiere:
F tu " Ul tim:it3 -oasile strength of track material (psi)
W - Projected width of roller in contact rrith track (inches)
R m Radius of roller (inches)
The ultimate allo^ble is obtained from the above by multiplying by 1.5

2. Allornxblo Load on Roller

In the cases *hero the roller is a beari^, the allowable load m*y be
obtained from p *• • v • 1 - 10

page 2\. h n

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNA MI CS/CON VA IR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference 2
fiTRFMftTH OF GEARS

SPI IRftEARS

Lewis', equation (allowable tooth load):


F a - SbY

Where F a - allowable tooth load in lbs.


s - allowable stress in psi.

b - tooth width in inches

Y - Lewis Factor (see table page 1\-V%

P d m Diametral pitch in inches " 1

. nu mber of teeth in g ear


pitch diameter

Gear Tooth Load (P t )

P t - T_ - 2J
PD PD
2

Where PD - pitch diameter of gear in inches

T - torque transmitted by gear in inch-pounds

The Lewis equation for computing an allowable gear tooth load is intended to cover
gears under continuous operation and is conservative for the following reasons:

1 ) It assumes only one gear tooth is transmitting the gear load.

2) It assumes an arbitrary point at which the gear tooth load is applied - this point
is conservative for a tooth in full mesh.

3) The method uses low allowable stresses (approx. 1/3 of the material ultimate
stress).

Consequently gears designed by the Lewis formula and static tested have been known
to take up to approximately 28 times the calculated load before tooth failure occurs.
(Vultee Report 275 test #39).

It is evident that Lewis Equation should be modified to cover air frame gears, the
majority of which are under intermittent operation, low pitch line velocities, and
very
seldom operate at limit load.

page 21.1. 1

fiTRUCTUBAI ANALYS IS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAWCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

fijwFNGTH QF rcrARS . (Continued)

API |p HFAP^ 'ttonn

The Lewis Equation is modified in the following manner to make it more applicable
for air frame spur gears:

F a - K S b Y
P d

K - 3' for Vital gears of intermittent operation at tow pitch line


velocities

S - Ultimate Tension stress of gear material ( p.s.i. )

b - tooth width (inches)

Y - Lewis factor ( page 111 '5 )

P d . Diametral pitch

Vital gears are defined as those whose (allure would immediately prevent the safe
flight
or landing of the airplane.

• See page ( Q.\.T~2>) '°r discussion of these factors.

RFVP1 REARS

The Lewis Equation for bevel gear, F a - SoY_b x ( 1 - b_) « modified in the same

Pd L

manner as the equation for spur gears


F a - K S b Y (1 -bj
Pd L

K - 3* for vital gears of intermittent operation at low pitch line

Where

velocities.

K - 5- for non-vital gears of intermittent operation at low pitch line


velocities.

S - Ultimate tension stress of gear material p.s.i.

page 2\.1.1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

STRENGTH OF GEARS - ( Continued )


BEVEL GEARS fCONT.l

b ■ Tooth width (inches)


Y - Lewis factor ^Tatl^.
P(j - Diametral Pitch

— L --Length of pitch contf"elefrTi»nt

Vital gears are those whose failure would immediately prevent the safe flight or
landing of
the airplane.

* See page (2 ) for discussion on these factors.

WORM GEARS

The teeth of a worm gear are weaker than the threads on the worm and should be
checked by the Lewis equation for Spur Gears (1\.1A ) However, more teeth are
probably in contact in the worm gears than in spur gears, which makes this method
conservative for checking worm gears. Allowance may be made for this conservativeness
by distributing the load over the number of teeth in contact. The number of teeth in
contact can be found by dividing the angle of action of the gear by the pitch angle.

SUMMARY
The following precautions should be taken when using the factors ( K - 3 and K - 5)
to determine gear teeth size.

page 21.2.3

fiTRUCTUHAI ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

STRENGTH OF GEARS - Continued)

SUMMARY fCQnU

1)

2)

The gear should be one which operates intermittently and at low


speeds preferably a gear which does not operate at its full limit load the
majority of the time such as tab system gears, landing gear
retracting gears, etc.

The gear shafts should be supported by rather rigid supports - flexible


supports may cause the gear teeth faces to be loaded eccentrically thus
leading to possible gear tooth failure.

3) A reasonably rigid gear shaft should be used - gear shaft deflection


induces improper meshing of gear teeth

4) Close installation tolerances are important for proper operation and long
gaar life.

Gears under heavy continuous loads require the addition of wear and velocity factors
to
the Lewis Equation. No attempt is made here to cover the design of these gears as it
w Mi
that they represent a small percentage of air frame gears. A expert should be
consulted
for the design of this type of gear.

page It. 2. 4-

5-7

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
VALUES OF Y IN LEWIS' FORMULA

Number

of
Teem

Pull

run
uepui

1 4 1 /t

and

Cycloi"

OmI

Full
Depth
20*

Stub
Teeth
20*
Follows Stub Teeth. 20

5
7

6
8

I
9

1 0

9_

1 1
1 0
12

12
1 4
1 0

0. 1 78

n on 1

1 1

0. 1 92
0.22b

n 9PQ

1 2

0.21

0.245

noil
0.3 1 1

0.302

0.348

0.32

0.31 4

0.302

0.314

0.292

0.289

1 3

0.223
0.264

ft 11 A
0. j£ *

0.31 8

0.361

0.336

0.332

0.31 7

0.327

0.308

0.302

1 4
0.235

0.276

0.339

0.33

0.374

0.352

0.348

0.332

0.339

0.32

0.31 4
1 5

0.245

0.289

a n > O

o . j«* y

0.339

0.386

0.364

0.361

0.346

0.348
0.33

0.324

1 6

0.255

0.295

u.Jo

0.348

0.396

0.374

0.37

0.355
0.354 0.34

0.333

1 7

0.264

0.302

u.jbt)

0.358

0.485

0.383

0.38

0.364
0.366 0.349

0.342

1 8

0.27

0.308

n 177
U.J / /

0.368

0.41 1

0.39

0.39

0.374
0.374 0.358

0.349

1 9

0.277

0.314

n IOC

D. job

0.374

0.414

0.398

0.398
0.383

0.38 0.364

0.355

20

0.283

0.32

ft 1 D 1

o. j y j

n Tfi

U.JO

0.425

0.405
0.405

0.39

0.386:

0.371

0.361

21

0.289

0.326

0.399

0.431
0.411

0.41 1

0.396

0.392

0.377

0.366

22

0.292

0.33

0.404

U.J* 1
0.436

0.41 7

0.41 7

0.402

0.397

0.382

0.371

23

0.296

0.333

0.408
0.396

0.441

0.422

0.422

0.407

0.402

0.387

0.377

24

0.302

0.337
0.41 1

0.401

0.446

0.427

0.427

0.41 1

0.405

0.392

0.381

25

0.305
0.34

ft A 1 C

0.41 D

0.405

0.449

0.432

0.432

0.41 7

0.409

0.396

0.386

26
0.308

O.J**

n 4 91

0.409

0.455

0.436

0.436

0.421

0.41 3

0.401

0.389
28

ft 1 < A

U. J 3 £

0.417

0.461

0.443

0.444

0.427

0.421

0.409
0.396

J u

nun

n T^fl

U, J3Q

0.437

0.425

0.468

0.449

0.452

0.433
0.438

0.415

0.402

u . j / o

0 449

0.436

0.48

0.463

0.465

0.449
0.458

0.427

0.415

40

0.336

0.389

0.459

0.446

0.49

0.475

0.474
0.456

0.446

0.44

0.425

45

0.3.4

0.399

0.468

0.455

0.5

0.484
0.484

0.464

0.455

0.446

0.433

50

0.346

0.408

0.474

0.461

0.506
0.49

0.49

0.471

0.461

0.452

0.439

60

0.355

0.421

0.484

0.471
0.515

0.5

0.5

0.483

0.471

0.465

0.449

70

0.36

0.429

0.493
0.48

0.521

0.506

0.506

0.49

0.477

0.471

0.465

80

0«.363

0.436
0.499

0.486

0.528

0.512

0.51 2

0.496

0.483

0.477

0.461

90

0.366
0.442

0.503

0.492

0.532

0.517

0.516

0.499

0.487

0.481

0.466

100
- 0.368

0.446

0.506

0.496

0.536

0.521

0.521

0.503

0.49

0.484

0.471
150

0.375

0.468

0.518

0.509

0.546

0.534

0.531

0.515

0.503

0.496
0.464

200

0.378

0.453

0.524

0.515

0.553

0.54

0.536

0.521

0.509
0.503

0.49

Rack

0.39

0.484

0.55

0.543

0.578

0.562

0.553

0.54
0.534

0.528

0.521
* Fr
pit
an<

actional d
ch of the
j this dat

esignalioi
gear, w\
arminas tl

i for the
lereas th
ioir depth

pitch of the gear. The numerator of this designation is the actual

9 denominator indicates the pitch of the cutter used in cutting the teeth

page 1L2.5

CTF^JCTURA! ANALYS IS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNA MICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference °r

ACTUATORS

31.3 FRICTION EFFECTS OF

SLIDING PARTS IN ACTUATORS


A friction force will oppose the movement of one
surface relative to the surface wi;h which it « in contact.

SIOC LOAQ
S \/s 2 * 0 2 «

This farce is exerted tangentially to the surfaces and


opposite to the direcxion of motion. The effects of
friction, including the flexibility effects of the mecha-
nism, are graphically illustrated in Fig. 3 1 -3~ ( -

R- * AR ?
NOTl: Without f ratio n f • 0; wrtf> fnction but no*
Monnd, P» F, * F 2 ♦ 0; «"Oi tneoon *nd Hoaioto
fort.P-F, ♦AF, *F 2 *AF 2 *0.

AF,-i | ^AF,

FIGURE 31.3-1

page 2\.3.\

57 A-

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

31.3 FRICTION EFFECTS OF SlIOING PARTS


IN ACTUATOR (Continued)

It it teen in Fig. 313-1 thit m in a caw in the


magnitudes of the reactions Rj and Rj (either due to a
further extension of the piston), an increase in the side
load", or further deflection of the piston, or aJ) three, will
cause an increase in . friction forces Fj and Fj- Thi*
requires an increase in actuator force P to balance the
piston external loads. It is possible that the force required
to overcome the friction may be greater than that
required to move primary load D.

31.4 STRENGTH ANALYSIS OF


HYDRAULIC OR PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS

In general, hydraulic or r nrumal i c actuators are


strength checked for the following criteria:

• As a pressure vessel

• As a column

Also, dimensional tolerances art checked for any


deleterious effects on actuator performance.

31.4.1 Pressure Vessel Analysis

Design pressures for actuator; are defined in M!L-


H-5440D and M1J.-P-S5 1 8C. These pressures, unless
specifically defined otherwise, arc d.flncd as a percentage
of nominal system pressure. (See Fit.. 51.4-1.)

ACTUATOR DESIGN PRESSURE

Priour*
Nominal System Pfttturt <%)

Exampit:
Hyoraulte
(3,000 osit

HYDRAULIC

PNCUMATIC

Operating

100

100

3.000

Proof

ISO
700

4,500

Bunt

250

400

7.500

FIGURE 31.4-1

The actuator cylindrical body is subject to hoop and


axial tension due to internal pressure. An expression for
determining cylinder-wall minimum thickness for maxi-
mum tension it: w

where:
P ■ burst pressure

d ■ inside diameter of the cylinder

Stress concentrations should be carefully considered


and stress levels kept at a low en ouch level to mot
fatigue requirements. Just as the actuator cylinder booy
is subject to an internal pressure, the actuator piston rod
is subject to an external pressure. An expression for
determining hollow-piston-rod wall thickness is:

3 / 2

where:

P ■ burst pressure

D * piston rod outside diameter

» * Poisson's ratio (0.3 for metals)

31.4.2 Stepped Column Analysis

To allow for tolerance slop, an actuator assembly in


its fully extended position, being initially bowed, should
be strength checked as a stepped beam column. The
bending moment at any point along the column is equal
to the compression load multiplied by the displacement
of this point from the load line. Also, if the end joints of
the actuator utilize bushings or spherical bearings, then
friction moments opposing motion should be added to
ihe uciiumu moment previously irttfitioAed w**tn talaiw*.
motion occurs. Bcnding-moment transmission occurs
between piston and cylinder overlap; consequent!) , if the
resulting beating loads are high, galling, binding, and
excessive wear may occur.

Reference £± presents the following method of


analysis.

31.4.2.1 Stability Analysis

Figure 51.4.2.1-1 shows the extended actuator.

EXTENDED ACTUATOR

FIGURE 31.4.2.1-1

A\ Author unlcnov.-n. "Stepped Column Analysis,"


Bendix Report No. 1640, Indiana, May 1961

page 2U2>.2
fTWllfiTUBAL A NA|VS1S MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTFU* DIVISION

31.4J-1 STABILITY ANALYSIS


(Continued)

To determine critical buck lint load ? er it is first


necessary to evaluate buckling and stiffness-ratio para-
meters X and J3 from Figs. 31.4.11-2 and 3 1.4.2-1-3.

. pi* .TX
X 2 and* -

Hence:

P -

cr

^ 2- .

Critical buckling stress F CT ■ P cr M2. ir the stress


exceeds the proportional limit of the material, then
stiffness-ratio parameter 3 » calculated using the tangent
modulus. This requires a tnal-and -error approach,
because the value of E must be assumed initially and be
compatible with the resulting stress.

31.4.2.2 Column Deflections

If rotation orcurs during apcratron, then end


frictions moments M 0 are introduced.

M 0 -„P§

where:

u - coefficient of friction

P" maximum operating Load at the. particular

piston position tunes 1 .5


0 s pin diameter

Column deflections due to end moment M for


various actuator configuration* are given below:

„ v, ib f a 2 b*d fl d
T l -Mx l jl|3EjxJE \2 ~6<b~d)

3L/J «E l I 1 L / 6£ 1 I 1 L

for 0 < Xj < a (measured from cylinder end


of column).
afa - dl . _b_ (l b . JlV|
SEjIjL E 2 I 2 \2 6 ( b * d) SL/j

d 2 /3 * bd - b 2 /2 - h/L (ri 2 /3 ■* bd/2 + b g/ S*/

y j • te j ji

E 2 l 2 (b - dl

Mx "

for 0 < Xj < b

v ..la fafi*d) b fl b _ _b\


V^jL [3E^I *IXv2"6(bH-d) 2L)

d 2 /3 * bd * b 2 /2 - b/T. fd 2 '3 * bd/2 * b 2 /6>


Ejlj (b - d)

Mx
6E

a<x. - b*
— 6LcT

for b < < (b d).

Deflections caused by initial imperfections, such as


mnaufmnenl sad tc\l«ance < ln >o should b? added to
those deflection* caused by the end friction moment.

Initial slop deflections. fi Q . may be obtained from


the following expression (Fig. 3 1 .4.2.2-1 ):

*o " *1 X 9 o ' a PP roximatel >*>

where:

■ length of cy Under
* 0 * autxaJ slop angle
SLOP DEFLECTION

FIGURE 31.4.U-1

page 2. W 2 . 3

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

31.4.2-2 COLUMN DEFLECTIONS


(Continued)

>o" 2%

where:

D c * maximum tolerancs of inner diameter of


cylinder

Dp ■ minimum tolerance of outer diameter of


piston

D^j ■ maximum tolerance of inner diameter of


cybnder cap

D r ■ minimum tolerance of outer diameter of


piston rod

X ■ total length of piston cylinder overlap

The sum of these two deflection* (slop and end


moment) should then br multiplied by magnification
factor K (erven below i to obtain the final deflection
curve:

1 -

Bending mamen! Mj; it any prim »lonf the column


is given by the following expression:

M v - P6 * M

A O
where M Q is the end friction moment.

31.4.2.3 Margin of Safety

To determine whether a Quid column will fail unde<"


the combined action of the applied compressive toad, end
moment, and moment due to eccentricities, the following
two margins of safety must be obtained.

Piston rod:

MS

where:

*c +R b

- 1
P/P

cr

*b" V F b

f b ■ bending stress including beam column effect


F b " bending modulus of rupture

Cylinder:

where:

MS

2 R ht 2 * R b R ht

- 1
'ht

'bu'Fby
f htu /F ty

F t y ■ tensile yield stress


f nlu * applied ultimate hoop tension stress
F D y ■ bending modulus of yield
f bu " applied ultimate bending stress including
beam column effect

page 2.1.2>. 4-

STRUCTURAL ANALYS IS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMlCS/CONVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

FIGURE 31.4.2.1-2
page Q. U 3 . 5

3-7?

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAtH AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

page 2 t« 2> . <o

5«°

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
SECTION 22.0

COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Basic analytical methods of analysis and material strength allowables


for composite material structures are contained in this section.

PAG E

22.1 FIBERGLASS LAMINATES, POLYESTER RESINS 22.1 .1

22.2 FIBERGLASS LAMINATES, PHENOLIC OR EPOXY

RESIN 22.2.1

22.3 KEVLAR EPOXY DESIGN ALLOWABLES 22.3.1

page 22.0.1

CTPUCTUBA l AKIAI YSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 J3 Reference £


r

SUBJECT i
REFERENCES t

Fiberglass Laminates

1.

3.
4.

ANC-17 (Jun*. 1955) p Part I oR MVU -HOWsl- O


U.S. Forost Produots Laboratory Report 1803-B
U.S. Forest Produots Laboratory Report 1824-A
U.S. Forost Products Laboratory Report 1853

UmtOCJCTION

This memo oontaias general information about glass fabrio laminates bonded Trtth
polyester resins and the allowables to bo used in the design.

an additional factor of safety of 1.33 shall be used in the design of structural


parts made froo laminated plasties.

In application, this faotor i» to be used in computing margins of safety as


follorrsx

Allowable Stress _ f>

* Applied Ultimate Stress x 1.33

This additional factor is required because of the ob served


□Xeen allowable strength based on ninimum ^^^fL^"
vet laainates and the observed strengths of production part-.

The 1.33 factor is not required provided that design strengths are _
substantiated by strength tests of tag-end coupons, and oy obstructive
testing of imcortant parts throughout the full course of production.
Provision for' this substantiation should exist on drawings, m process
s-oecifications and Quality control testing directives, or other
documentation which sast be kept in force throughout production. ^ _
Strucrures division office approval shall be obtained prior to oaission
of the 1.33 factor so that the required substantiating tests may be
included in the pertinent part specifications.

page 12. \* 1
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Uuoh of the Information inoludod herein was extracted from rofereno© (1) and
was modified i7horo deemod helpful for olarity and/or ease of application in
design and analysis*

• General

A. Plastio Icrdnatos, as covered herein, consist of bi-directional, unl-


direotional and non-wovon glass mat fabrics,

1. A bi-directional, or satin woave fabric is woven in such a way that


each warp and fill yarn goes undor one yarn and over tho raxt seven
yarns. Ths approved bi-directional materials are fabric nunbera
120, 181, 182, 185," IW, TffcV, 7S&1.

2. A uni-dlrectional fabrio is made with strong warp yarns and rela-


tively few weaker fill yarns to give maximum strength in the warp
direotion. Uni-diroctional fabric number Is 143.

3. Non-woven mat consists of chopped glass fiber strands, usually


l/2 " to 2 B long, laid down in a random pattern.

4. For 161 cloth, nominal thickness of 0.0093 In /ply and minimum thickness of 0.0085
in /ply are reco mm ended.
5. When the ply orientation Is not called out on the drawing, the lower of 0°. 90°.
or 45°
orientation should be used for analysis.

le. For 181 cloth, use 45° strength for tension and compression. Use 90° strength
for in- plane shear.

Also, use this criteria for modulus in buckling calculations.

6. Specification values are usually higher than design. Many specifications list
minimum
average values, rather than 'A' values. Care should be exercised in deterrnlnimg
appropriate design values. Determination of allowables is the responsibility of the
Structural Analysis Group. Inadequate testing can lead to Incorrect strength
determination.

7. Poor lnterlamlnar strength Is a characteristic of laminated plastics. Analysis of


angles
and bend radii requires special attention. Guidelines are outlined in the following
references:

883-0-86-1 15. Analysis of Laminated Angles for lnterlamlnar Tension Stress.


R E. Carlson. 6 December 1986.

883-087-040. Compression and Short Beam Shear Allowables of Glass/Epoxy and


Aramid/Epoxy for Titan/ Centaur. R. E. Carlson. 20 May 1987.

883-0-86- 1 16, Stress Approval of Glass/Epoxy and Aramid/Epoxy Composites for


Titan /Centaur, R. E. Carlson, 9 December 1986.

pageZ2.t.Z
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MAMUaL
GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

I • General (cent f d)

B The enginooring F^rt drxriDg shall specify th? tyyo of fabric (depending on
B - IS o?cctrical C aLl structural requirements of tho part) the grr.de of fabric
(depending on flexibility requirements of tho pert) awl the clr.sn o. fabr.c
(depending on the anxlMis operating tonporatura to which tho part r^il bo
lubjectod).

C. The noiwnclaturo used in this strosu memo is as defined in*-"-S irith the
following additions x

a - Under oamarassion loading, length of unloaded side of F«ol.


tho length of either sido for- shear loads. (Paragraph II«G.ZJ.

0 - Under compression loading length of loaded 3 ide of F»«l ;

the length of cither sido for shear loads (Paragraph II:GiZJ.


subscript donoting "bonding".

S b . ifcdulua of elasticity in bending.

? n - Critical compressive stress for buckling of rectangular panels,


'or

1 - Buckling constant j irith subscript "j" denoting "shear", and


aubacript "c B donoting "compression".

<p - ingle botrocn tho direction of load and tho ^arp dixootion of

fabric, except for bonding properties the angle between the direction
of bending stress and the warp direction of the laminae.

II. Basie Mechanical Prop *^^ at Boon Temperature

A. Tension, Coffiproaslon. Flcrore e nd Shear Properties

fabrio aro also included.

In ordor to satlafy particular requirement for a ^V^^n^o^"

?SresT^outh 12 she* variation in properties at angles of loading rela-


tiT» to the warp direction of tho faoe ply.

- -h ___ 1ftlH1n . tn - Dftnal must bo orientatod to show the relationship

tlm 9 ait', angl. of loading la nenavr-sd fron th. baso lino to th. dlrso^o
of «arp la a countar-olooteris. dlrootion.

Xta. figure uontionod abOTO E l™ allotmbloa for laainatos vith th e J>P~" i0 *

page 11- *

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
Basic MooMnlcal Proportlos at Room Tcmpornturo (cont'd)

A, Tonrlon, Comprise Ion, Floxuro tvnd Sho.ir Proportion (cont'd)

ply docroaolng no tho nurabor of plioa increases. Sinoo tho offeot of


tho additional parallol-oriontod ply has boon disrogru-dod in tho givon
allowables, It shall also be oonaorvntivoly disregarded In design,

Tho design allowables of Table I and Figures 1 through 12 axo for


laminates .125 thick and over. For laranato thicknesses less than -125#
oorrootion on all properties shall be made in accordance with tho
"multiplying factors" shown in Figure 13.

In tho fabrication of a multi-ply laminate,- especially in tho oaso of


a large part, it may be nooessary to use more than ono shoot of fat>rio
in a ply. In ouoh an instance, the shoots ^rill be laid up with an over-
lap as designated in tho applicable process specification. The of foot
of overlapping tho fabrio will bo to reduce the tensile strength of tho
laminate, in the region of tho overlap, in direct proportion of tho
number of spliood plioo relative to tho total number of plioa in a
section whore all plios are continuous. Bono of the other properties,
except tensile strength, will bo affeoted by the overlapped ply.

B. Bearing Properties

Ultimate bearing stroosos of a parallel- laminated bi-direotional fabrie


loaded at 0°, 45° and 90° to tho warp direction are given in Figuroo 14 f
15 and 16, respectively, as a funotion of the edge diotanoo ratio
fastener opaoing (or lug width) ratio (Y//d), and tho fastener diameter
to thiolcnoas ratio (D/t). Comparable curves for a orosa-loMnatod uni-
directional fabrio are given in Figurec 17 and IS, and for sat fabric in
Figure 19.

Tho data are presented for a rongo of D/t ratios from 1 to 4. Extrapo-
lation boyond this rango is not reoonaandod. For application boyond
the given Units, bearing strength shall bo determined by test on repre-
sentative specimens of the desired oouf iguratioa.

For a specific edge diatanoe ratio (a/b) and a given fastener diameter
to laminate thickness ratio (D/t), tho ultimate bearing stross is road
as tho ordinate of the ourvo. However, to develop this bearing stress,
a corresponding (or longer) fastener spacing to fastonor diaraotor ratio
<W/D) must be maintained to prevent tension failure at the not section.
Conversely, for a spocifio Tf/b ratio, a corresponding a/D ratio can bo
obtained from tho curve.

For applications using bi-direotional fabrics laminated at various angloo


to the face ply, or^ni-dirootional fabrics with plies oriented at angles
other than 90° to each other, booring strength shall bo determined by
tost on roprosontative spooimons of the desired configuration.

C. Tons ion Efficlonoy

Tension efficiency for parallel-laminated bi-directional fabrics, crocs-


laminatod uni-dirootional fabrio and mat fabrio can bo determined from

page 22.1-4

fTBUCTURAf ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMlCS/CONVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Baalo Mechanical Froportlca at Room Tcmporaturo (oont'd)


C. Tons ion Effioloncy (oont'd)

tho currea of Figuroa 14 thru 19. For any faotonor « pacing (T?/b) within tho
rang* of tho non-horizontal portion of eaoh curve, a oorroaponding allowable
bearing atreas, K bru , con bo obtained. The tensile atrosa on the net aection
of the laminate can then be computed aa Fbru/Ov/D-l) I and tension efficiency
oan be calculated by dividing the tensile atroaa on the not section by the
allowable tensile strength of the laminate. This data is applioable to
ainglo-row attachments only. The of foot of multiple-row attaohmonta must be
substantiated by tost.

!>«■ Pa-tigue Strength

Presented in Figuroa 20 and 21 are curves b herring the off eots of various mean
atroasea on the fatigue strength of unnotched and notohed specimens, respective-
ly, of parallel-laminated bi-directional fabrio loaded at 0 to the warp di-
rection.

Shown in Figure 22 is the effect of load, applied at 0° and 45° to the


direction on the fatigue atrength of a parallel-laminated bi-direotional fabrio
tooted axially at zero mean atresa (R • -l). The fatigue atrength of notohed
speolmons is 20J5 and 1S# lower than that of unnotched specimens at the low and
hi A oyclio ranges, respectively, when tho laminate is loaded at 0 to the warp
direction. Botching has little effect on fatigue strength of the laminate when
load is applied at 45° to the warp direction.

Tho fatigue strength of a laminate loaded through a pin is the aamo aa that
indicated for a notched specimen loaded axially in tension aa ahown in Tiguroa
21 and 22.

S« Creep

at room temperature, oreop parallel and perpendicular to the warp direction


of parallel- and cross-laminates is insignificant. With initial deformation
on the order of 1 to l-l/4#, the additional deformation due to creep is negli-
gible. Creep may not be negligible for configuration* other than parallel-
and cross* laminated or for loading at angles intermadiato between parallel and
perpendioular to the warp direction. There is no available te3t data to indi-
cate the behavior of these latter laminate configurations at the intermediate
loading angles*

P. Stress-Rupture

Tensile and oompreaaiTe atr ess-rupture charaotoriatioa of a parallel-laminated


bi-directional fabrio are prea anted in Pigure 23. Theae ourreo ahow that tho
failing atresa ia lowered with increased time under load and that the notched
rupture stress is about 80JS of the unnotched strength for any given period of
loading.

G. Buckling Stress - Compression and Shear

Tho "buckling stress in compression and shear for Typo I. II and III parallel-
laninated fabrics loaded parallel or perpendicular to tho warp direction, oan

page 12 . \. S
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL D YNA MICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVtSlON

H # B aaio Mechanical Propcrtlos at Room Temperature (cont'd)

0, Buokling Stross - Compression and Shear (oont'd)

be determined from the curves of Figures 25 and 27, respectively.


Figures 24 and 26 give curves for the buckling constants, ^^c
and ^T£, respectively, for various edgo conditions along with
multiplying factors to account for laminate thickness.

1. Compression Buckling Stress

To obtain the oonpression buckling stross, ontor Figure 25 with

an effective (b/t) • ^=r and road the stress, F 0 , as the

ordinate for tho applioablo material, Tho value - obtained is for


a laminate thickness equal to or groator than .125.

For laminnto thicknoss less than ,125, a double correction is


necessary. Multiply tho ^ obtained by the factor applicable
to the thickness as obtained from the upper curve of Figure 24^

Enter Figuro 26 frith an effective (b/t) - and obtain a

value of stress which is then corrected for thicknoss using the


flexure modulus factor fron Figure 13.
2. Shear Buckling Stress

To obtain tho shear buokling stress procood as follows i

a. Designato tho sido of the panel pare.llol to tho warp direetion


as "b" and compute b/a. With this valuo of b/a, enter Figure
26 and read a value for from the ourvo laboled "CASE A n
for the applicable edge condition and material.

In the event the valuo of b/a exceeds tho range of "CASE A"
ourve, procood as indicated in paragraph b« bolou.

b. Designate tho sido of tho panol perpendicular to the warp di-


rection as "b" and compute b/a. With this value of b/a ( enter
Figuro 26 and read a value for *^X^" from tho curve labeled
"CASE B" for tho applicable edge condition and Eaterial.

o. Enter Figure 27 with on offoctive (b/t) 0 - and road tho

shear buckling stross from the curve ("CASE A" or "CASE B")
that is consistent with tho coso used to obtain ifKj. For bi-
directional fabrios a oonrcon curve is used for both "CASE A
and "CASE B". The shear buckling stress obtained is for a
laminate thicknoss equal to or greator than .125.

For laminate thicknoss loos than .125 a double correction is nocos-


eary. Multiply tho -\[TC obtained by tho i'actor applicable to tho
thicknoss as obtained from the upper curve of Figure 25. Enter

Figuro 27 with an offectivo (b/t) 0 - ^ and obtain a value of

stress which is thon oorreeted for thickness using tho flexuro


modulus factor from Figuro 13.
page 27.\. £

fiTRUCTUHAl ANALYSI S MAMUAL


GENERAL D YNA MtCS/CON VA tR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

XI B asle Kcchanical Properties at Room Tcsmoraturo (cont'd)


2. Column and Crippling Allowables

Figure 28 tiros the eolunn allowables for Type I, II and III parallol-
laninated, bi- directional and uni-dircctional fabrics for laminate thickness
equal to or greater than .125. For laminate thioknoss less than .125, the
allowable column stress for a specified L'/C ratio oquols the applicable
value as obtained from Figure 28 multiplied by tho compressive modulus factor
obtained from Figure 13.

Crippling allowables for Type I, II and III parallel- laminated

bi-dirootioual and uni-dir rational fabrios are givon in Figure 29 for lamin-
ate thickness equal to or greater than .125. For laminate thickness loss
than .125, the allowable crippling stress for a specifio b/t ratio equals
the applicable stress as obtained from Figure 29 multiplied by the compres-
sive strength factor oa obtained from Figure 15.

lllm Basio Mechanical Properties at Other Than Room Temperature

A. Properties at Low Tcnporaturos


Mechanical properties of glass fabrio laminates tend to increase with decreas-
ing temperature drcn to -300°F. In view of this behavior, basic mechanical
properties at room temperature will bo conservatively used for the design or
parts operating at roduood temperatures.

B. Properties at Elevated Tomporaturos

Tensile and compress ivo strengths of glass fabrio laminates operating at tem-
peratures of 250°F oro reduced on the order of 3(# and 40%, respectively.
Slace the magnitude of reduction in strength is dependent to a large extent
on the techniquo used in bonding the laminate, elevated temperature properties
shall be obtained by test.

IV. Basic Mechanical Properties at Various Lay-ups

The design allowables given in Table I are for parallel laminates in any number
of plies. The strength of a laminate, however, oan be tailored to give nearly
equal values in all directions by stacking the plies at optimum angles to the
■warp direction of the fabrio in the face ply.

A. Tensile, Compressive and Shear Strengths

Tensile, compressive and shoor design allowable strengths of bi-directional


and uni-directional fabrios, laminatod in several lay-ups and loaded at
various angles to the irarp direction of the face ply ore given in Figures 1
thru 9. Strengths of other lay-ups may be token as the average of the
properties of the component layore, weighted according to tho aroa they
ocoupy. That is, i a n

F - property of the laminate

?± - strength property of the i tn ply as obtained from


Figures 1 thru 9. "
Ai - cross-soctional area of i* n ply
A « cross-sectional aroa of the laminate

page 22. \. 7

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTF"* DIVISION

Baalo Mechanical Properties at Various Lcy-Upa (cont'd)

B, Flexural Strength,

Design allowable flexural strengths of parallel- laminated bi-directional


and uni-dircctional fabrioG at various ongloa of loading are given in
Figure 10, Flexural strengths of other lay-ups may bo taken as the
average of the proportion of tho componont layers-, weighted acoording
to the proportion thoy contribute to the moment of inertia of tho lamin-
ate oroas-aection. That is,

i = 1

where: Fb = the bending strength of the laminate

Ft «= the bending strength of i tn ply as obtained from Fig. 10


1^ = momont of inertia of i^'ply about laminate neutral axis
I * moment of inertia of the laminate

C. Compressive Modulus of Elasticity

Compressivo modulus of elastioity design allowables for bi-directional


and uni- directional fabrios, laminated in several lay-ups and loaded
at various angles to the warp direction of the face ply are given in
Figures 11 and 12. The modulus of elastioity of other lay-ups may be
taken as the average of the component layers of material in tho lamin-
ate, weighted according to the area they oooupy. That is.

wherei Bo - the modulus of elasticity of the laminate

Ei - the modulus of elastioity of the ± th ply as obtained

from Figures 11 or 12 "~


Ai ■ oross-eeotional area of the it n ply
X ■ cross-sectional area of the laminate

page 2 2 . \ . 8

TJ
01

o
o
K>

Fabrie

Angle of
Loading - Deg,

eu

TABLE I - DESI01 WECHlHIClL PROPERTIES FOR PARALLEL LAUI KATES OF GLASS FABRIC AHD
1UT

(In KIPS por eouare Inch)

Bt-dir.etlonal* Oni-direetlonel U*t Bl-dxrootioiiel Uni-dlr.otlooal

6.34
2040

2730

2500

46

16.3

1630

90

35.7
6.34

1620

2590

23S0

650

,16

76.0

7.44
6390

4910

4 COO

46

920

1630

90

16.1

7.44
420

1610

1360

660

19.2

1110

1300

1090
660

.16

30.0

7.28

1800

2400

2200

46
1300

1440

90

26.8

7.28

2280

2070

486
,16

60.0

4150

3000

46

1250

1290

90

355
1150

466

16.0

1060

1030

660

.16

Non-Struotural - Type T
All wept Bat Mat

15.0

4.4

16

9.0

12.0

2.6

NOTES i
' . for laminate thlokneat .125 *nd over.

\ Est s;i'ss^rnir.2 rf « rP . ~* ^ M u. .huh u «» ». di^uo.

of bending ttresa and tho warp direction of the lunate.


S Bl-dlrectfonel «aterlel «do fro. 120. 181. 182 or 193 fabric.

4 Uni-direotlonal material «de from 143 - h a „ #DJ , lnE 0II direction of .hear
floA».

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNA MtCS/CON VA IR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

FIGURE INDEX

FIGURE SUBJECT

1 Tensile Strength - Bi-Dirootional Fabrics, T^pes I, II, III, IV, IV-A

2 * • Uni-Direotional ■ , ■ » ■ * « ■

5 Compressive " - Bi-Direotlonal « mm


4 " " Uni-Diroctional n j Typos I, II, III

6 " ■ - * » n , Typea IV, IV-A

6 Shear n - Bi-Direotional * , Typea I, II, III


7 " • - " " ■ , Typea IV, IV-A

8 " " Uni-Direotional " , Typea I, II, III

9 * " - " " * » Typea IV, IV-A

10 Bending Modulus of Rupture - Bi-Direotional and Uni- Directional Fabrios,

Typea I, II, III, IV, IV-A

11 Compress ire Modulua of Elasticity - Bi-Direotional Fabrics,

Types I. II, III, IV, IV-A

12 Compressive Modulus of Elasticity - Uni- Directional Fabrics,

Types I, II, III, IV, IV-A

13 Kultlplying Faotora for Ultimate Strengths and Moduli of Elasticity

14 Bearing Strength - Parallel-Laminated Bi-Direotional Fabric, 4> " 0°

15 » • . • ■ » » "#$-45°

16 ■ ■ - * • ■ ■ »»O>»90°

17 " * Cross-Laminated Uni-Direotional Fabrio, 4> • 0° 4 90°

18 " " - • » « « » , <f> . 45 0

19 • ■ " Bonded Mat Laminate

20 Axial Fatigue Strength - Uxmotohed Parallel-Laminated, Bi-Dirootional Fabrio


21 " • " Notched ■ « , ■ ■ «

22 S~U Cur-Tea - Notched and Unnotohod, Parallel-Laminated, Bi-Direotional Fabrio

23 Tensile k Compressive Stress -Rupture - Parallel-Laminated, Bi- ■ "

24 Compressive Buclcling Constant - Parallel-Laminated, Bi-Dirootional and

Unl-Dlrootional Fabrios, Typea I, II, III, <J> - 0° & 90°

25 Compressive Buolcliag Stress - Parallel-Laminated, Bi-Direotional and

Uni-Direotional Fabrios, Types I, II, III, o> - 0° & 90°

26 Shear Buclcling Constant - Parallel-Laminated, Bi-Direotional and

Uni-Direotional Fabrios, Types I, II, III

27 Shear Buckling Stress - Porallol-Laminatod, Bi-Directional and

Uni-Dlrectional Fabrios, Types I, II, III

28 Column -Streaaea - Parallel-Laminated Fabrics, Types I, II, III

29 Crippling Stresses (per S.U. 110) - Parallel-Laminated Fabrios. Types I,

22, 222

page 22. t. »0
gTRnrrruRAi anai ysip manual

GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

page 2.2. V.| (

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

FIGURE 3

COUFRESSIVE liTRfcKGTtl Or BI-DIRSCTIOJAL FAflKlCS


POR VARIOUS ACOLE5 0? LOAOIWO AT SEVERAL LAY-UPS
TYPES X, II, Hi, IV i IV-A

JO UO
VMLK CP LOUIES,*
FIGURE U

CONPSESSIVE STRENGTH OF UNI -DIRECTIONAL FABRICS


PDA T a HT i t US ANGLES OF LOADING AT SEVERAL LAI-UTS

TXPES i, u * m

50

to

30

20

10

sis
m

USXKD

* - PARALLEL UUIRATK3 - ANT NUXBER OF FLES

x - cross ixinms - plies is wliiples of 2

3 - «0° LAUL1ATE3 - PLIES IN MULTIPLES OF 3


« - 48* LUOEATZS - PLIES Hi 'MULTIPLES OF 4

US

30 LO 50

AfHLE OP LOACILT.,^- Df/HIEES

^1

page 21 J. 1 2
STRUCTURAL ^NA| YSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

figure s

COKFRESSIVfc STRENGTH OF UNI-niRECTIONAL FABRIC


FOR VARIOUS ANGLES OF LOAD.'HU AT SEVERAL UT-UPS
, TTPE3 IV * IV-A

a 30

1 - PARALLEL LAMINATES - ART. NUMBER OF PLIES

2 - CROSS LAMDtATD - PLUS IN MULTIPLES Of 2


3-60* LAMINATES - PLIES IN MULTIPLES OF 3
h - Lr LAMINATES - PLIES IN MULTIPLES OF ti

CURVES APPLICABLE FOR t*.12$.

see nnms 13 por reduction

FACTOR FOR t«=.12$.


mm

=rHH

VARP DIRECTION OT
FABRIC (FACE

now OF — \ 1
Zt PLT)

Ok

BT SRIaA

i as SttWM<*

SHEAR STRENGTH OF 81 -01 RECTI ORAL FABRICS


FOR VARIOUS ANCLES OF LOADING AT SEVERAL LAI-0F3
TTFE3 I, II 4 III
BASE

un

CRUST

nCW A3 SHOWN

LECE13)

1 - PARALLEL LAHIKATE5 - ANT NUMBER OF PLIES

2 - CROSS LAMINATES - PLIES IN MULTIPLES OT 2


3-40° LAMINATES - PLIES IN MULTIPLES OT 3

h - UKIKATE3 - PLIES IK MULTIPLES Of k

60 70 SO 90 LOO 110
ANGLE OP LOADING . DECREES

ISO
r

page 12.1.12

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVtStON

ricuitf. 7

MtAl STREWJTif Of BI-DIRECTIOIJAL


F0« VAIIOUS AHCL15 Of LCAOIKG AT SEVEKAL UT-UPS
TTFtS IT k IV-A

LKEKD

1 - PARALLEL UKXHTXS - ACT NUMBER OF PLIFS

2 - CROSS URINATES - PUPS IN MULTIPLES OF 2

3 - An° LAMINATES - PLIES IN MULTIPLES OF 3


h - LAHTNATES - PLIgS TV MJLTIPLSS OF I

FIGURE 0

SUAI STMMBTH OF UN I* DIRECT XONAL FABRICS


FM VARIOUS AJCLU OF LOAD IMC AT SEVERAL LAT-UrS
TTFXS I. II * HI

page 22. UK

fTBUCTURAt ANALYSI S MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

noun 9

SHEAS STRENGTH Of tttt-DIflCCTIOKAL FABRICS


fOR VAJU005 AHOLES OK LOADING AT SEVERAL LAT-UP3
TOSS IT 4 IT-A

60 TO SO 90 100 110 1*> 1*> U»0 150 1*> 170. ISO


AID££ OP LOA0I2O, OSuREES

71C0B 10

or PARALLEL UMHAIKD OW-OIRSCTIOSAL AflD Bl- DIRECT IOSAX FABRICS

as a roictioa or wasp ohehtati om to bsspiko stress

[fgfflSg

I : 523BSM3S>«« " * ™ sea

10

UO 50 -

SEUREES

■HftTJE BCTWOn WARP DIRECTION QT TAPRIC AM) BSJOIMO STRESS

page ^ *S
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENEBAL D YNAMICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

COMPRESSIVE MODULUS OF ELASTICITY Or BI-DIRECTIONAL FABRICS


FOR VARIOUS A JULES OF LOADING AT SEVERAL Ut-UPS
TIPES I# II & IU

(FOR TIPES IV 4 TV-A, HULTIPLT VALUES BT .88)

X UO 50

A MOLE Of LOA01W, *- DECREES

FIO ORE 12

COMPRESSIVE NODULBS OF ELASTICITY OF tWI-DIRECTIOIlAL FABRIC


FOR VARIOUS ANGLES OF LOADING AT SEVERAL LAI-UPS

TiPEs i, n k in

(FOR TTPXS IV k rV-A, HULTIPLT VALUES BI .flUU)


r97

page 2.2 . 1. 16

STRUCTURAL ^fJAJ YS1S MANUAL


GENERAL D YNA MtCS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

FIGURE 13

MULTIPLYING FACTORS FOR ULTIMVTS STRENGTHS


1KD HjDULI OF ELASTICITY CF GUSS-FABRIC LAMINATES
AT VARIOUS THICKNESSES

page 22. U7

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
page

STRUCTURAL ^NA 1 YSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

flOORE 16

BCAJOM3 57.-MCTB Of PAJIALLEL- LAMINATED DI-DIRECTICTtAL FA3RXC

loaoik) pExrorcicuuK to wutr oiiscnox -

name 17

HfT»« SOBIGTB OF OOSS-UKXHATED Oa-CU£C7ZC3AL

I0A9ITC PARALLEL AID fiHflJIUI CULAft ID VAOF 3Z2ECTT33

page 22.1.12)
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

KOIKE IB

MAUNO STRZnOTR OF CROSS- LAMINA TED UN I- DIRECTIONAL FABRIC


UttDtK Ji5° TO UAAF DIRECTION

page 22.4.20

?T RlirTURAL A^.V^ MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

II

UUb 1 !IU»iU
rrarss. in
FUUU 21

*rrn. riTIOOE STMMOBI


KOTCHD PJUUUXL-UKDUTED BI- DI KEgTI OXAL TAJ RIC
I<unni t p>rj.T AT O* TO W*JT DlttCTIOi
U • 2J»

in*

■ . eras to mum

pagt 22.\.II

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIH AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

page i3L.l.22

c T pUCTURAI ^^|V^fi MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAm AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
FICUKE 2h
COrt!V.hSSlVE WJCKLIHC CUKSTAMT
PARA1XEL-UKIKA1ED, BI- & UHI-DIK£XT1GHAL FAERICS
<j, m 0° & 90° ti .325
1.00

LEGEMD

, BI- DIRECTIONAL FABRIC

UMI' DIRECTIONAL FAFOIC

4 SIMPLE SUPPORT I
1 — \xx?

3CU§ il

OS

R
u

-O

S3

.56
.52

TQ t<.125»'«ULXI?LI
PaWtrJS OBTAINED Fatti
TOUETv CURVES BT APPU-
C.VTLH FACTOR FSOli THIS

=— -^b==^: g |tii:|nn|inililcmr^-,

SUBSCRIPT a,*- 0° VcLAHPEPl F5 *' 0 -02 ^ «06 .08 .30 .


SUBSCRIPT b,*- 900 ^ 1 - LAMINATE IHICKKESS - IHChrS

1^.125
SITE b IS LOADED EDGE

o .2 .a J& .a 1.0 1.2 i.Ji 1.6 i.e 2.0 2.2 2.u 2.6 2.8

pagt

J J o

ffTB iirmmAL ANAI YSIS MANUAL

GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

figure 26

St EAR BUCJOINO CONSTANT


FAJUIXJO-LAHIMATED, HI- k UNI -DIRECTIONAL FABRICS
t * .12$ i _l-00

XXGEND
■ BI- DIRECTIONAL FABRIC

TOU-MRECTlOMAl FABRIC

MET DIRECTION
i CASE B

*S .SO

SMI

t<«125» MULTIPLE
,K e VALUE OBTAINED FROM
LOWER CURVES HI AFPLI-
raMJE FACTOR FROM THIS
CURVE* t i i

.Oil .Ob

.10 .129

air fl"J>-— •

pflOJft 1.^ .1.2.5

cr
0

o
ro

0>

CRIPPLINO STRESS
8 S £

KSI

2
3

r-
o

CO
m

<o
*<
to

i\

to'

to
O

>
z
>

i—
-<
U)

cy>
>

cp-HUCTURA I ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Souro«, Section 1 3 Refemnc* io


N ON METALLIC MATERIALS

5.1 GENERAL

Nonmetallic structural elements used In Centaur are composite systems oi Igbj


reinforced plastic (GRP). Various composite systems are used for solid laminates and
honeycomb sandwich plates. The mechanical properties of GBP systems -ryconsid-
erably with the specific materials used and the fabrication techniques employed
Gene-l design criteria and related information are included in 1 £ UB " aB
strength requirements, for specific GKP solid laminate systems used m Cen <~ ur
structures have been developed and are included in their respective purchase specifi

cations.

5.2 m ATTTR14I.S AN D MECHA NTCAL PROPERTIES


Materials used in Centaur GRP systems are:

a. Bi-directional glass cloth (wet lay-up or preimpregnaled with resin);

b. Phenolic (MIL-R-9299) or epoxy (high temperature resistant, thermosetting)


resins of a low pressure laminating type;

c. Dry film structural adhesive (•poxy-phenolic) for use in sandwich structure;

d. Glass fabric phenolic honeycomb core material.

Physical and mechanical properties taken fromReference 44 and specific purchase


specifications are presented in Tables 5. 1 through o. 5.

5 2 1 VARIANCE OF BASIC MECHANICAL PROPERTIES WITH THICKNESS


The data in Tables 0-1 through 5-1 are presented for laminate thicknesses of about
1/8 to 1/4 inch. Test data has demonstrated substantial reductions m tensile, com-
pressive an" flexural strength for thin laminates, particularly those less than about
1/32 inch. Thickness reduction factors are contained in Figure o-l.

5 2 2 BOLT BEARING ALLOWABLES. Bolt bearing allowables for GRP Uiml-


aate taken from Reference 43 are presented in Fibres 5-2 through M. F«ur. u-2
resents maximum allowable bolt boarinu as a function of bolt diameter and lammate
thSss. Figures 5-3, 5-1. and b -3 arc reduction factors for skm thickness. edge
distance, or bolt spacing ami temperature, respectively.

page 2.2-2.1

o
to


to

K)
TABLE 5-1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES - PARALLEL LAMINATES OF GLASS FABRIC -

PHENOLIC RESIN (ROOM TEMPERATURE)

An<*lf> nf

/lllLjl(J Ul

Mfiflnlncj nf

Ultimate
Laminate

Loading (cleg)

Elasticity x 10 b (PSI)

Strength (PSI)

120 FABRIC

nft

2. 5fi

O A 1

oO| wuu
35, 700
45

1. 76

17,000

181 FABRIC
0
90

2.34
2. 15

1 O AAA

Jo, (I'M)

35, 1U0

45

1.57

17,800
120 FABRIC

2. 73

30, 000

F cu

90

2.71

20, 100
181 FABRIC

0
90

2.94
2. 82

30,000
31, fiOO

120 FABRIC
0

2.50

45, 000

90

2.43

35,700
181 FABRIC

0
90

2. 50
2.35

15,000
40, 900

EDGEWISE

120 FABRIC

0&90
0. G4

9,2:i0

SHEAR

181 FABRIC

o&no

0.57

9, ISO

(DATA FROM REFERENCE 44)

o
3

J*

z
%

pio

z.

H
C

3)

t/>

o
rn
</>
-<

01
to

z.

>
z
>

r-
<

l/>

>
Z

1
5-2. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES - PARALLEL LAMINATES OF GLASS
EPOXY RESIN (ROOM TEMPERATURE)

Laminate

Angle of
Loading (deg)

Modulus of
Elasticity x 10 6 (PSI)

Ultimate
StrenuUi 0*31)

120 FABRIC

90
45
2.2
2. 1
1.6

45, COO
111,700
22, 800

iqi E'AnniP

0
90
45

2.B8
2.66
2.20

45,000
12,400
2f>, COO
120 FABRIC

00

3.25
2.85

45,000
43, 000

Feu

181 FABRIC

0
90

3.28
3.14

15,000
38,200
120 FABRIC

0
90

3.20
3.10

G5,000
02, 100

Fb

181 FABRIC

0
90

3.20
3.04
«5, 000
57,000

EDGEWISE

120 FABRIC

0&90

0.580

11,800

SHEAR

181 FABRIC

06 90

0.810

11,000
(DATA FROM REFERENCE 44)

TABLE 5-3. LONGITUDINAL MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF GLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC-EPOXY RESIN

Epoxy Wet Lay-Up (2)

Epoxy Proimp: a n|;natC(l (3)

iijuiurmi

Class I

Class I

Class I and 11
Clas:3 I and II ]

1 11 UI 1 I*

Room Temp.

Room Temp.

M-imn nf T^it

Dry '

Wet (6)
300*F

Dry

Wet (6)

300* F

50!S'1'-

ULTIMATE FLEXURAL

120

G5

RR

*J o

42
*i0

45

42

20

STRENGTH

181

05

58

42

50

45
42

2(i

KSI (1)

183

65

58

42

50

45

42

20
143

117

104

70

90

80

7G

FLEXURAL MODULUS OF

120

2.9
2.4

2 2

2.4

2.4

2.4

2.0

ELASTICITY

181

2.9

2.4

2.2
2.4

2.4

2.4

2.0

183

2,9

2.4

2.2

2.4

2.4
2.4

2.0

x 10 PSI (5)

143

5.0

4,1

3.8

4.1

4.1

3.G

3.1
ULTIMATE TENSILE

120

47

45

30

40

3G

33

2G

STRENGTH

181
47

45

30

40

3G

33

20

KSI (!)

183

47

45
30

40

3G

33

2G

143

91

87

58

77

63
53

50

ULTIMATE COMPRESSIVE

120

48

45

25

35

32

25

11
STRENGTH (EDGEWISE)

181

48

45

25

35

32

25

1-1

KSI (1)

183
48

45

25

35

32

25

14

143

70

6G
37

1 52

44

:»7

20

NOTES:

(1) ALL PROPERTIES LISTED ARE FOR PARALLEL LAMINATED PANELS TESTED IN THE DIRECTION
OF THE
WARP.

(2) LAMINATES MADE FROM EPOXY RESIN AND GLASS FABRIC (NOT PREIMPREGNATED).

(3) LAMINATES MADE FROM EPOXY RESIN PREIMPREGNATED GLASS FADHIC.


(1) KSI - THOUSANDS OF POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH.

(5) PSI - POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH.

(0) Till: WET TEST , WHERE THE MATERIAL IS SUBJECT TO TWO HOURS IN BOILING WATER,
SIMULATES
SEVERAL YEARS OF WEATHERING EXPOSURE DAMAGE TO THE SUN AND RAIN.
(FROM GD/A 0-73009 SPECIFICATION FOR EPOXY LAMINATING MATERIALS FOR USE IK GLASS
REINFORCED
PLASTIC AND SANDWICH CONSTRUCTION).

CTRHCTURA 1 YSIS " MANUAL

GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

— - T * C*^"T r " —

.i—:i.\:cicAL rnor-ruTizs of class niziNFOiiCED


cue iirsi:: preimpregnated

Name of Test

I—
Test Conditions

Fabric Style No.

Dry

ULTIMATE FLEXURAL
STRENGTH (FLATWISE)
(2)

KSI

120
143
1S1

133

FLEXURAL MODULUS
OF ELASTICITY

PSlt 3 ) XlO 6
ULTIMATE COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH (EDGEV.TSE)

120
143
181
183

50
90
50
45

2.9
5.2
3.0
2.9

Wet

120
143
1S1
183

ULTIMATE TENSILE
STRENGTH

120
143
181
183

33
51
35
30

45
SI
45

40

2.5
4.3
2.5
2.5
40
77
40
43

30
44
30
27

3S
73
38.
40

50 Q a

40-
72
40
33
2.4
4.3
2.5
2.4

28
38
26-
23

30
58
30
32

(1) ALL PROPERTIES LISTED ARE FOR PARALLEL LAMINATED PANELS,


TESTED IN DIRECTION OF THE WARP.

(2) KSI - THOUSANDS OF POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH.

(3) PSI - POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH.

(FROM GD/A 0-7300S SPECIFICATION FOR GLASS FABRICS, PHENOLIC PRESSURE


P REIMP RE GNAT ED - LOW PRESSURE LAMINATING)
page 2-*2-2-S

TABLE 5-5. GLASS FABRIC HONEYCOMB CORE MATERIAL - PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Rosin
Nomenclature

Cell
Nomenclature

Density

Bare Flatwise Compressive


Strencth Psl (Minimum)

Beam Shear Strength Psl


(Minimum)

Range
Lba/cu ft

75 ± 10° F
L-Dlrcclion

W-Dlrectlon

500 * 5"F

75 ± 10 s F

500 ± 5° F

75 -r- 10 r

1IRP (Heat

Hexagonal

4.0 min.
loll

1G0

105

80

55

Resistant

3/16

4.6 max.
Phenolic)

HHP (Heat

Hexagonal

5. 5 min.

inn
330

220

170

110

ResisLant

3/16

6.4 max.
Phenolic)

HKP (Heat

Hexagonal

7.6 min.

1 1 OA

1120
can

560

370

300

200

Resistant

3/16

8.8 max.
Phenolic)

HHP (Heat

Over-Expanded

4. 1 min.
170

100

66

115

75

Resistant

1/4

4.7 max.
Phenolic)

HUP (Heat

Over-Expanded

5.7 min.

695

360
210

140

225

150

Resistant

1/4

6.6 max.
Phenolic)

IIRP (Heat

Over- Expanded

6.5 min.

625
325

290

190

290

190

Resistant

1/4

8.0 max.
Phenolic)

IIRP (Heat

Over-Expanded

7.8 min.

1170

610
360

240

3G0

240

Resistant

1/4

9.0 max.
Phenolic)

TABLE 5-5. GLASS FABRIC HONEYCOMB CORE MATERIAL - PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
(Coitllnuucl)

Bare Flatwise Compressive


Beam Shear Strength Psi

Density

Strength Psi (Minimum)

(Minimum)

Resin

Cell

Range

L-Dlreclion
W-Mructlnn

Nnnu-nclulurc

Nomenclature

Lbs/cu ft

75 * 10* F |

500 * 5" F

75 ± 10° F

nno t r>° F

75 t 10 # F 5Wi t 5* F

Hit) 1 (Ileal
lti:slsl;int
Ov^r- Expanded
3/8

3.0 mln.
3.G max

250

130

130

85

1.10 8fi

I'litno'ic)
I II 1 1 > (Meat

Over- Expanded
3/8

5.0 min.
6.0 max

675

350

230

150

230 150
PIlLHoHc)

NOTES: (1) The 500*F Bare Compressive Strength values are based on 52% of the room
temperature values,

(2) The 500* F Beam Shear Strength values are based on 6G% of the room temperature
values.

(3) L-Dlrectlon Is the longitudinal core ribbon direction.

(4) W- Direction Is the transverse core ribbon direction.

(From QD/A 0-73017 - Specification for Core Material, Glass Fubrlc, Phenolic)

!
O
O

if*
u

o
rn

c/»
-<

C/l

O
•5
t/i

z.

DO
C

H
C
31
>

in

>
z
c
>

•o

01

a>

ro
00

01
c

a
I

V. **» M»

? < S

p o

3 El «•

7 8 «.

~ Co

CD O

E S"
? s

o »

2. 8

T3 r*
3"

<

C rr 1-1

S o g

P ~

3 «

It o

(5 3

01 «
*£j

•1
•_> in

•3 2

S *

o p

C 3

P a

o X

O >"l

O P

* in

3. J?
5 S

3"

en
FLEXURAL STRENGTH
OF 1/B-NCH CONTROL
VALUES (PERCENT)

5 S 5 8 8

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
OF 1/8-INCH CONTROL VALUES (PERCENT)

g £ i?

IB

/
/

< —

--/
/

f ;
i

i—

t —
1

/
TI NSII.R STRI NCnil
1/8- INCH CONTIIOL
VALULS (PLRU NT)

Crt pi \Q O O C
: I I
: I i

-? K x

P1 o» TJ

• -

to IO

- < -

« O w

i-fc <

T * Q

on n U;

O ^

t. ) o >
II ^ C

I" 8-
p o.yi
o- II
O .„

■° ~ p.

C o

r r 1

l •

GG

r 5

II

5
2

Sic*
§

z.

to
tj
i>
o
rn

to
■<
to

to

(o

DO
C

o
H
C
3J
>

r-
>

>

H
-<
LO

>

6^

Figure 5-2. Maximum Allowable Bolt Bearing Stress Vs D/t


(Solid Laminate Phenolic 181 6 120 Glass Cloth)

> 1
> _ ) ^

LAMINATE THICKNESS (IN.) g

Figure 5-3. Fraction of Allowable Bolt Bearing Stress Permissible Vs Laminate


Thickness

(Solid Laminate Phenolic 181 & 120 Glass Cloth)

Figure 6-4. Fraction of Allowable Bolt Bearing Stress Permissible Vs S/D and E/D
Ratios

(Solid Laminate Phenolic 181 It 120 Glass Cloth)

8
c
o

30

o
m

</>
«<

>
z
in

LO

i>
z
c

0>

1.00

1/2 HOUR MAXIMUM TIME

APPLICATION
01
0

N>

ro

0.B0

0.60

0.40

0.20

TUMPERATURE <°F)

Figure 5-5. Fraction of Allowable Bolt Bearing Stress Permissible Vs Temperature of


Application
(Solid Laminate Phenolic 181 & 120 Glass Cloth)

5
2

31
C

H
C
SJ

o>
■o
i>
o
m

CO
O
O

>

in
t/>

>
z

IC

«;tructurai analysi s manual ■

GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

1.
10

REFERENCES

Strength of Metal Aircraft Elements; MIL-HD3K-5; Armed Forces Supply


Center, Washington 23, D. C; March 1361.

2. Structures Memoranda; GD Convair.

3. Sp ecification for £:sel7 Corrosion Resistant Sheet and Plate Type 301-1/4 Hard;
GD/A 0-71013; 30 June 1061.

4. Specification for Steel. Corrosion Resistant Sheet and S trip Type 301-1/2 Hard;
GD/A 0-71012 flev. A;. 5 April 1961.

5. Specification for Steel, Corrosion Resistant, Sheet and Coil St ock. Type 301-
3/4 Hard: G D/A 0-71005 Rev. E; 26 May 1958.

6. Specification for Steel. Corrosion Resistant. Sheet and Coil Stock. Type 301
Extra Hard 200, 000 Psi Ultimate; GD/A 0-71004 Rev. D; 25 April 1953.

7. Specification for Steel, Corrosion Resistant, Sheet and Coil Type 301 Extra Hard
200, 000 Psi Ultimate; GD/A 0-71022 Rev. A; 5 April 1962.

8. Environmental Tests for Hydrogen Tank Skins; GD/A 0-71016 Rev. B.

9. CRES301 Stainless Steel Sheet. Poisso n's Ratio at -320*F and + 600* F;
GD/A 7E1264.
CRES Type 301 and C21 Stainless Steel Sheet - Poisson's R atio at Ambient
Temperature; GD/A 7E1263; 5 June 1959.

11. Specification for Nickel Base Alloy 718, Age Hardenable, Bars and Forcings,

GD/A 0-71037; 6 August 1964. f

12. Specification for Nickel Base Alloy 718, Ag e Hardenable. Sheet. Strip and
Plate; GD/A 0-71038; 16 August 1964.

pFoTiss for Welding. Metal Arc and Gas-Steels and Co rrosion and Heat Resis L
Tant Alloys; MIL-W-8611A; 24 July 1957.

Weldia gTRisistance: Aluminum. Magnesium, Non-Hardening Steels or Alloys.


Nickel AUoys, Heat-Resisting Alloys, and Titanium AUovs. Soot and Seamj,
MIL-W-6858B; 2 November 1960.

Quality Acceptance Standards for Fusion Welds of C entaur Components;


GD/A 0-77008; 14 December 1962. v
Properties of 321 Stainless Steel Joints at Ro om Temperature and -4-3 F;
GD/A 55E154; 25 September 1961.

Military Specifications: Process for Welding of Alum inum Alloys; MIL-W-8G04,


5 June 1953.

The Effects of Nickel Foil on the Strength of Resistance W elds in Type 301
Stainless Steel at Room and Cvrogenic Tem peratures; GD/A AR-592-1-412;
12 April 1963.

19 . Effects of Temper on Shear and Cross-Tension St rength of Type 301;


GD/A MHG-M-1522. 17 February 1964.
13.
14.

15.
16.
17.
18.

page 11.1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS - MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

20. Aerospace PLrun ur.il Metals Ha noboc l: , Volume I, Ferrous Alloy-.: Syracuse

L'nivcrsiiv Press; March 19i>4.

21. Aerospace Structural Mc-ta Is Handbook, Volume II, Non-Ferrous Alloys:


Syracuse University Press; March 19G4.

22. Cr yc;;cnic Materials Data Handbook; Air Force Materials Laboratory-, AF 33


(6571-9161; July 19ii5.

23. GD/C Heli Arc Spotweld Qualification/Certification ; Approved by Engineering


and Trocess Control; 0 May 19fi5.
24 Weldi ng, Snot, Inert-Gas Shielded Arc; MIL-W-27664; 10 October 1962.

25. Shear and Tension Strength of Tig Spot Welds in a Six- Layer Stainless Steel
Bu TkilTp that Simulates Centaur Yaw and Helium Bracket Att achment Points:
GD/C ZZL-G5-031; 21 October 1965.

26. Butt Weld and Seam Weld Yielding for 0. 026-301 Half-Hard Stainless Steel;

GD/C MGR-M-139; 2 November 1964.

27. Ce ntaur Tank Corrosion Tests and X-rays; GryC-BNZ65-032; 1 August 1965.
Shelr~and Cross Tension Properties of 321/301 Stainless Steel Seam Welds,
GD/C MGR-M-549; 4 November 1965.

Seam Weld Tests on 301 (1/2 Hard) Stainless Steel (2 DoublersfrGD/C MGR-
M-174; 17 November 1964.

The Effects of Nickel Foil on the Strength of Resistance Spot W elds in Multiple
SheeTpiie-fp of Types 301 and 321 Stainless Steel at Ro om and Cryogenic
Temperatures; GD/C ZZL-64-011; Uuly 1964.

a^7a^dCr7ss Tension Values of Resistance Spot Welded Skin s at M. S. 412.72;


GD'CMGR-M-406; 21 May 1965.

Stress Concentration Design Factors; Peterson, R. E. ; John Wiley & Sons. Inc.
Specification for Dynamic Etching of Corrosion Resista nce Steel; GD/C 0-75091

Rev. B; 11 April 1963. .


The -Effects of Chemical Milling and Chemically Milled Steps on the Mechanical
Proxies of Type 301 EH & Type 310 EH Stainle ss Steels at Room & Liquid
Hydrogen Temperatures; GD/C AR-592-1-473; 3 July 1963.
35. Additional Information Pertaining to the Effects of Chemic al Milling on the
Mech anical Properties of Cold Rolled Stainless Steel; GD/C ZZL-64-018;

16 April 1964. . n9 ~

36. Final Stress Analysis Centaur Vehicle AC-G - AC-15; GD/C-BTD65-U2J,

15 May 1965.

37 Structures Manual; Volume U II; GD Convair.

38. Smooth & Sharp- Notch Tensile Properties of Cold-Red uced 301 and 304L
Stainless Steel Sheet at 75° F, -320' F and -423' F; NASA TN D-592, Hanson,
M. P. ; February 1961.

39. Mechanical Properties of High Strength 3 01 Stainless Steel Sheet at 70


- 320° F. -123' F in the Base Metal St Welded Joint Configuration; ASTM STP
No. 287; 1960.

40. Quality Verification T.nhomarv Test Report; GD/C Data Reports: lO&l-WGo.

28.
29.
30.

31.

32.
33.
34.

page 12.1.1^

fiTRUCTURA l ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION ^

41. The Effects 01 Q-yo^ oaic Temperature on the Mechanical PropiTtU'S of High
Strength Sheet Alloys (c old worked Austonitic Stainless Steels): CD/ A ERR-AN-
003; 16 May 12 GO.

42. Physical and Mecha nical Properties of Pressure Vessel Materials for Applica-
tion in a Cyrogenic Environment; CD/ A ASD-TDR-C2-25S: March 1962.

43. selection of Material s for Cryogenic Ap pli cations in Missiles & Aerospace
Vehicles: GD7a~MRG-132-1: February I960.

44 MIL-KDBK 17- Plastics for Flight Vehicles.

45. Static and Fatigue Strength of CRESS01 (GD/A 0-71004 fc 0-71022) Stainless
Steel at Room TemDerarare and -320'F; GDA7E2373: 7 October 1S59.

46. GD/FW Report E. M. No. 24. 155- Glass Reinforced Plastic Parts - Material
Selec tion. Design Information, and Drawing Procedure; 29 September 1959.

47> hp/FW Report FMS-0013 (C). Core Material-Glass Fabric Reinforced Plastic
Honeycomb, Intermediate Temperature Resistant; 15 May 1961.
GD/FW Report E. M. No. 24. 294 - Bolt Bearing Design Allowables for FM5-
0031 Class m and VI 120 and 181 Glass Fabric Reinforced Plastic Laminate;
6 October 1959.

GD/Fort Worth Report MR-SS-012, Centaur Lightweight Insulation Panel


Structural Allowables Report; 12 February 1964,
50- GD/FW Structures Manual - Volume L ^
5l[ WAPD Tit 60-133 " Cylindrical Sandwich Construction Design" , Section II; ^

February 1960.

52. NACA TN3783 Handbook of Structural Stability Part HI - Buckling of Curved


Plates and Shells.

48.

49

page 21* Z. 15

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
References : 1. 0-06166, Material specification for fabric,

Aramid, epoxy impregnated, non-flammable.

2. 0-73829, Process specification for fabric,


laminate , Aramid , epoxy impregnated , fabrica-
tion of.

3 . Proposed chapter 5 , Kevlar-epoxy materials ,


proposed chapter for revised MIL-HDBK-17, 1
June 84, Army Materials and Mechanics Research
Center.

4 . General Dynamics Qual i ty Verif icat ion Test


Report (QVTR) Data.

5. Kevlar 49 data manual, Dupont, 1986 and 1974.

6. Advanced Composites Design Guide,


4.1.1/5.91.AF5, July 1983.

7 . Design Allowables for Centaur Structural


Materials, GDC-BTD65-168, 1 February 1966.

PROBLEM ; Aramid/epoxy ( Kevlar/epoxy ) allowables are needed for


use in structural analysis of the Titan/Centaur.

RECOMMENDATION ; Use the allowables data contained in this memo


for structural analysis of Titan/Centaur aramid/epoxy components
made from 0-06166-2. For components made from 0-06166-1 use 90%
of the values contained herein.

DISCUSSION : This memo establishes structural allowables for


aramid/epoxy fabric laminate per references 1 and 2 for the
Titan/Centaur program. A word of caution to the analyst is
appropriate. Aramid (Kevlar) -is a high tensile strength fiber,
has an excellent ratio of tensile strength to density, and has a
linear tensile stress-strain curve. Compressive properties of
aramid/epoxy are significantly different including a much lower
compressive strength, a non-linear compressive stress-strain

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference 4 /

Subject:

Allowables for 0-06166-2 Aramid/Epoxy

or

page 2.2. 3. /
ctp.iPTURAL Af>t*|V^ MANUAL
C£NERAL OYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS D,VIS,0N

DISCUSSION ; (cont'd) fi , resa and a relatively low compres-

curve, a compressive yield stres ■ ™ fl " * properties are also

sss: h ?^3H^«^"^»---

epoxy, Reference 7, should also 6 ^e evaxu structural

sible to prevent moisture * b *°*£l??°™* n values. For

test coupon acceptance use should be specified on

Orawing notes shall include .^-i™" _^ mate^a^' "Vth


all structural parts m » d «J/^°°„sts shall be called for per
flexure and short beam shear (SBS) tests 2 requir „ re-

reference 2 to insure product qualr ty . ™*™ e * u revised the

sli^tesfs sh d al S l BS be te c S aried A ou^ 'n^e ' drawing note, as follows:

Test five (5) longitudinal short beam shear specimens per *STM D
H44. Minimum average acceptance value 4.5 k.i.

_ . o.f.fince 3 and confirmed by


TXlli^rrTZ*'? b SJ«*.^nVV. r ^: \o account for the
acceptance values of Reference 1.
w R«fnrence 3 and confirmed by

Compression Properties are ^ ^"^ °n R.ferenc 3 available from

R.fer-nc«3 5 and 6 • "° " t^ the compression strength accep-


R.fer.nc. 4. " " W£ B $ Should b^ increased from lSlcsi to
2 ^s!. Va i U plan Z'llSXl an ECR " the spec for this change.
Until the ECR is approved use Fcu A - 12 K3i.

ri.xur. P^er^s ^^o„ -ference^ and confirmed^


Reference 5- No flexure " h acceptance values of Re-

SK'ncTS a^^ex^^^y for e r P e" angular sections.

page 22- 3.Z

pTR UCTURAL ANALYSTS MAMUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

DISCUSSION (cont'd) •

In plane shear, interlaminar shear, bearing and coefficient o£


thermal expansion are based on Reference 5 and adjusted using
engineering judgement to obtain allowables. These allowables are
designated as estimated A (Est. A) values in Table 1.

Effects of temperature on mechanical properties may be found in


References 5 and 6.

An expanded testing program most likely would result in increased


allowables in some cases, but time and budget do not permit such
a program at this time.

"7

page 22.^.3

ctphPTUR AL ANAIYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D 7nAMICS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

TABLE 1 0-06166-2 ARAMID/EPOXY DESIGN PROPERTIES

BASIS DRY WET COMMENTS


TENSION BASIS

ETQ(90 („i) Typical '4.5 4.0 Fig. 1

E _ . (msi) Typi«l 1-1 1 -° Fig - 2

A 45

COMPRESSION
*w fksi) A 21 * 19 *

F CY 0/ 90 (ksi) A 10 9

E Cr _ tmsi) Typical 4.5 4.0 Fig. 1

■0,90
FCU45 (ksi

£ c 4

45

(msi) Typical

A 15 « 13

5 4

1.0 0.9 Fig. 2

FLEXURE ^
(Rectangular Cross-Sections Only)

FFU 0 ,90 (lcsi>


F F* 0 ,90 (k5i)

E F - (nisi) Typical

A 49 44

A 24 21

4.0 3.3 Fig. 3

0,90

FFU 45 <* si)

Ffy 45 t)tsi)

E- _ (msi) Typical 1.0 0.9

A 19 17

A 10 9
IN PLANE SHEAR
*0,90

F SUr CXsi) Est. A. 10 9

GO, 90

(msi) Typical 0.3 0.3 Fig. 4

Est. A 21 19

G45 " (msi) Typical 3.0 3.0 Fig. 4

FSU45 (* sil

c
pagt 22. 3.<7

CTPtirTURAL AKiAlV^I^ MANUAL


GENERAL DYNA MICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

TABLE 1 0-06166-2 ARAMID/EFOXY DESIGN PROPERTIES (CONT'D)

BASIS DRY COMMENTS

INTER LAMINAR SHEAR


(Short Beam Shear)

FSBS

(ksi

Est. A

4.5
WET
3.5

BEARING

Use linear interpolation, see Fig. 5

Do not exceed D/t « 2.0 without testing

Maintain § > 3.0 and § > 4.0


D/t « 0.81
F B RU 0 (4%) (ksi)

page 22. ^. 5

QTpntrruRAL a^jaiysis manual

GENERAL D YNAMtCS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

MAY 1986
Typical Fabric Composite Stress-Strain Response At Room Temperature
Du Pont Fabric Styte 18V Of KEVLAR* 49 Reinforced Epoxy direction)

mix wi w w nw rf

•,-OJO

U U U 1*

li i—i hi ii iimiwi I

FIGURE 1

P«fl« 22-3. 4.
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAlR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

MAY 1986

Typical Fabric Composite Stress-Strain Response At Room Temperature

Du Pont Fabric Style 181 1 Of KEVLAR* 49 Reinforced Epoxy (Bias Directions)

FIGURE 2

page 22. £.7

FABRIC COMPOS "^ OF STYLE W "KEVLAR'49


FLEXURAL STRESS -STRAIN CURVE

O02
AMERICAN CYANAM10 BP-907 EPOXY

AUTOCLAVE MOLDED

50 VOLUME PERCENT FABRIC

FIGURE 3

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION •

MAY 1986

"typical Fabric Composite Shear Stress-Strain Response At Room Temperature


Du Pont Fabric Style 1ST Of KEVLAR* 49 Reinforced Epoxy

FIGURE 4
page 22.3. 9

fiJHUCTUR A| ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMlCS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

so h

FIGURE 5

page 22."5>-^

STRUCTURAL A NALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 23.0

FRACTURE MECHANICS THEORY AND METHODS OF APPLICATION ARE CONTAINED


IN THIS SECTION

PA3E

23.1 GENSVU. 23.1.1

23.2 STRESS-INTENSITY FACTORS 23.2.1

23.3 FLAW GROWTH 23.3.1

23.4 APPLICATION OF TECHNOLOGY 23.4.1

23.5 CAMAGE TOLERANCE 23.5.1

page 2VO.l

CTpnr.TUBAL AMA|V<;iS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAUICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section U ftalwrw 5

r
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

E2 FRACTURE MECHANICS > • *

2.1 GENERAL » * 1

2. 1. 1 Comparison of Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics . . . zi. \ • 2

2.2 STRESS-INTENSITY FACTORS Zl * 2-*

2-2.1 Plane Strain . . ; H • 2 .2

2.2.1.1 Correction for Deep Surface Flaws 1^. 2 . G

2.2.2 Plane Stress 21. 2 . >2

2.2.2.1 Through-the-Thickness Cracks £i. 7 .l£

2.2.3 Experimental Determination £3. 2* n

2.3 FLAW GROWTH 2* - 3 • *

2.3.1 Sustained Load Flaw Growth 21- 5 * I

2.3.1.1 Environmental Effects 3 -2

2.3.2 Cyclic Load Flaw Growth • _2*S- 5«3


2.3.2.1 Theories • • 2"i* ^ «3 *

I. Paris M - 5 . S

II. Foreman 23. *5 . 1

m. Tiflany 2%. 3

2.3.2.2 Crack Growth Retardation 2 V % . I O

I. Wheeler's Retardation Parameter . . . . 2V 1 ■ * O

II. The Significance of Fatigue Crack

Closure 2*-«3 . ^

2-3.2.3 Transition from Partial-Thickness Cracks .

to Through-Thickness Cracks ?V 3 • l ^

2.3.3 Combined Cyclic and Sustained Flaw Growth 3 *

2.4 APPLICATION OF FRACTURE MECHANICS

TECHNOLOGY ?\ • ^ • 1

2.4.1 Selection of Materials 21>. 4 . \

2.4.1.1 Static Loading 2V A - A-

I. Example Problem A 2£ • ^ * *
2.4.1.2 Cyclic or Sustained Loading Ar -5

I. Example Problem A ^ • 5

II. Example Problem B 23- A • H

page 2*.0. 2

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Concluded)

Page

2.4.2 Predicting Critical Flaw Sizes 2S«

2.4.2.1 Surface Cracks 2\* A.2o

I. -Example Problem A • A • 2 \

II. Example Problem B £v 4- . 22


2.4.2.2 Embedded Flaws A. 2<f*

2.4.2.3 Through-the-Thickness Cracks 21-4- . 2&

I. Example Problem A 7.3. 4- . 2-C»

2.4.3 Structure Design 2,3. 4-. 25

2.4.3.1 Service Life Requirements and

Predictions ZV 4 *

I. Example Problem A (Thick-Walled

Vesael) Zi. A . 3k

II. Example Problem B (Thin-Walled

Veaael) . rL.4-.A-o

2.4.3.2 Allowable Initial Flaw Size 2l- 4- . 4-**

I. Example Problem A 2V 4 -

2.4.3*3 Nondestructive Inspection Acceptance

Limits rS.4 .

2.4.3.4 Proof-Test Factor Selection £V 4- .

I. Example Problem A 4 . 5*"?

REFERENCES 2\ . 4 . GO
page 23- 0. 2

^THI IftTtlRAL flNAI MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 3 Ref»r«nc» 5"

E2 FRACTURE MECHANICS.

2.1 GENERAL.

Structures subjected to constant loads at moderate temperatures have


been designed primarily on the basis of the yield strength and/or ultimate
strength of the material. Many of these structures have failed prematurely at
stresses below the yield strength, with disastrous consequences. These
brittle failures have occurred In such diverse structures as storage tanks,
suspension bridges, aircraft landing gears, and rocket motor cases. An
examination of such failures indicated one predominant feature: A small
defect or flaw was usually found at the failure origin.

Therefore, the key to brittle fracture control Ues in understanding both


the weakening effects of flaws and cracks in metals and those factors that
influence this effect. To be useful in an engineering sense, this understanding
must be translated Into the types of tests and structural mechanics familiar
to the metal producer and designer. The body of knowledge concerning this
type of failure has become known as fracture mechanics.

Basic to fracture mechanics Is the understanding of the state of stress


near the'tip of a sharp crack and the relationship between gross stress and
flaw geometry. These concepts are discussed in subsection 2.2, Stress-
Intensity Factors.

Flaw growth or crack propagation under cyclic loads Is a basic problem


which is handled best by fracture mechanics concepts. A thorough discussion
of flaw growth is given In subsection 2.3.

Finally, subsection 2.4, Application of Fracture Mechanics Technology,


relates stress-intensity factors and flaw growth to the engineering design and
analysis of structures. Particular attention is given to pressure-vessel design
because of Its importance in the aerospace Industry.

page 2.H . \

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVtStON

2.1.1 Comparison of Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics.

Similarities and dissimilarities between fatigue and fracture mechanics


are su mm arized in Table E2-1. Both fatigue and fracture mechanics depend
primarily on results of laboratory tests; however, the fracture mechanics
concept makes it possible to handle fracture considerations in a quantitative
manner and has shown greater applicability to fatigue crack propagation.
page 23. \ . Z

gyntlflTUHAI AfJ^I Y^l^ MAMUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

FLMAf SIZE RATIO U/Q)

FIGURE E2-*. APPLIED STRESS VERSUS CRITICAL FLAW SIZE RATIO

Experimental data obtained on several materials with varying flaw sizes


and shapes appear to provide a lair degree of substantiation of the Kobayashi
magnification factor; however, more experimental Investigations are being
performed. Typical curves for M k for two different materials are shown In
Figs. £2-7 and E2-8.

2.2.2 Plane Stress.

An Important consideration in fracture mechanics is the "state of


stress or simply the directions and magnitudes of the applied stresses and
strains. In general, the state of -stress In a body is three-dimensional, that
is, stresses and strains exist in all three principal directions.

For thin sheet specimens subjected to In-plane external loads which


do not vary through the thickness, a condition of plane stress is thought to
prevail. As such, strain in the thickness direction is virtually uasuppreased
and considerable plastic flow attends the cracking process.

page . &

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Souraa, Section 1 3 Reference S

2.2

STRESS-INTENSITY FACTORS,

To understand how fracture mechanics is used in design, it is helpful


first to learn some of the theory on which it is based.

The precise goal of fracture mechanics can be stated concisely: It


attempts to provide a quantitative measure of resistance to unstable crack
propagation. This measure must be independent of the size and shape of the
crack, the geometry of the part containing the crack, and the manner in which
external loads are applied to the part.

The search for a quantitative value focuses on the conditions in the


vicinity of the crack tip where fracture takes place.

The stress fields near crack


tips can be divided into three basic
types, each associated with a local
mode of deformation, as shown in
Fig. E2-1. The opening mode, I, is
associated with a local displacement
in which the crack surfaces move
directly apart. The edge-sliding
mode, n, is characterized by dis-
placements in which the crack sur-
faces slide over one another. In
mode m, tearing, the crack sur-
faces slide with respect to one
another parallel to the leading edge.
Mode I is the most critical mode and
is the only one to be discussed in this
section. For information on modes II and HI, see Ref. 1.

a. Mode I.

b. Mode n.
c. Mode m.

FIGURE E2-1. THREE DISPLACE


MENT MODES FOR CRACK
SURFACES

page Uh • 2 . \

CTqiirTURAL ANALYSIS MAMUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVA/R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

2.2,1 Plane Strain .

The stress conditions, or plane-strain elastic stress field, at the crack


tip for mode I are defined by the expressions shown in Fig. E2-2 (Ref. 2) .
These equations five the components of stress (ff - normal stress, r • shear
stress) in terms of the polar coordinates r and * for opening-mode (per-
pendicular) crack surface displacements. Only the first term of each equation

HORIZONTAL DISTANCS MOW C*ACX PROMT


FIGURE E2-2. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESS -INTENSITY FACTOR,
Kj, AND STRESS COMPONENTS IN THE VICINITY OF A CRACK

page 23*2 .2.

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

is shown- The complete equations are power series In r/a (crack tip radius/
crack half-length) . For practical purposes, all terms beyond the first are
negligible.

All the three stress components are proportional to a scalar quantity


that has been designated the stress-intensity factor, Kj. This factor is
independent of r and ^ and therefore gives a single description of the stress
intensity at any point near the crack tip. It is a purely numerical quantity
which, if known, provides complete knowledge of the stress field at the crack
Up.

The basic assumption in fracture mechanics is that an unstable frac-


ture occurs when Kj reaches a critical value designated Kj c , commonly
called fracture toughness. It is important to appreciate the difference
between Kj and Kj . The stress-intensity factor K is simply a coefficient
in an equation describing the elastic stresses in the vicinity of a crack tip.
Fracture toughness K^ c is a particular value of corresponding to
unstable propagation of the crack. This value is a material property and
reflects a material's ability to withstand a given stress at a crack tip. The
difference between Kj and is analogous to the difference between stress
and strength for a body free of discontinuities.

Irwin (Ref. 3) used the expressions shown in Fig. E2-2 with the Green
and Sneddon analysis (Ref. 4) to show that the expression for the stress
intensity around the crack periphery for the embedded elliptical flaw (Fig.
£2-3) is

^ . d£ avTS j-L [a* cos 2 * * c 2 sin 2 * 1

page

where ff la the uniform stress perpendicular to the crack. The parametric


equations of the flaw periphery are x- c co. * and y- a cos • . where c
U the semlmajor axis of the ellipse, a to the semiminor axis of the ellipse,
.ad * la the complete elliptical integral of the second kind corresponding to
the modulus k- [(c 5 - !*)/<?] U«..

»/2

/
d*

or ♦ - 1 * 4.593 (a/2c)'- H . Values of ♦ can be obtained for various values


of a/2c from the graph shown in Fig. E2-4.

In seeking an expression for the stress intensity for a semielUptical


surface flaw in a Quite -thickness plate, Irwin assumed that

^ . a II a j-1 [a' cos* « * c 2 sin* *l|

where a .is a correction factor to account for the effect on stress intensity of
th. streaa-free surface from which the ftow emanates, and y is a correction
factor to account for the effect on stress Intensity of the plastic yielding around
the flaw periphery.

Values of a and y were estimated by Irwin and considered valid for


surface flaws with a/c ratios less than one and flaw depths not exceeding 50
percent of the plate thickness. The resulting expression for the stress inten-
sity was

- 1.1 <r (a/Q) 1 / 1 j ^- ta 2 cos 2 • + c 2 sin 2 •! j*^ .

r
page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

FIGURE E2-4. SHAPE EACTOR VALUES

page 2 3.2.5

where Q - * J - 0.212 (<x /a )*, and c ys la the uniaxial yield strength


of the material. Figure E2-5 shows the relationship between Q and the flaw
depth-to-width ratio.

The m«-H™»™ value of Kj occurs at the end of the se mi ml no r axis


of the ellipse and has a value of

1^ - 1.1 *TT er (a/Q) l/2 .


At some value of <r the flaw size becomes unstable and propagates
rapidly. The value of Kj computed at the inception of this instability is
called the critical value of Kj and is designated K^. Thus, is the

stress intensity necessary to cause fracture under plane -strain conditions


and is commonly called the plane-strain fracture toughness. Thus,

Kj c - 1.1 ^Tff (a/Q cr )V* .

Figure E2-6 is a graphical representation of this equation. Some typical


values of for space shuttle materials are shown In Table E2-2.

Stress-Intensity factors for other shapes of cracks, different loading


conditions, and crack location are given in Table E2-3. C*ee Vl,2& s l&)

2.2.1.1 Correction for Deep Surface Flaws.

For surface flaws that are deep with respect to plate thickness, that
is, when the crack approaches the opposite surface, Irwin's equation has been
modified by Kobayashi (Ref. 5) as follows:

Kj - 1.1 'JIT c (a/Q) 1 / 1


where is the magnification factor for deep flaw effects.

page 21.2. £

I
gyntlflTUHAI AfJ^I Y^l^ MAMUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

FLMAf SIZE RATIO U/Q)

FIGURE E2-*. APPLIED STRESS VERSUS CRITICAL FLAW SIZE RATIO

Experimental data obtained on several materials with varying flaw sizes


and shapes appear to provide a lair degree of substantiation of the Kobayashi
magnification factor; however, more experimental Investigations are being
performed. Typical curves for M k for two different materials are shown In
Figs. £2-7 and E2-8.

2.2.2 Plane Stress.

An Important consideration in fracture mechanics is the "state of


stress or simply the directions and magnitudes of the applied stresses and
strains. In general, the state of -stress In a body is three-dimensional, that
is, stresses and strains exist in all three principal directions.

For thin sheet specimens subjected to In-plane external loads which


do not vary through the thickness, a condition of plane stress is thought to
prevail. As such, strain in the thickness direction is virtually uasuppreased
and considerable plastic flow attends the cracking process.
r

page . &

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Table E2-2. Properties of Typical Materials Considered


for Use on Space Shuttle

Alloy

F tu
(ksi)

F ty
(ksi)

Ic t/
(ksi - in/ 2 )
4340 (High Strength)

260

217

52

4340 (Low Strength)

180

158

100

D6AC (High Strength)

275

231
61

D6AC (Low Strength)

218

203

112

18 Ju (250;

263

253

76

18 Ni (200)

206
198

100

12 Ni

190

180

226

9 Ni - 4 Cr

190

180

160

HT - 150
150

140

250

T - 1

115

100

180

2014-T6

66

60

22
2024-T4

62

47

28

221S-T87

63

51

27

6061-T6

42

36
SI

7075-T6

76

69

26

6AU4V (STA)

169

158

51

5A1-2.5 Sn

125
118

120

page 2>

GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Table E2-3. Stress-Intensity Factors

DM Mk mmU

r
Pi ii i* mfmfaacki***tl*»

•Si • Sn • 0

"Si ■ ,v "

PtrwiAK Mir of endu liOHtl <«■» ^

K n • '^(-i- " 5")'

•S ■ "in ■ 0

r ' m m '

U 41

, Si - '** 7
73 S 5T

■mi in • met a m

■S-p^jl r— j

page 2l».2.iO

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Table £2-3. (Continued)

Inrlirurl crack m uniform


moon in nifis
ICj ■ cm 1 B Vn

Crack * tnAmu Ami


■ibfcci 10 arbitrary foret
at a i

K -

— l.*> r-4^-j

■ ■ <3-»)/fl ♦ r( for p*«m ««■ k - 3 -4* for

Ur

- Om Crack -

(TUr)
■Two Crack

out)

Cracka from Note to)

Stm

Stmt

Sim

Stm

JJ9
126

3J9

126

0.1

1T3

I.9S

173

1.98

02

2-30

142
141

1.13

QJ

104

147

IIS

1.70

(U

146

US

1.96
Ul

oi

1.73

1.49

143

U7

06

144

1.42

1.71

U2
QJ

M7

1J2

US

1 43

1.0

1J7

IJ2

I.4S

US

u
l.lt

1.06

1.29

1.26

10

1.06

UH

L21

1.3)

3.0

0.9*
0.93

1.14

1.13

3.0

041

041

1.07

1.06

iao

0.75

0.75
1.03

1.03

0.707

a707

1.00

1.00

11

1.

Edft crick m a «*mwr>


Ann* body subjected io
Ccacrsi crack m nnp tub*
io b mob fftmf* width)

■ avrrfm

X - i/b

X tiXl

0.074
0.3T
0275
0J37
0.410
04M
QJ33
QJ91

I 00

1.0.1
I. OS
1.09
1.13
1.1S
i.:s

IJ3

Cm 14

NoidMd

page 2.3 .Z. \ \

fijff tlCTUR AL AM ^fYfitS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/CONVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

page 22> .2- 12

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
0 0.1 0.2 0J <U OS OJ 0.7 OJ OJ

a/t

FIGURE E2-fl. M. CURVES FOR 2219-T87 ALUMINUM ALLOY

CSS

STRUCTURAL Y? 1 * MANUAL

GENERAL D YNA MlCS/CON VA IR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

For thick specimens, strain in the thickness direction is suppressed


considerably by the very thickness of the material and noticeably less plastic
flow is associated with the cracking process.

A laboratory plate specimen is seldom completely in either plane stress


or plane strain but rather in some proportion of both. At the free surfaces of
the plate there are no transverse stresses to restrain plastic flow ( a condition
of plane stress) . In contrast, at mid-thickness t plane-strain conditions prevail
and much less plastic flow occurs. A schematic representation of the crack-
tip plastic zone in a plate specimen is shown in Fig. £2-9.

The size of the plane stress


plastic zone is thought to be related to
the amount of shear tip left at the
fracture surface. Thus, the appear-
ance of the fracture will vary accord-
ing to the proportions of plane stress
and plane strain conditions through the
thickness of the plate.

SHADED AREA - CRACK SURFACE


HEAVY SOUD LINE - CRACX FRONT

THICKNESS
OF SPECIMEN

PLASTIC ZONE

FIGURE E2-9. REPRESENTATION


OF PLASTICALLY DEFORMED
REGION AT A CRACK FRONT
The Influence of stress state
(and associated plasticity) on the frac
ture toughness Is illustrated In Fig.

E2-10, which shows the effect of plate thickness on the toughness and fracture
appearance. This figure shows that the larger thicknesses are characterized
by low values of toughness. This corresponds to a completely square (brittle,
appearing) fracture appearance.

page 23.2.14-

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

OJ 1 1 ■ 1

0-2 0.4 0.6 OJ U>

THICKNESS (in.)
FIGURE E2-10. EFFECT OF PLATE THICKNESS ON FRACTURE
TOUGHNESS AND PHYSICAL APPEARANCE OF THE FRACTURE

A reduction In plate thickness decreases the degree of plastic constraint


at the advancing crack tip. This enlarges the local plastic zone and conse-
quently raises the fracture toughness. The development of a larger plastic
zone, in turn, relaxes the stress in the thickness direction, which further
decreases constraint. The process is self-accelerating and the fracture
toughness increases rapidly in a narrow range of thickness variation, as
shown in Fig. E2-10.

In the aerospace industry thicknesses of structures are usually thin


enough to fall in the region of plane stress behavior and as a result more
testing in this area is being done. However, a determination of plane stress

page 22>.2.i5

CTPIIf!TURAL fi^lYSlS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

c
Intensity factors Is far more complicated than was Erst supposed and consider-
able research is needed. It is very hard to determine when unstable crack
propagation occurs because the unstable condition is approached very gradually
as crack length increases.

At present there is no direct method for translating laboratory data for


the mixed mode fracture condition to useful numbers for designing practical
hardware.

2-2.2-1 Through-the-Thickness Cracks.

In thin- walled structures, cracks may grow through the thickness


before catastrophic failure occurs or a through-the -thickness crack may
exist before any load is appUed. The basic plane stress equation for through-
thickness cracks corrected for plastic rone in an infinitely wide plate is

where f is the length of the through-thickness crack at failure ( in. ) , ff is


c

the stress normal to the plane of the crack at failure (ksi) t a is the yield
st re n gth (kai) , and K g is the critical plane-stress stress Intensity (ksi
VIn.) .

lbs- critical plane stress intensity for a finite-width panel co nt a inin g


a through-thickness crack is

where w is the width of the panel (in-) .


page 2 V2. t&

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

2.2.3 Experimental Determination.

Among the most important recent progress in fracture mechanics is


the improved understanding of how the behavior of test specimens relates to
the design of structural components. Numerous tests have been performed on
a variety of specimen types, some of which are shown in Table E2-4. The
tests were designed to determine the specimen types, procedures, and data
analysis which result in Kj determinations that are independent of crack
and specimen geometry and manner of external loading.

At present no fracture mechanics test is universally used to determine


Kj values because no one test gives valid data for aU materials; each of the
tests has its limitations. For instance, ASTM committee No. E-24 has been
working for several years to bring out a standard (E399-70T is proposed) ,
but this test may not be valid for low-strength, high-toughness materials.

Table E2-4 describes some types of fracture specimens, the data


obtained, and their uses and limitations. For detailed information on these and
other specimens, how to set up and conduct the tests, what data to obtain, and
how to analyze data, see Refs. 1, 6, and 7.
page 2.3.2.11

CfPHCTURAL fl fJfttVSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Table £2-4. Sevan Common Types of Fracture Specimens

£«'-' I

* — »
Single- Edaa Crack

Loading

Data Obtained

Uniaxial tension* Breaking stresses.


Induced bundioK

Uniaxial tension

CrmcklifM-Loftfi^l Wedge
Opening. « r Compact
Tens too

Uniaxial tension
(static or cyclic)

Breaking stresses,

1c

Breaking stresses, K £
daw growth rata*.

Uniaxial tension
( cyclic or static )
or rotating
flexure fatlcuo

Tens too with


induced bending

Breaking stress**.
K,

Uniaxial tension
(static or cyclic)

T srs r

ASTM Cracked Slow Band

Taree- point

Breaking strasaas.
Haw sixes, apparent
Ic

Ua«e /Limitations

Cracks must be equal


in siza

Simulates penetration

Qaw in tiardwnra.

K is width dupcnclcnt.

Simulates bolts ami


saafta. Difficult en
form concentric
prac rack-

Compact
SLmulatas natural
flaws ia hardware.
Difficult to analyze.
May not proyide
ralid K values.

Only atandardiaad
test for K^. Not

applicable to most
thin and touch
mats rials.

STRUCTURAL ANAJ VS'S MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSiTMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1.3 Reference 5

2.3 FLAW GROWTH.

2.3.1 Sustained Load Flaw Growth .

One of the most serious structural problems that can arise in the aero-
space industry is the delayed time failure of pressure vessels caused by
sustained pressurization. In some cases, through-the-thickness cracks have
formed and the vessels leaked under sustained loading. In other cases, small
surfaces cracks or embedded flaws grew to critical sizes before growing through
the thickness of the shell. When this happens, complete catastrophic fracture
ensues. To predict such failures one must know the conditions under which
subcrltical flaw growth can occur, as well as either the actual initial flaw size
or the maximum possible initial flaw size in the vessel when it is placed into
service.

When the sustained stress flaw growth is environmentally induced, it


is often termed stress corrosion*

The surface-flawed or "part-through" type of cracked specimen has


probably found the widest use in evaluating sustained stress flaw growth in
both "thick- and thin-walled" aerospace pressure vessels. With this specimen,
the initial flaw closely simulates the type of flaws often encountered in service
and it can be oriented to suit the flaw growth characteristics desired.

A procedure for laboratory evaluation of sustained stress flaw growth


using surface flawed specimens is schematically illustrated in Fig. E2-11.
The Kj c for the material is first established from static (pull) tests. Then,
using a batch of flawed specimens, each flawed specimen is loaded with differ-
ent initial loads (various fractions of K^) and the time required for failure
observed, e.g. , specimens 1 and 2, illustrated in Fig. £2-11. If failure does
not occur in a reasonable time (e.g. , specimens 3 and 4) , It Is still possible
to obtain crack growth information by "marking" the crack front (applying
some low-stress fatigue cycles) and pulling the specimen apart.

page

flTpUCTUBAL ^AIVSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
Kit

Kth

4 -

S *~* _


• FAILED

~- GROWTH. NO FAILURE

— MO GROWTH. NO FAILURE

LOG TIMS

FIGURE E2-11. SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF A PROCEDURE


FOR LABORATORY EVALUATION OF SUSTAINED STRESS FIAW
GROWTH USING SURFACE FLAWED SPECIMENS

A point is finally reached at which neither failure nor flaw growth


occurs. The highest level of K for which this condition occurs is called the
threshold stress intensity, K^; or if due to stress corrosion

cracking.

2.3. 1. 1 Environmental Effects.

The discovery of a unique c* 11 be 80 percent of Kj c or higher

in relatively inert environments; hostile media can reduce the value to less
than half of .

Considerable evidence indicates that sustained load flaw growth is


most severe under conditions of plane strain with values determined

from through-the.thickness cracked specimen tests increasing with a decrease


in specimen thickness.

page 2"i-3>-2.

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMJCS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Studies of flaw growth and stress intensity in aggressive environments

indicate a monotonia relation between increasing stress intensity and growth

rate and design correlations have been determined for the critically important

materials, titanium, and high-strength steels. In these tests for K , a

TH

wide scatter, abnormally short times to failure, and very marked dependence
on environmental characteristics (media and temperature) are encountered.

During the past few years a considerable amount of sustained load


flaw growth data has been obtained on a number of different material-
environment combinations* A summary of some K,^ information is given
in Table £2-5.

2.3.2 Cyclic Load Flaw Growth.

Understanding crack propagation under cyclic loads is a basic require-


ment for the application of fracture mechanics to the design of structures for
service life. Subcritical flaw-growth characteristics for various materials
are generally determined through the laboratory testing of flawed specimens.
These empirical data are then correlated to various crack-propagation theories
which have been proposed. The following is a discussion of some of the more
prominent theories.

2.3.2. 1 Theories.

A number of studies dealing with fatigue crack propagation have shown


that the stress intensity factor K is the most important variable affecting
fatigue crack growth rates. The availability of a master curve for a partic-
ular material relating fatigue crack-growth rate and range of stress-intensity
factor would enable a designer to predict growth rates for any cracked body
configuration.

Numerous 'laws" of fatigue crack growth have been published during


the last 10 years. Basically, all the various equations that have been obtained
are simply the attempt of an individual investigator to obtain a curve that will

page IS. 2. 2
r

Table E2-5. Typical Threshold Stress-Intensity Data for Various


Material- Environment Com hi nations

Malarial

Tama.

CD

(kal)

(kst v la.)

Fluid Eavtroamaat

0AU4V TUanimi
Ton&m - sta

O.T.
O.T.
IUT.

eut,
a-T.

IUT.
IUT.
IUT.
IUT.

•0

laa

110

loo ■

lau

too

10»

1*0

l«o

lati
I Ml
10O

loa
lao
laa
laa

44

44

■J

44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44

Maiaaaai
Froaa M. F.

N-0, (0.3uS NO)


NO), liUfttt'i NO)

H^O (diuiUwd) * NaXrO,

hIu (dUUUud)

Helium. Air. nr COX

Aoroxiau i»

• - - - T t*

2UO, (1.^4 NO)


MJl, |U«Wl'o NO)
Uoaomutiivibrttnxiaa

U.34
■1.3*
U.74

o.n
o. n

U. M

0. **

1I.M2

ii. m
o.Tl
ft. 73
u. 73
0.73

•AMY Ttamtwa
WddMU (Hoai-
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page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

best fit his data. Some have used curve-fitting techniques to obtain a high,
order polynominal to fit the data, others have used a statistics approach, and
still others have divided the data into regions and constructed straight lines
with different slopes in each region.
The choice between equations may be that of simplicity of equation
versus accuracy of flaw-growth prediction given from the equation over the
range of interest. For example, an equation may be very simple and give good
results over a limited range of data, but out of this range the equation may be
quite inaccurate.

Z. Paris.

Paris and Erdogan (Ref. 8) , for example, argued that the growth rate
should be a function of the stress-intensity factor K on the grounds that this
factor defines the elastic stress field around the crack tip. They found that a
large body of data could be fitted by an expression of the form

§ ' « W •

where c is a material constant, AK is the range of stress-intensity factor,


and n is an exponent having a typical value of four for steel.

An example of Paris's equation for a typical steel is shown in Fig.


£2-12. On a log-log plot, the equation becomes a straight line. The slope of
the line is four, which is the value of n. The constant c * 5.6 * lo" 24 is
obtained by substitution of data into the Paris equation and solving for c.
Separate values of the coefficients c and n must be computed for each value
of R (load ratio) because Paris's equation does not have R as a function.

page 2. 3 . 3 . S

fffpUCTURAL A rJA|V^lg MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
10 20 40 « 00 100

fTIIES-INTEMStTY FACTO* RAMGE. AK (WVfeJ

FIGURE E2-X2. FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH RATE VERSUS STRESS-


1NTENSITT FACTOR RANGE FOR AISI 1045 STEEL

pago

STRUCTURAL ANALYSTS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

II. Tore man .

The Paris fourth-power crack growth rate equation was modified by

Foreman et al. (Ref. 9) to account for the observed behavior that crack growth

rates tend to increase rapidly toward an apparent instability as the maximum

applied stress intensity approaches the fracture toughness of the material.


Foreman also modified the Paris law to account for the observed behavior and

to explicitly express the effect of load ratio, R - K /K . The Foreman

min max

expression for plane-stress conditions is

da_ m c (AK) n

dN ' U - R) K - AK »
c

where c and n are constants dependent on material and test conditions.

■ (K^^ - K min ) during a load cycle.

■ plane stress fracture toughness of the material.

A comparison of Paris' a and Foreman's equations was made by Hudson


in Ref. 10 for 2024-T3 and 7075-T6 aluminum. It was found that the 7075-T6
data fell Into an S shape or reflex type of curvature. A reflex curvature is
also obtained from Foreman's equation; it is induced by AK approaching
( 1 - R) K c in the denominator. This Intrinsic shape is the primary reason
for the excellent fit of the data by using Foreman's equation. Paris' s equation
does not provide for this reflex curvature; consequently, the equation cannot
fit the data at high or low growth rates as well as Foreman's equations.

The constant n in Foreman's equation is the slope of the curve in the


straight-line midrange and c is determined from the substitution of data
page 23>.3-l

c T qiirTHRAL ANAIYStS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAWCS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

value into the equation. It should be noted that n and c will change, depend,
ing on the type of plot used. Generally, a log-log plot of AK in pal <Tu7.
and da/dN in microinches/lnch la used.

Foreman's equation for 2219-T87 Is shown In Fig. E2-13 and some


typical values of c and n for other common materials are given In Table

£2-6.

Table E2-6. Crack Propagation Coefficients for Foreman's Equation

c (AK)

da

dN ' (1 - R) K c - AK
da/dN In. /cycle

AKandK pal */"wT


c

Temp.

■ Material

(T)

psl */Tn
2219-T87

R. T.

1.4* 10""

2.5

33, 000

200

1.5 * 10""

2.47

31,600

-320
9.0* lO" 13

2.7

36, 200

TI-6AI-4V

R.T.

7.8 x 10" 14

3.0

81* 000

2024-T3

R.T.

3.22* 10" u
3.38

7075-T6

R. T.

2.13* 10" u

3.21

517A(TI)

The solution of the Foreman equation can be formulated as an initial-


value problem and can be solved by direct numerical integration uaing the
Runge-Kutta method. For most practical problems, an Initial crack sixe Is

page 8

100 0

01
O
*

tA
IP
i

ito

10000

5
3

31
C

r>

c
3j

FIGURE E2-13. CIIACK GROWTH VERSUS STRESS-INTENSITY FACTOR RANGE FOR 2219-T87
o

O
rn

0)
(A

CO

>

<

in

CO

r
known at an initial *alue of N, such as N * 0. The problem is to determine
the crack length (or additionally the stress-intensity factor) after a given
number of cycles.

HI. Tiffany .

An alternate approach to plane-strain flaw-growth rates has been


presented by Tiffany (Ref. 11) . Tiffany noted that the cyclic lives of speci-
mens were primarily a function of the ratio of maximum initial stress intensity
applied to the flaw during the first loading cycle (K^) to the plane-strain
fracture toughness of the material (Kj ) . Accordingly, cyclic life data were
plotted on K^/K^ versus cycles -to-failure graphs, where it was observed
that data for particular test conditions and material-environment combinations
could be reasonably represented by a unique curve. Flaw-growth rates were
computed using the slopes of the cyclic life curves. Because the analysis
required knowledge of only the initial and final conditions for each test, the
Tiffany method was called an end-point analysis. The use of K^/K^ versus
cycles-to-failure curves for practical design problems is common in the
aerospace industry (Ref. 12). Figure E2-U shows a Kj/K^ versus cycles-
to-failure -curve for 2219-T87 at room temperature.

2.3.2.2 Crack Growth Retardation.

I. Wheeler's Retardation Parameter .

The retardation of crack growth is a phenomenon which occurs because


of varying load levels. Retardation has been shown to occur particularly after
a high level of load followed by a lower level of load.

Many papers have discussed crack growth retardation to some extent


but a computational technique has not been presented which is sufficiently
simple and accurate to gain widespread use (Ref. 13) •
page VO

Wheeler (Ref. 13) suggests that more accurate crack growth predictions
can be made by introducing a retardation parameter in the crack growth
equation, which serves to delay the crack growth after a high load application.
His equation for crack length is

where a is the crack length after r load applications, a is the initial

r th
crack length, C is the retardation parameter at i load, and is

P^ th
the change in the stress -Intensity factor at i load. The retardation param-
eter is taken in the following form:

R
R < a

y p

C ■ 1 , and a + R * a
p y P

where R la the extent of the current yield zone, a - a is the distance

y *

from crack tip to elastic -plastic interface (Fig. E2-15) , and m is the shaping
exponent dependent upon material and test data.

This parameter has been used successfully to predict the growth of


cracks in specimens subjected to six different spectra, having three different
physical configurations, and made of two materials (Ref. 13) . It is believed
that this approach represents a useful improvement on the idea of linear
cumulative crack growth, which can be used with confidence in design and
analysis.

page Z3>. V \Z

OTP
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

FIGURE E2-15. CRACK TIP YIELD ZONES

The computational scheme for incorporating this retardation parameter


in crack growth predictions requires that the crack be grown one load applica-
tion at a time. This amounts to a piecewise linearization of a highly nonlinear
process. The use of a high-speed digital computer is obviously required to
perform any realistic analysis. This technique has been Incorporated into
the computer program CRACKS,

n. The Significance of Fatigue Crack Closure .

Recent work by Elber (Refs. 14 and 15) has shown that fatigue cracks
in sheets of aluminum alloy close before all tensile load is removed. Significant
compressive stresses are transmitted across the crack at zero load. In pre-
vious work, usually the assumption has been made implicitly that a crack is
closed under compressive loads and open under tensile loads. The deter-
mination of the crack closure stress must, therefore, be a necessary step in
the stress analysis of a cracked structure.

page 2.3.3 J 3

CTPIirVTURAL ANA1VSIS MAMUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Elber (Ref. 15) obtains an empirical relation for the crack opening
stress level and uses it as a basis for a crack propagation equation. The
analysis of qualitative experiments on variable amplitude loading shows that
the crack closure phenomenon could account for acceleration and retardation
effects in crack propagation.

Crack closure stress can be explained by the existence of a zone of


material behind the crack tip having residual tensile strains. In Fig. E2-16
a fatigue crack produced under constant amplitude loading is shown at three
crack lengths. Figure E2-16a shows

CAACX

/ ^m-BOUC PLASTIC ZOWI

the crack tip surrounded by a plastic


zone as It is represented normally.
Figure E2-16b shows the crack at a
greater crack length surrounded by a
la r ger plastic zone because the stress
Intensity is higher. The plastic zone
of Figure E2-16a has been retained
to show that the material had been
subjected previously to plastic defor-
mations. Figure E2-16c represents
the crack surrounded by the envelope
of all zones which during crack growth
had been subjected to plastic defor-
mations. During a single cycle of
crack growth, residual tensile defor-
mations are left in the material

behind the moving crack front, as only elastic recovery occurs after separation
of the surfaces.

tNVtLOFC OF ALL
PLASTIC ZONES

FIGURE E2-16. DEVELOPMENT OF


A PLASTIC ZONE AROUND A
FATIGUE CRACK

page 2 3.1. \4>

STRUCTURAL ftNftl VS1S MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
Crack propagation can occur only during that portion of the losding
cycle in which the crack is fully open at the crack tip; therefore, in attempting
to analytically predict crack propagation rates, it seems reasonable that the
crack opening stress level should be used as a reference stress level from
which an effective stress range could be obtained. The effective stress range
is defined there as

AS , « S - S
eff max op

where S is the crack opening stress,


op

An effective stress range ratio is then defined as

(S - S )
max op

u " Is TT77

v max min

Constant amplitude loading tests were conducted to establish the


relationship between U and three variables which were anticipated to have
a significant effect on U , namely, stress-intensity range, crack length, am
stress ratio.

For the given range of testing conditions, only the stress ratio R is
significant variable. The relation between U and R is linear and can be
expressed as

U - 0.5 + 0.4 R where -0.1<R<0.7


for 2024-T3 aluminum alloy.

page ?S.3.lS

«5 TB nryniRAl ANAI YSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

One of the most important problem* in aircraft structures is the inability


to predict accurately the rate of fatigue crack propagation under variable ampli-
tude loading- In attempts to calculate these crack rates on the basis of constant
amplitude data, interaction effects are usually ignored, leading to errors of
significant magnitude.

Crack closure may be a significant factor in causing these interaction


effects. This can be shown by the following example. Assume that a crack
in 2024-T3 aluminum is propagating under the conditions R - 0 and ■ ^

20 MN/m 3 / 5 . Under these conditions the crack opening level is at K Qp -


10 MN/m 3 / 5 . If the stress-intensity range suddenly is halved, the new con-
ditions are K - 10 MN/m 3 / 1 and R« 0. The crack opening level, how.
max

ever is stiU at K - 10 MN/m 3 / 2 , equal to the new peak stress intensity,


* op

so the crack does not open. Therefore, the crack does not propagate until
the crack opening level changes. The behavior of the crack opening stress
level under variable amplitude loading must therefore be investigated.

It has been observed that a crack will continue to grow for some time
after a high load application followed by loads of smaller magnitude. This has
been termed delayed retardation. Such retardation of crack growth after a
single high load can be explained by examining the behavior of the large plastic
zone left by the high-load cycle ahead of the crack tip. The elastic material
surrounding this plastic zone acts like a clamp on this zone, causing the
compressive residual stresses. As long as this plastic zone is ahead of the
crack tip, this clamping action does not influence the crack opening. As the
crack propagates Into the plastic zone, the clamping action will act on the
new fracture surfaces. This clamping action, which builds up as the crack
propagates into the plastic zone, requires a larger, externally applied stress
to open the crack; hence, the crack will propagate at a decreasing rate into
this zone and may come to a standstill.

page 22>.2>.l£
STRUCTURAL A NALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

2.3.2.3 Transition from Partial-Thickness Cracks to Through- Thickness

It was shown in Section 2.2 that the stress intensity was different for
partial-thickness cracks and for through-the-thickness cracks. Also, for
through-the-thickness cracks, corrections must be made for a finite plate
within the stress intensity equation (Table £2-3, Case 13).

Often in crack propagation problems a crack will initially be a partial-


thickness crack and will grow until It extends through the thickness. When
this occurs, corrections in the stress-intensity expression must be made.

The transition from a surface flaw to a through crack is chosen to


be the point when the plastic zone reaches the back face of the material. The
value of a (crack length) for which this occurs is given as

Ttfiany and Masters (Ref 1) hypothesized that below the sustained stress

threshold stress-intensity value (K___) , cyclic speed (or hold time at maximum

load) probably would not affect the cyclic flaw growth rate, but above

it could have a large affect. In other words, the minimum cyclic life was

limited to the number of cycles required to increase the initial stress intensity
YL, to the K__ value, and above the K^ T level, failure could occur in
Ii TH TH

one additional cycle if the hold time were sufficiently long-


To date there is only a limited amount of experimental data to sub-
stantiate this prediction. However, the data do tend to support the original
Tiffany-Masters hypothesis of no significant effect of cyclic speed on flaw
growth rates below the sustained stress threshold stress intensity.

Cracks.

2.3.3

Combined Cyclic and Sustained Flaw Growth.

page 12 .3. Yl

fiTRUCTUP Al ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1.3 Reference 5


i.4 APPUCATION OF FRACTURE MECHANICS TECHNOLOGY.

2.4.1 Selection of Materials.

In the material selection and design of a tension-loaded structure, such


as a pressure vessel, the following questions must be considered:

1. What are the critical flaw sizes (sizes which cause failure) in the
different parts of the structure at expected operational stress levels ?

2. What are the tpa**™*"" initial flaw sizes likely to exist in the
structure before service?

3. Will these initial flaws grow to critical size and cause failure
during the expected service life of the structure ?

The answers to these questions depend heavily upon the inherent


fracture toughness and subcritical flaw-growth characteristics of the structural
material. Fracture toughness data derived from test specimens are used in
fracture mechanics analysis to predict critical flaw sizes, evaluate subcritical
flaw growth, and estimate structural life. They can also be used to determine
the maximum possible initial flaw size in a structure after a proof load.

As previously mentioned (Section 2.2). the types of flaws encountered


in fabricated structures can be categorized as surface flaws, embedded flaws,
and through-the-thickness cracks. For surface and embedded flaws, the
degree of constraint at the crack leading edge is high, and plane-strain con.
ditions generally prevail. The initial flaws may or may not reach critical
size before growing through the thickness, depending upon the plane -strain
fracture toughness (K^ value, the applied stress levels, and the material
thickness. If the calculated critical flaw size is small with respect to the
wall thickness, the formation of a through-the-thickness crack before frac-
ture is not likely.
page 21*4-. )

STRUCTURAL AN ALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DtVtSiON

For through-the-thickness cracks, the mode of fracture for a given


material, stress level, a ad test temperature depends upon the material thick-
ness. If the material is relatively thin, plane-stress conditions generally
predominate. With increasing thickness, the fracture appearance changes
from that of full shear to an essentially flat or plane-strain fracture. Thus,
for thin sections containing through -the -thickness cracks, the plane-stress

fracture thoughness (K ) values are important, and as the thickness is

increased the plane-strain (Kj c ) values should be used. The theory of this
has been discussed in detail (Section 2.2.2) .

The common types of fracture specimens and their requirements have


also been discussed (Section 2.2.3) . It is appropriate to point out the signifi-
cance of end-hardware application and material anisotropy on specimen selec-
tion and to show fracture-toughness correlations among several of the more
common specimens.

Just as conventional mechanical properties generally vary to some


degree among various forms and grain directions in a given basic alloy, it
has been found from fracture tests performed thus far on various materials
that fracture toughness values also vary. In a rolled plate or forging, six
directions of flaw propagation are possible, and plane-strain toughness (K^ c )
values may differ in each of these directions (Fig. £2-17) . The need to
determine the values in each of these directions depends on the direction
of the applied stresses In the hardware.

Considering the banding and delamination problems In some thick


plates, it appears that the values can be different between the A and
B directions and, likewise, the C and D directions. This has actually
been found to be the case from investigation (Ref. 16) and tends to explain
the differences in values obtained using surface-flawed and round-notched
bar or single -edge-notched fracture specimens. The surface-flawed specimen

£77

page 2 3 . 4- . Z

fiJflUCTURA l ftNftlVglS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

LONGITUDINAL
TRANSVERSE*

SHORT
TRANSVERSE

A • F: DIRECTIONS OF FLAW PROPAGATION


•GRAIN DIRECTION

FIGURE E2-17. STRESS FIELD, GRAIN DIRECTIONS, AND


POSSIBLE DIRECTIONS OF FLAW PROPAGATION

Is normally used to measure toughness in either the A or C directions , and


the single-edge-uotched or center-cracked (pop-in) specimens measure
toughness in the B or D directions. The round notched bar ( removed so
that its longitudinal axis is parallel to the plate surface) measures the lower
of either the A or B directions or the lower of either the C or D direc-
tions. For material where there are no pronounced directional effects, the
same toughness should be obtained regardless of which specimen is used.
In the short transverse direction of materials, there appears to be no reason
for a significant difference in values between the E and F "directions,
although there is no apparent experimental substantiation of mis.

paga 23. 4r* 3


STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

For weldments, it is known that tnere can be differences in fracture


toughness between the weld centerline and the heat-affected zone. In addition,
it is considered probable that fracture toughness as well as subcritical flaw
growth characteristics vary within the heat-affected zone so that for the

be determined.

The foregoing discussion makes clear the necessity for insuring the
use of comparable valid fracture toughness and subcritical flaw growth data
when they are available, or the selection of proper specimen types to obtain
the desired directional data, in comparing materials for selection. While
round-notched-bar specimens might be considered desirable because they
automatically obtain the lower toughness values in either the A or B direc-
tions or the lower in either the C or D directions, it may not always be
possible to use the specimen type because of material thickness limitations
(i.e., the required specimen diameter for valid K_ exceeds the hardware

wall thickness) . In such a case, the single-edge-notched specimen might


be used for toughness in the B and D directions and the surface-flawed
specimen in the A and C directions.

In summary, it presently appears that there is no single "best fracture


specimen" to use in all situations where toughness data are needed for material
comparisons and selection, nor is such required. Of primary importance
is that the selected specimen toughness data for different materials provide
a valid comparison for selection and be representative of toughness and Claw
growth characteristics of the material as used in the hardware application.

2.4.1.1 Static Loading.

An evaluation of the resistance of materials to catastrophic brittle


fracture requires the following basic material properties:

establishment of realistic allowable flaw sizes, the minimum

values must

page 2.

CTPlltrrURAL ANAIVSIS MANUAL

1. Plane-strain fracture toughness,

2. Conventional tensile yield strength, v ^


An evaluation of materials based on the data accumulated from test
specimens can be Illustrated best by using a hypothetical example.

I. Example Problem A.

Three materials - a steeL a titanium, and an aluminum alloy _ are


initially selected as potential candidate materials for minimum weight design.
The yield strength of each is chosen to attain nearly equivalent strength/weight
ratios. The yield strengths and values obtained from the tested specimens
and design requirement are shown In the following table.

Alloy

Density

(lb/in. 3 )

(ksl)

a /Density

x 1000
(in-)

(ksi*/TnT)
Applied Stress

1/2 *ys
(tai)

Steel

0.284

250

880

100

125

Aluminum

0.098

85
870

30

42.5

>

Titanium

0.163

140

860

80

70

Assume that
1. The defect is a semieUiptical surface flaw with a/2c - 0.2.

2. The defect is located in a thick plate loaded in tension.

To decide which material provides the most fracture resistance is to


establish which material require, the largest critical flaw size for catastrophic
fracture.

For "thick walled" structures critical flaw sizes can be determined


from the foUowing equation:

page 23. A- 5

STRUCTURAL ANALYSI S MANUAL •


GENERAL D YNA MICS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

or

where the shape factor parameter can be obtained from Fig. E2-5. For this
comparison, Q» 1.26.

The results are shown in the following table.


Alloy

Depth, a

cr

(in.)

Length, 2c
(in.)

Steel

0.212

1.06

A luminum

0.165

0.83
Titanium

0.432

2.16

Conclusion .

The titanium alloy is most fracture resistant in terms of requiring


the largest critical flaw size defect, a , for catastrophic fracture.

This conclusion could have been reached by considering the /cr


ratios for the various materials shown in the following table.

Alloy

K_ /<r (WlnT)
ic ys

Steel

Aluminum

Titanium
0.400
0.353
0.572

page

f T RHCTURAL ANAIYSTS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

The titanium, having the highest K^/ff^ ratio, could be expected to


be the toughest material lor the given application-
Tiffany and Masters (Ref. 17) showed that for screening several
materials, Kj data are often plotted as shown in Fig. £2-18a. Recognizing
that the operating stress levels are generally controlled to a fixed percentage
of the unflawed tensile strength by the design safety factor, the data shown in
Fig. E2-18a might be more appropriately plotted as shown inTig; E2-18b.
The ordinate is directly proportional to the critical flaw size, thus placing
the influence of varying materials strength in better perspective. From
Fig. E2-18b the three materials can be compared upon the basis of equal
critical flaw size. For example, structures designed from a 200-ksi steeL,
a 135-ksi titanium, and a 70-ksi aluminum would all have approximately the
same critical flaw size. Considering the effect of weight, one might wish to
make the comparison shown in Fig. E2-18c. This shows that titanium pro-
vides a somewhat lighter tank on the basis of equal flaw size.
Based on considerations of the practical capability of available
nondestructive inspection (NDI) techniques, the resistance to catastrophic
fracture could also be evaluated by calculating the maximum allowable applied
stress for equivalent defects in each material.

Reevaluate the preceding example, assuming that the minimum


detectable flaw is 0. 15 in. deep by 0.75 in. long.

Rearranging the basic equation results in


9 * 1.21* (a)

The resulting critical fracture stresses and other pertinent information are
summarized in the following table*

page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

ISO

100
2 50

ALUMINUM

TITANIUM ^\

STEEL

50

100

150 200

250 300
ULTIMATE STRENGTH (F^) Oui)

1.5

4-'

OS

■" i

TITANIUM
alum?nw^5s

s^STEEL

50 100

150 200 250 300

ULTIMATE STRENGTH (F^) Oui)

1.5

i TO
OS

ALU

M1NUM--£

VV y STEEL

ITANIUM
0 50 100 ISO 200 250

EQUIVALENT ULTIMATE STRENGTH IN STEEL


C.

FIGURE E2-18. MATERIAL COMPARISONS (BASE METAL,


ROOM -TEMPERATURE TRENDS)

300

page 23.4-. &

pTHIICTURAL AM AIYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

AUoy

(ksi)

Design Stress
0.5 a

(ksi)

Fracture Stress
(ksi)

Safety Factor
(T/0.5<r ys

' Steel

250

125

144

1.15
Aluminum

85

42.5

43

1.01

140

70

112

1.60

From the above data It Is apparent that the titanium provided the
greatest safety factor and resistance to fracture.

2.4.1-2 Cyclic or Sustained Loading.

An evaluation of the resistance of materials to fracture requires the


consideration of the crack growth rate characteristics in addition to other
material properties.

Some examples of data obtained from tests are shown in Figs. E2-19
and E2-20 (Ref. 18) . The realistic and practical approach for comparing
materials is to evaluate their crack growth characteristics under a given
application condition. Let us consider the following hypothetical example.

1. Example Problem A.

1. Materials to be considered are the steel and aluminum alloys for


which the data are given in Figs. E2-19 and E2-20.

2. The component of interest is a thick plate cyclic loaded in tension


under stresses that vary from zero to maximum tension during each cycle.

3. The design Axes c as one-half the yield strength for each


material: 88 ksi for steel and 32 ksi for aluminum.

4. The worst possible type of flaw that Is envisioned is a semi-


elliptical surface flaw with a /2c - 0.20.

.J
page ^S.A-•9

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAUICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

5 »

0' ' ' 1 — L — 1 ' ' 1 — I— J 1 1 I — LJ

1 2 4«S 10 20 40 N 100 200 400 800 1000

CRACX GROWTH RATI Am/ AN (rmWIOOO cyd«J

FIGURE E2-19. CRACK GROWTH RATE FOR HP -9-4-25 STEEL

1 I 1 ill I 1 | — | — | 1

707»-TB ALUMINUM. 1.0 in. THICK

1 2 4 • S 10 20 40 00 100 200 400

CRACK GROWTH RATE AmJAH (miia/1000 cYdit)


FIGURE E2-20. CRACK GROWTH RATE FOR 7079-T6 ALUMINUM

page 10

yrnnrrniHAL anai YSIS MANUAL

GENERAL DYNAM1CS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DMS10N

5. The m1r<™"™ sire flaw that could be detected by the NDI technique
15 0.13 In. deep by 0.72 in. long. Therefore, each material la assumed to
contain this flaw.

Under these circumstances, which material has the longest life?

Solution.

Step 1. The first step is to compute the value of the initial stress
intensity, 1^, for each material for the prevailing conditions of defect size
and stress. The appropriate expression for 1^ for the stipulated defect and
component geometry is

where
a - crack* 0.15 in. - specified,

- appUed stress (maximum during cycle) - 1/2 cr^ each materia*


steel « 88 ksi, aluminum - 32 ksi,

<r * yield strength, steel - 175 ksi, al u mi nu m - 65 ksi,

and

q • 1.26 for specified flaw geometry.


The calculations reveal the following:

, 1,21 t (0.15) (88 000)*


1C li " 1^26

page 2£.<KM

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

and
1^ ■ 59 000 psi sTlnT
for steel, and

and

„ 2 m 1.21 ir (0.15) (32 OOP) 3


^i * 1.26

- 21 500 pai ^^in^

for aluminum.

The crack growth rates for the two materials at the beginning of life
can now be determined from Figs. E2-19 and E2-20 using their respective
Kj values for the imposed conditions. The results are shown in the following

table.
Alloy

(pal VIST)

Crack Growth Rates


(mils /cycle)

Steel

Aluminum

59 000
21 500

0.035
0.030

However, a knowledge of the crack gro w th rates at the beginning of


life Is not sufficient to determine the respective life expectancy of each
material. One must consider the change in Kj and the associated change in
crack growth rates for each material as the crack grows during service as
well as the threshold stress intensity, K TH -
page 22>.4->l2.

c^pnrTURAL ANAIYS1S MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIB AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION ^

Step 2. The growth rate data Illustrated in the form shown in Figs.
E2-21 and E2-22 (Ref. 18) provide a convenient method for evaluating the life
expectancy without becoming Intimately involved with changes in and
growth rates. Figures E2-21 and E2-22 are constructed from the same basic
test data as were used to construct Figs. E2-19 and E2-20. To utilize Figs.
E2-21 and E2-22 it is necessary to know the ratio of to K^. The previous
calculations in Step 1 showed that Kj Is 59 ksi ^HnT for steel and 21.5 ksi
N T[£7 for aluminum. Since the Kj values for each material were known
from static toughness tests, the I^/K^ ratios are readily determined:

he

59 000

144 000

for steel, and


*!! 21 500

34 000

for aluminum.

The cyclic life corresponding to these K^/K^ values may be deter-


mined directly from Figs. E2-21 and E2-22 - steel, 1800 cycles, and
aluminum, 4000 cycles, If the time at maximum stress is short during each
cycle.

Thus, for this specific example where both materials contained the
same given sixe and type of defect and both were stressed to one-half their
yield strengths, the aluminum has the greatest life expectancy.

It should be emphasized that the result of this example cannot be used


to generalize the relative behavior of the two materials. For other conditions
of initial defect sizes and/or applied stresses, it Is possible that the steel

page 23.4-.l2

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
13
03

0.7 *

> 03

0J

03

0.1

i i n i i i n

HP*4-25 STEEL, 13 in, THICK

Ku- 144 toft/In. 03% YX - 17B U


ROOM TEMPERATURE DATA (73*F)

0.1 02 0.4 03031 2 4 0 i 10 20 40


N. MO. OP CYCLES TO FAILURE x 1<T a

FIGURE E2-21. COMBINED CYCLIC FLAW GROWTH DATA FOR


HP -9-4-25 STEEL PLATE

13
03
03

0.7

03

03
&4

03
03
0.1
0
b

111 I II
3 AT < 100 CYCLES
T)79.Ti ALUMINUM, 13 in. THICK

\ ROO

j* nvtn. T.J. -
M TEMPERATURE DATA
SB ka

75" F1
4 • S 10 20 40 40 100

N, NO. OP CYCLES TO FAILURE x 10**


200 400

FIGURE E2-22.

COMBINED CYCLIC FLAW GROWTH DATA FOR


7079-T6 ALUMINUM PLATE

page 2.3>,4-.14-

could have the greater life expectancy. This is demonstrated In the foUowtng
table, which shows the life expectancy of the two materials for a wide range
of initial defect sizes and for a constant applied stress of « ^J**

Initial
Defect
Depth
a i
(in-)

Initial Stress-
Intensity Factor

0. 05
0.07
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25

5l

he

Cycles to Failure
N

( life Expectancy)

Steel
Aluminum

Steel

Aluminum

Steel

Aluminum

19.6

7.2

0.136

0.210

»300 x 10 3

300 x 10 3
27.5

10.1

0.191

0.297

>100 x 10 3

100 x 10 3

39.4

14.3

0.274

0.420

30 x 10 3
21 x 10 3

59.0

21.5

0.410

0.632

1.8 x 10 3

4X 10 3

78.8

28.7

0.540

0.845
0.37 x 10 3

1.5 x 10 3

98.4

35.9

0.683

>1.0

0.25 x 10 3

From the table it la seen that when the Initial defect depth is 0. 15 in.
or larger, the aluminum will have the longer life N. However, when the
initial defect depth is 0.10 in. or smaller, the steel will have the greater life
expectancy. Although the steel has the larger absolute value of fracture
toughness. K^, and therefore has the largest critical crack size for
catastrophic failure, it also has a greater crack growth rate for a given
change In K as seen from the differences in slope of the growth rate curves
shown in Figs. E2-23 and E2-24 (ReL 18) . Therefore, it is possible to have
a "crossover" situation between the life expectancies of steel and aluminum,
as noted in the table.

Again, the life expectancies in preceding table reflect short time at


maximum cyclic stress. If the time at maximum stress is long, the portion
of time that the stress-intensity level is above the threshold stress intensities

page ^

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

300

100
M

10
r >*-9-4-23 SIT

avg. critic*

FACTOR Ki
ROOM THMPE

EL.1.0«
kLSTRf
144 S
RATUR

n.

sa
E 1

THICK 0.2% YX- 175 fcai


tlKTEMSlTY

>/m.

3ATA HW1
io*

io-J

CRACK GROWTH RATE — (mJeyt*)

FIGURE E2-23,

CRACK GROWTH RATE AS A FUNCTION OF STRESS


INTENSITY FOR HP -9-4-25 STEEL

FIGURE E2-24. CRACK GROWTH RATE AS A FUNCTION OF STRESS


INTENSITY FOR 7079-T6 ALUMINUM
page 23. U-^

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GENEBAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

for the steel and aluminum would cause reductions in the cyclic lives for the
different initial defect sizes.

The materials could also be compared in another manner by using the


data provided in Figs- E2-21 and £2-22 to answer the question of which
material could tolerate the largest initial defect (of a given type) that would
not grow to a critical size during some given minimum lifetime for the
component.

II. Example Problem B.

Known Information:

Plate cyclic loaded (sinusoidal) in tension.


Required life — 50 000 cycles.

Applied stress (maximum stress during cycle) one-half yield


strength:

steel - 38 000 psi.


aluminum ■ 32 000 psi.
Type of defect — semielliptical surface flaw with a/c ■ 0.4.

Fracture toughness, K^:


steel - 144 000 psi sfin!
aluminum - 34 000 psi nHSI

Unknown Information: Which material can tolerate the largest initial

defect?
Solution.

Step 1. From Figs. E2-21 and E2-22, find the l^/K^ ratio
corresponding to the desired life of 50 000 cycles:

at 50 000 cycles - 0.25

^c

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STRUCTURAL A NALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
for steel; and

hi

— — at 50 000 cycles ■ 0.34

for aluminum.

Step 2. Knowing the Kj and K^/K ratio corresponding to 50 000


cycles, solve for K^:

» 0.25 - 0.25 (144 00Opsi*JinT) - 36 000 psi VlnT


for steel, and

1^ - 0.34 - 0.34 (34 000 psi */lnT) - 11 500 psi ^TinT


for aluminum.

Step 3. Since depends upon stress and defect size, it is now


possible to solve for defect size knowing stress. For semieUiptical surface

defects with a/c * 0.4, the following expression is appropriate:

a. *
i 1*21 ir 0-2

for steel,

m (36 000) a (1.26)


a i * 1.21 -x (88 000)2

page Il>.^-l2>

CTflt fTTURAL A NA' V^'g MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIft AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

and
a^ ■ 0,056 in.

when the defect is 0. 056 la. deep by 0.28 in. long; for aluminum,

m (11 S00) : (1-26)


8 i * 1.21 * (32 OOO)^

and

a i - 0.043 in.

when the defect is 0.043 in. deep by 0.215 in. long.

Thus, It ia apparent that for the condition imposed, the steel could
tolerate a slightly larger initial defect than could the aluminum. Since the
difference In the maximum allowable Initial defect size is not great, the
ultimate choice of a material for this situation may depend more heavily on
other comparative factors, i.e., the applicability and capability of NDI
techniques, the type and size of insidious defects as related to the maximum
allowable initial defect size, availability, ease of fabrication, costs, etc.
2.4.2 Predicting Critical Flaw Sizes .

As mentioned in Section 2.2.3, plane -strain stress intensity (K^)


values can be obtained from several types of specimens. With valid data for a
given material form, heat treatment, test temperature, and environment,
critical flaw sizes can be calculated for given hardware operating stresses.
The engineering usefulness of the basic stress-Intensity concept In the pre-
diction of critical flaw sizes and the use of a/Q to describe flaw size has

page Z"2>»4-'*^

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

been supported by a number of hardware correlations, some of which are


shown in Refs. 17 and 19. Comparisons between measured critical flaw
sizes on test hardware and predicted critical flaw sizes based on test speci-
men plane-strain toughness data have shown good correlation.

From the equation shown In Fig. £2-6, it is apparent that critical flaw
size is equally as dependent on applied stress as on the material fracture
toughness. The following sections show approaches for calculating critical
flaw sizes for the three basic types of initial flaws (surface, embedded, or
through-the -thickness) based on the appropriate fracture toughness values
measured from valid specimen tests.

2.4.2.1 Surface Cracks.


Calculations for surface flaws can be carried out by rearranging the
stress-intensity equation developed by Irwin (Section 2.2. l) ,

for a "thick-walled" structure (i.e. , flaw depth less than half of the material

thickness) where is the plane-strain fracture toughness obtained from

fracture toughness specimen tests, a is the applied stress in structure

normal to the plane of flaw, is the critical flaw depth, Q is the flaw

shape parameter (obtained from Fig. E2-5) , and (a/Q) is critical flaw

cr

size.

Since the flaw size is an unknown quantity, it is necessary to assume


a flaw aspect ratio, a/2c , to determine Q. Using the preceding equation,
the critical flaw depth, a , can be determined for a specific value of <7
and K^.

page

^ypnr-niHAi ANAI YSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAm AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

I. Example Problem A .

Aluminum alloy 2219-TS7 la selected aa the material for uae in a


20-in. -diam spherical gas bottle. The bottle Is to operate at 4000 psig and
be stored in a liquid-nitrogen propeilant tank.

What is the critical flaw size?

A. Assumptions.

1. The defect is a semielliptical surface flaw with a/2c - 0.2.

2. The operating stress la a ■ 80 percent (yield strength of the

material) •

B. Solution.

The yield strength and K Jc values obtained from the tested speci-
mens are as fallows:

9 * 60 ksi

and
Kj c - 37 ksi -JTnT

The operating stress is

e ■ 0.80 (cr ) - 0.80 (60) » 48 ksi

The wall thickness required is

req

PR m (4000) (10)
2ff " (2) (48 000)

- 0.417 in.

page 2^* ^2.


STRUCTURAL A NALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

For thick-wrlled structures,

. _o_ ( V}'

a cr * 1.21 ir \ <r / • 9

where the shape parameter Q can be found from Fig. E2-5. For this problem
Q- 1.18; then

a . I; 1 * ■ (SLY m o,184 in.

cr 1.21 (ir) \48/

and

2c • a/0.20 - 0.184/0.2 ■ 0.92 In.

For surface flaws that are deep with respect to material thickness,
the flaw magnification factor, M^, can be applied to give a more accurate
critical flaw size,

for thin-walled structures.


II. Example Problem B .

Use the same design that was shown in Example Problem A except that
the spherical diameter of the bottle is 15 in. The wall thickness required is

m PR 4000 (7.5) m .
t ■ — — » „ ; ■ 0.313 in.

req 2ff 2 (48 000)

page 2S.<K*2.

fl T pnryruRAL A ^fll v*is manual

GENERAL DYNAUICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

For thin-walled structures,

a
cr

Flaw magnification factors, M k> for the 2219-T87 aluminum are available
from Fig. E2-8. Since the critical flaw depth,, a , is unknown, a "trial-and-
error" iterative solution Is necessary to determine the magnification factor
corresponding to the critical flaw depth.

Without a magnification factor, a ■ 0.184 in. (Example Problem A).

cr

For a/t- 0.184/0.313 • 0.59, M. ■ 1.21,

- 0.126 in. < 0.184 in.

0.184 * 0-126
2
0. 155 in.

Take an average a ■

For a/t - 0.155/0.313 - 0.50, M, - 1.15,

Take an average a -

0.155 + 0.139
2

• 0.147 in.

For a/t - 0.147/0.313 - 0.47, M,


Further reiteration wiU provide more accuracy if desired.

page 23^.^

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STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMJCS/CONVAJR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

If adequate flaw magnification values are not available for a particular


material, a reasonable estimate for is the approximate Kobayashi solu-
tion shown in Fig. £2-25. However, It should be understood that its use can
result in somewhat conservative answers for more ductile materials and
perhaps unconservative answers for more brittle materials.

2.4.2.2 Embedded Flaws.

The calculations for embedded flaws in thick-walled structures will


be the same as for surface flaws except that a is the one-half critical

flaw depth of the embedded flaw, and the correction factor of 1.21 for the
effect on stress intensity of the stress-free surface (Section 2.2.1) is elimi-
nated. Thus the equation for one-half critical internal flaw size Is
Although flaw magnification effects have been studied for deep surface
flaws, apparently no similar research has been done for internal flaws with
large flaw-depth-to-material-thickness ratios. The fact that internal flaws
are hidden, making their size difficult If not impossible to accurately deter-
mine, presents a problem in the study of Internal flaw magnification effects.
The assumption might be made that the same flaw magnification factors,
M^, used for deep surface flaws might be applied to the equation for critical
embedded flaw sizes. However, there is no evidence of how conservative or
unconservative this assumption is.

On the other hand, to account for the lack of knowledge about flaw
geometry and orientation, it can be conservatively assumed that flaws are
surface (or barely subsurface) flaws and that they are long in relation to
depth (Q * 1.0).

cr

page LV^.ZV


2

Q
0>

m
•<

c
r>

H
C
31

-<

>
z

(A

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

2.4.2.3 Through-the-Thickness Cracks.


r

To calculate through-the-thickness critical crack length, the basic


plane stress equation for through-the-thickness cracks in an infinitely wide
plate (Section 2.2.2.1) can be rearranged to give

V» ■ $(t)' - •

where is the plane stress fracture toughness obtained from an edge-


notched or center -era eked specimen, a Is the applied stress in the structure
normal to the plane of the crack, <J ^ is the tensile yield strength of the
material, and I is the critical crack length.
I. Example Problem A .

Aluminum alloy 2219-T87 is selected as the material for use in a 15-


In. diameter compressed air eye Under. The cylinder is to operate at 1000
psig in ambient room atmosphere.

What is the critical flaw size?

A . As sumptions .

1. The defect is a semielliptical surface flaw with a/2c *

0.2.

2. The operating stress is c * SO percent of material

yield strength.

B. Solution.

The yield strength and


mens are as follows:

<r « 50 ksi

Kj c values obtained from test speci-

page 2V<k2Q»
and

- 32 ksi *J in.

An estimate of K versus material thickness based on

2219-T87 test specimens is shown in Fig. £2-26 (Refs. 20 and 21) .

The operating stress Is

c - 0.80 (ff ) - 0.80 (50) - 40 ksi

The wall thickness required is

. PR . 1000 (7.5) . 0 198iaj


req <7 40 000

For thick-walled structures.

fl cr " 1.21 v \ a /
From Fig. E2-5, Q- 1-18; then

Therefore, the critical flaw is apparently a through-the-thickness crack and


the tank will leak before failure. The critical crack length of failure is pre-
dicted to be

page ll-t+.Zl

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

1.0
2-0

f tin.)

FIGURE E2-26. ESTIMATE OF K VERSUS t FOR 2219-T87 ALUMINUM

(T- 7<TF, Kj c - 32.0 ksi^/^n^)

7^3

page 2a.<hlS

^pnrTimAL ANAIYSIS MANUAL

GENERAL DYNAMICS/CON J Am AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION


The pUne-atress fracture toughness value, K c> from Fig. E2-26,
Is 84 ksi < In.

, . £ /S±V - if— V - 2.81 - 0.91 - l.Wln. .


cr *\ 50 /

2.4.3 Structure Design.

2.4.3.1 Service Life Requirements and Predictions.

With pressure cycles and time at stress, an Initial flaw or defect In a


structure will grow In size until It attains the critical size at the applied oper-
ating stress level, and failure will result. The flaw-growth potential (In
inches) is equal to the critical size minus the Initial size. The life of the
structure directly depends upon this flaw-growth potential and the subc ritical
flaw-growth characteristics of the material.

The determination of the initial flaw sizes generally relies upon the
use of NDI procedures; however, the conventional proof test can be considered
to be one of the most positive Inspection procedures available. A successful
proof test actually defines the maximum possible initial flaw size that exists
in the vessel. This results from the functional relationship between stress
level and flaw size as defined by the critical stress intensity (K^) and illus-
trated In Fig. E2-6.

Probably the most predominant types of subcritical flaw growth are


fatigue growth resulting from cyclic stress and environmentally Induced
sustained stress growth. Also, growth may occur even in the absence of
severe environmental effects If the Initial flaw size approaches the critical
flaw size.
page l^AX^

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DtVtSlON

The technique used for predicting the subcritical cyclic or sustained


stress flaw growth makes use of fracture specimen testing and the stress-
intensity concept.

It has been shown (Refs. 6 and 17) that the time or cycles to failure at
a given maximum applied gross stress level depends on the magnitude of the
initial stress intensity at the flaw tip, K^, compared with the critical stress
Intensity, (that is, cycles or time to failure - f (K^/K^) 1 . Also, it is

seen that the ratio of initial flaw size to critical Gaw size is related to the
stress-intensity ratio as follows:

Thus, if cyclic or sustained stress fracture specimens are used to


obtain experimentally the K^/Kj versus cycles or time curves for a material,
the cycles or time required for any given initial flaw to grow to critical size
can be predicted- Conversely, if the required life of the structure is known
in terms of stress cycles or time at stress, the maximum allowable initial
flaw size can be determined.

The cyclic flaw-growth data are plotted in terms of stress-intensity


ratio, Kj./Kj c , versus log of cycles, as shown schematically in Fig. E2-27a.
By squaring the ordinate value, the plot of the ratio of initial flaw size to
critical flaw size versus the log of cycles (Fig. E2-27b) can be obtained. It
should also be recognized that flaw size can be determined after any incre-
mental number of cycles. For example, if the initial flaw-size ratio was
0.40, the flaw would have grown in A cycles, increasing the ratio to 0.6;
in B cycles, it would have grown to 0.8, etc.

page 21.4-.2>o

CTfftlCTUHAL 4 Nfl|Y*'S MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

1J>
OJ

Q-2

10 100
CYCLES
1000

1000

FIGURE E2-27. SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF CYCLIC

FLAW GROWTH

Cyclic flaw-growth data have been obtained on a number of materials


used in the aerospace Industry. Some such data are shown In Figs. E2-28
and E2-29.

The application of fracture -specimen testing to define the effects of


sustained load on flaw growth Is essentially the same as used In defining cyclic
flaw growth. A constant load is applied to a flawed specimen such that the
initial stress intensity is less than the critical value and the time to failure
is recorded. The I^/K^ values are computed and the ^/K^ ratio is
plotted versus log of time to failure.

Plots of Kjj/Kjg versus log of time for most materials indicate the
existence of a threshold stress-intensity level below which sustained stress
growth does not occur. Figure E2-30 shows data for 17-7 PH steel tested in
both dry and wet environments, and Fig. E2 -31 shows surface-flawed speci-
men data for 2219-T87 aluminum tested in liquid nitrogen. In neither case
does It seem that the environment played an important role in the sustained
stress growth. In both cases the apparent threshold stress-intensity levels
are quite high*
page i-S^.Sl

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

1.0

NOTES: 1. BASE METAL: 1JWn. THICK 221B-TS7 PLATE


2. FRACTURE SPECIMEN: SURFACE FLAWED

^ LOAD SPECTRUM

o 0J0

0.70

10 100
NUMBER OF CYCLES TO FAILURE
1000

FIGURE E2-2S. BASE METAL CYCLIC FLAW -GROWTH DATA


(-320T, LONGITUDINAL GRAIN)

100

CYCLIC LO>

kO SPECTRUM**^

SCATTER BAND
/ OF DATA

h-1 (r

ru

iwii-»i
0

1 10 100 1000

NUMBER OF CYCLES TO FAILURE

FIGURE E2-29- CYCLIC FLAW-GROWTH DATA OF 6A1-4V


TITANIUM PLATE TESTED AT -320 # F

page 23-4^2.

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GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

1.0
04

a*

OJS

NOTCHED BAR SKC3MEMS


PLATE AND FORGING —

0.1

IJ 10
TIME AT LOAD (hr J

100
1000

FIGURE E2-30. SUSTAINED STRESS F LAW -GROWTH DATA FOR


ROOM -TEMPERA TURE TESTS OF 17-7 PH STEEL

Let us now consider the significance of sustained stress flaw growth


and specifically the threshold stress -intensity concept on the estimated total
cyclic me of a tension-loaded structure containing an initial crack or crack-
Uke flaw. To Illustrate this, the schematic representation of the K-N curve
is reconstructed in Fig. E2-32, but superimposed on this curve is a horizontal
like at Kj/Kj " 0-80- This is assumed to be the threshold stress Intensity.
Now consider the situation where the initial flaw size and applied cyclic stress
result in an initial stress intensity equal to 50 percent of the critical value.
From the curve, it is seen that it would take a total of A cycles to grow this
initial flaw to critical size and cause failure. However in B cycles, the
initial flaw would have Increased in size enough to cuase the stress intensity
to reach the threshold value of Kj/K^ - 0.80. With additional cycles the

page ZlA ^

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

041
0,1

1J> to
TIM! TO FAILURE (hr )

100

FIGURE E2-31. SUSTAINED STRESS FLAW-GROWTH DATA FOR


2219-T87 ALUMINUM AT -320 # F

1.0

COMBINED TIME
AND

CYCLE GROWTH

0J
THRESHOLD STRESS
INTENSITY LEVEL

CYCLES

C YCLIC
GROWTH
ONLY

OJ

A CYCLES

TOTAL CYCLIC UFE


FIGURE E2-32. COMBINED CYCLIC AND SUSTAINED STRESS FLAW
GROWTH SCHEMATIC INTERPRETATION

7d9

flTH HCTUHAL ANAIYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

stress intensity would further increase and, if the stress were sustained
sufficiently long, it appears possible that failure could occur on the (B + 1)
cycle.

If, on the other hand, the cycles were applied with little time at
maximum cyclic stress, it appears that the total of A cycles could be
realized. It Is hypothesized that below the threshold K -value, the time at
sustained stress has little or no effect on cyclic life. Above the threshold
value there will be an interaction such that failure could occur anywhere
within the range of (B + l) to A cycles, depending on the time the maximum
stress is held during each cycle. The development of the exact time-cycle
Interaction curves above the threshold value would be a complex and expensive
task and, as appUed to most tankage structure, may not be of great importance
It appears more rational to determine the basic cyclic data and the threshold-
intensity values and then verify (through pro longed -time specimen cyclic
tests) that time at load Is not of major significance below the threshold value.
In the application of the data to fatigue-life estimation, the maximum allowable
stress intensity would be limited to the threshold value as determined for the
material in question and for the applicable service environment. If the
threshold is very low, steps should be taken to protect the material from the
environment.

The operational cyclic life of pressure vessels can be determined if


the following data are available:

1. Proof-test factor a .

2. Maximum design operating stress a .

3. Fracture toughness K^.

4. Experimental cyclic and sustained stress flaw growth for the


vessel material.

page 23-4- *S

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

If the cycles to be applied to the vessel have short hold time at the maximum

stress c , the stress Intensity at c can be allowed to reach the critical


op op

✓alue K_ and therefore the allowable flaw growth potential is a . a . For

cr i
long hold times at the maximum stress, the stress intensity could not be

allowed to exceed the sustained stress threshold value K__ and the allowable

Til

flaw growth potential is a^ - a^ Typical threshold stress-intensity data


can be obtained from Refs. 12 and 22.

I- Example Problem A (Thick-Walled Vessel) .

Cyclic life prediction can be made by utilizing the proof-test factor and
the relationships between K^/K^ and cycles to failure for various-values of
R (ratio of minimum to maximum stress during a cycle) for the materia L
environment combination.

The procedure for assessing the structural integrity of the thick-


walled vessels foUows. In the first analysis for the assessment of the struc-
tural integrity of the thick-walled vessel, it is always assumed that all the
pressure cycles are applied at R- 0. Since the analysis based on R « 0
will always show the remaining cyclic life less than that based on the analysis
of R # 0 (actual R ratios) , the prediction of cyclic life based on the analysis
of R» 0 is invariably conservative. If the pressure vessel Is shown unsatis-
factory for the flight based on R » 0, then the prediction analysis for the
remaining cyclic life is conducted based on the actual R values at which the
cycles are applied. An excellent Illustrative example abstracted from Ref. 12
is given as follows.

Suppose that a thick-walled 6A1-4V (STA) titanium helium tank is


successfully proof tested at a proof-test factor of 1.50 times the maximum
design operating stress. Suppose that the proof-tested tank is subjected to the
following pressure cycles before the flight, as shown in Fig. E2-33;
7/7

page Z*.4-.3G»

CYCLES

FIGURE E2-33. CYCLIC HISTORY OF A THICK-WALLED VESSEL


(EXAMPLE PROBLEM A)

1. 200 loading cycles with the maximum stress as 90 percent of (7 Qp

and R ■ 0. 1.

0.7
2. 4300 loading cycles with the maximum stress as and R

3. 260 loading cycles with the maximum stress as 95 percent of tr Qp


and R • 0.4.

4. 40 loading cycles with the maximum stress as ff Qp and R - 0. 1.


The cyclic lite curves for 6A1-4V (STA) titanium for the environment

of room-temperature air are reproduced for R - 0.0. R- 0.1. R- 0.4, and


R - 0.7 in Fig. E2-34. The difference between the plots of cyclic life against
Kj/K^ for R- 0 and R- 0.1 is negligible for this materia Uenvironment

KiOTE

page IV^.VT

00
IATED CYCLIC
REMAINING
'op " 20 CYCLES

0.0

•.4

0.2

J * I I I I II

J L

1_LL
200 CYCLES •

0.06 Oop
R-0.4

4300

200 CYCLES
• O.MOop
H-O.t

J I I I

11

J I

10
100

CYCLES TO FAILURE

1000

10000

FIGURE E2-34, PREDICTION OF CYCLIC UFE OF A TIIICK-WA I, LED VESSEL

(EXAMPLE PROBLEM A)

s
!

in
H

c
c

3)

O
CI

t*i

o
m

CO

-<

in

g
6
z
>

r-
■<
[/)

>

z
c
>

fiTpilCTURAL ftN^IY^ MANUAL


GENERAL IWNAMCS&ONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

combination, and hence both are shown by the same plot in Fig, E2-34. The
threshold stress-intensity level for the material In the environment of room-
temperature air Is 90 percent of K^.

The maximum possible I^/K^ ratio that could exist in the vessel
after the proof test at <r Is l/a - 0,667. It can be seen from the R - 0

op

plot In Fig. E2-34 that the maximum cycles to failure are about 600 at ff Qp
if the hold times at maximum stress are small. If the analysis is based on
R ■ 0 instead of actual R, the pressure-cycle history shows that the vessel
Is critical. In the following, the assessment of the vessel is made based on
the appropriate values of R.

At the beginning of 200 loading cycles with the m a x i m u m stress as


0.90 Q , the maximum K u /K Jc Is given by 0.90 * 0.667- 0.60. This
point is Indicated by E on R« 0.1 curve. The 200 loading cycles of 0. 90
<r and R- 0.1 change the K^/K^ ratio from Point E to Point D on the
plot of R - 0.1. The I^/K^ ratio at the end of 200 loading cycles of
R- 0.1 la 0.63.

The stress Is Increased by 10 percent at the end of 200 cycles. Hence,


the I^/K^ ratio at the beginning of 4300 cycles at <r ^ and R-0.7 Is
(1.0/0.9) * 0.63- 0.70. This is shown by Point D on the plot of R-0.7.
The 4300 loading cycles at <J ^ and R-0.7 change the K^/K^ ratio from
Point D to Point C on the plot of R - 0.7, where Its value Is 0.78.

The stress Is decreased by S percent at the end of 4300 cycles. Hence


the K u /K lc ratio at the beginning of 260 cycles at 0. 95 is ( 0. 95/1. 0)

0.78 - 0.74, which is shown by Point C on the R - 0.4 plot. The 260 cycles
at 0.95 a and R - 0.4 change the B^/K^ ratio from Point C to Point B
on the R- 0.4 plot, where Its value Is 0.80.
x

STRUCTURAL A NALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

The stress Is increased by 5 percent at the end of 260 cycles. Hence,


the Kjj/K^ ratio at the beginning of 40 cycles at <r Qp is (1.0/0-95) * 0.80 -
0.84, which is illustrated by Point B on the R ■ 0. 1 plot. The 40 cycles at
a and R- 0.1 increase the Kjj/Kj c ntio from °' 84 to °* 87 5, which is
shown by Point A in Fig. E2-34.

Since the stress intensity at the end of 40 cycles at c is less than


the threshold stress intensity, the vessel is considered to be safe for the
flight. It will take 20 loading cycles at <7 Qp and R * 0. 1 to increase
Kj./Kj c from 0.875 to 0.90. Thus, the estimated minimum cyclic life
remaining for the vessel is 20 cycles.

H. Example Problem B (Thin-Walled Vessel) .

In thin-walled vessels the flaw depth becomes deep with respect to the
wall thickness prior to reaching the critical size. Therefore, Kobayashi's
magnification factor for deep surface flaws must be considered. In
thin-walled vessels it is assumed that the flaws are long with respect to their
depth and, consequently, Q is assumed to be equal to unity in the Kobayashi
equation.

To determine the cyclic life of a thin-walled vessel, the following


relations are required ( Ref . 22) .
I. Proof-test factor, a , K. , and K_.

op ic in

2. The o* versus a curve, similar to Fig. E2-35, to determine the

flaw si2e, a , a , and a_, . The curve is obtained from the following
i cr Th

equation:

7/jT

page 22>.<r.<r<&

v 1

i
— WOOf\
.STRESS *

S \ ^* t
MAXIMUM

| - 0E3IGN

w \

1 \o«BAT
4_\STRES

i i

IN43

S V- WALL -

— THICKNESS

u^A

I
Ax 1

1 POSSIBLE |

a lj — i —

*7 i

Fi>wocro4,«<iaJ

FIGURE £2-35. DETERMINATION OF INITIAL AND CRITICAL

FLAW SIZES

3. The K/K^ versus flaw growth rate da/dN to determine the


flaw growth rate at any stress level. The flaw growth rates can be obtained
by differentiating the versus cycles to failure curve, similar to that

of Fig. E2 -36 (Ref. 22) . This curve is obtained from the specimens where
a /t is less than half. For an assumed maximum cyclic stress level, say
„" the given versus N curve can be converted to an a/Q versus

N curve by the equation

a/Q
page li-U-.H-i

STRUCTURAL ANALYSTS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

FIGURE E2-36, COMBINED SUSTAINED AND CYCLIC STRESS


LIFE DATA [5 Al - 2 1/2 Sn (ELI) TITANIUM
AT-320T]

The slope of the a/Q versus N curve gives the plot for the flaw growth rate
dC^^/dM versus K^/K^ for the stress level a v From the preceding
equation for a given K^, a/Q at the stress level <r 3 is related with a/Q
at a 1 as

(a/Q)*-.

From this equation it can be concluded that the flaw growth rate at any stress
level a 2 is related to the growth rate at <r x as follows:
7/ -7,

page li-^z

The prediction of the remaining cycle life and the structural integrity
of the thin-walled vessel Is demonstrated by an illustrative example abstracted
from Ref. 22 and is given as follows.

Suppose that a thin-walled 6A1-4V titanium (STA) propellant tank


containing N,0 4 at room temperature is successfully proof tested with water
at room temperature to a proof-test factor of 1.41 times the maximum design
operating stress, <7 Qp . Suppose that the proof-tested tank is subjected to the
following pressure cycles before the flight:

1. Twenty loading cycles with the maximum stress as 90 percent of

2. Twelve loading cycles with the maximum stress as 95 percent of

op
a

op

3. Five loading cycles with the maximum stress as ff Qp -


It is desired to assess the structural integrity of the pressure vessel
from the fracture mechanics standpoint and estimate the minimum cyclic life
remaining for the vessel at a^. This example Is treated with specific
numbers since the stress-intensity factor has to be corrected for the a/t
ratio according to Fig. E2-25. The thickness of the tank is 0.022 In. The
.naxlmum design operating stress, a^. is87.5ksi. The material of this
gage under the above-mentioned environmental conditions has the minimum
fracture toughness of 37 ksl «TInT and the threshold stress intensity of 80
percent of K^.

The <r versus a plots are given for and - 0.30 in


Fig. E2-35. Since the proof stress is 1.41 * * ^ - 123.6 ksi. It is clear
from Fig. E2-35 that the maximum possible z { that could exist Is 0.0143
in. Here it Is assumed that the depressurization from the proof pressure is

STRUCTURAL ANAI VSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
rapid enough so that no significant flaw growth occurs during the depressur-

ization. Also, as shown In Fig. E2-35, for the stress level of <r t a^

Is 0.0196 in. and a is 0.0160 in.


TH

The plot of the ^f^ c versus flaw growth rate for 6A L-4V titanium
at room temperature is reproduced in Fig. E2-37 for cr ■ 100 ksi. The 99-
percent confidence level flaw growth rate curve is obtained from the cyclic
data of R =■ 0. 0; it is assumed in this example that all the cycles are applied
at R * 0. 0.

Taking into account the effect of stress level on the flaw growth rates,

the rates are arithmetically integrated from a J * 0.0143 in. to a cr - 0.0196

in- according to Fig. £2-38 to calculate the cycles to failure for the stress

level of o* . The plot of flaw depth against cycles to failure for the stress
op

level of a is shown in Fig. E2-39.


op

When the maximum cyclic stress is 0.95 o* , a. is still 0.0143 in.

but a is 0.0208 in. and a_ ■ 0.0167 in. from Fig. E2-35. Based on
cr TH

the stress level of 0. 95 <r , the flaw growth rates are integrated from
op

a « 0.0143 in. to a * 0.208 In. to calculate the cycles to failure. A


i cr

similar procedure is followed to obtain the relation of flaw depth against

cycles to failure for the stress level of 0.90 <r . These plots are shown in
J op

Fig. E2-39.

At the end of the proof cycle and the beginning of the first cycle at the

mpxjmnm cyclic stress of 0.90 c , the maximum possible flaw depth is

op

0.0143 in. This is shown by Point D in Fig. E2-39. The 20 loading cycles

with the maximum stress as 0.90 a change a from Point D to Point C

op

on the plot of 0.90 a (Fig. E2-39) .

V.

page 23.4-,Wf-
«rreiirrr»RAL ANAI YSIS MANUAL

GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

3 04

0.1

10

LEAST-SOUAftE CURVE

CAI • 4V TITANIUM
(BASE METAL fc WELD METAL)
I 1 I I 1 1

100

1000

FIGURE £2-37. CYCLIC F LAW -GROWTH RATES

(FOR* - 100 ksi)


max

A*

•A
MEAN
K

MIAN '

AN

•v«

«t*K,

«»,.,/•*
1
1
1

AM,

ANi

*1
•J

•yt

AN,

1
1
1
1

ANi *

•l

1
1

1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1

t
1

1
1
1
1
\

AH,
ANi ♦
AN,*
AN,

KotmM'l MM!
ft. K- UX»WW

FIGURE E2-38. ARITHMETIC INTEGRATION O""^™"™-**™


DATA (DEEP FLAWS W THIN-WALLED VESSELS)
FIGURE E2-39. PRE IMC HON OF CYCLIC LIFE OF A TIIIN-WALIJ5D VESSEL

(ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE)

c-rnt^THRAI ANALY SIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

The tank-wall stress Is Increased by 5 percent at the end of 20 loading


cycles with the maximum stress as 0.90 a flp . The flaw size remains the
same during the stress Increase. This is shown by Point C on the plot of

0.95 a la Fig. E2-39.


op

The 12 loading cycles with the maximum stress as 0.95 a ^ change


a from Point C to Point Bon the plot of 0.95 a ^ in Fig. E2-39.

At the end of 12 loading cycles with the maximum stress as 0.95 a op ,


the stress is Increased by 5 percent. This Is shown by Point B on the plot

of a In Fig. E2-39.
op

The five loading cycles with the maximum stress as a Qp change a


from Point B to Point A on the plot of In Fig. E2 -39. The flaw depth

at A is 0.01534 in. This is smaller than a^. which Is 0. 0160 in. Hence
the vessel is considered to be safe for the flight. Also from Fig. E2-39, it
will take seven cycles at er to Increase the flaw depth from 0. 01534 in.
to 0.0160 in. Hence, the m'mimum estimated cyclic life remaining for the
vessel Is seven cycles.
2.4.3.2 Allowable Initial Flaw Size.

Allowable Initial flaw sizes in a designed structure depend on the


service life requirements for the structure and fracture toughness properties
of the material selected. The prevention of failure requires that either the
actual initial Caw sizes or the maximum possible initial flaw size be known.
Nondestructive Inspection provides the only means of determining actual
initial flaw sizes. A successful proof test specifies the maximum possible
bdtul flaw size which can exist after the proof test and, in turn, provide, the
maximum possible initial to critical stress-intensity ratio, I^/K^. To
determine the maximum allowable Initial flaw size, the initial to critical
stress-intensity ratio, based on the service life requirements, must be
determined.

page 23^.^1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

The calculation of allowable initial flaw size is demonstrated by the


following example.

I. Example Problem A.
A cyclic loaded pressure vessel of aluminum alloy must meet the
following design conditions:

1. Required minimum life, 40 000 cycles.

2. Maximum stress in a cycle 1/2 o* = 35 000 psi.

3. Kj c of weld metal" 15 000 psi V in.

4. Semielliptical surface defect (length 4 x depth) .

What is the allowable Initial flaw size which will grow to a critical
size In 40 000 cycles ?

Solution.

From Fig. E2-40 (Ref. 18), the Kj./K^ ratio corresponding to


40 000 cycles of life is 0.36. The initial stress intensity can now be
determined:

and

1^ « 0.36 (15 000) ■ 5400 psi Via.

Knowing the design stress of 35 000 and the expression of the type of
defect, it is now possible to find the defect size corresponding to a of
5400 psi V in. :
page 22>-V.<$-3>

CTQMCTURAL flNAIY* lg MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

\&
OS
OJ

0.7

OA
OJ
OJ
0.1

IT

iii

HYPOTHETICAL DATA _____


70-W YIELD STRENGTH ALUMINUM
WELD METAL, *U - 18 -»^»T
Kn INITIAL 3THE5S4NTENSITY FACTOR
" CRITICAL STRESS4NTENSITY FACTOR

t t t i i LU

2 4 • S10 20 40 SOaOIQO 200

N. NO. OF CYCLES TO FAILURE * 10*

FIGURE E2-4G. CYCLIC FLAW -GROWTH DATA FOR


ALUMINUM ALLOY

. *H aQ . (5400) , (1,4) . 0>0088 ^ ,


a i l.ZX*<r* 1.21* (35 000)*

The value of Q - 1.4 is taken from Fig. E2-S for a/2c - 1/4 - 0.23

and 9 Iq ■ 1/2* 0.50.


ys

2c ■ 4a l ■ 4 ( 0.0088) ■ 0.0352 in.

Therefore, the size of an Initial flaw which will just prow to a critical
size in 40 000 cycles is 0.0088 in. deep by 0.0352 in. long.
2.4.3.3 Nondestructive Inspection Acceptance Limits.
The NDI requirements for any given structure are a function of the
allowable flaw sixes. They are limited by any economic or schedule impli-
cations associated with a proof-test failure and by the reliability of the

page 2!.«k*S

STRUCTURAL ANALYSTS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Inspection techniques for detecting Initial flaws. Allowances should be made


for any lack of specific knowledge of flaw geometry and orientation. When
there is a lack of flaw definition, the worst possible flaw geometry and
orientation might be assumed.

Also, in arriving at acceptance limits, the allowable spacing for


internal or surface flaws (that is, aligned flaws in weldments) must be con.
sidered. An approximate analytical solution for the interaction of elllptically
shaped coplanar flaws has been obtained by Kobayashi and Hall (Ref. 23) . The
results are shown In Fig. £2-41 along with experimental results on several
Ladlsh D6AC steel specimens containing two coplanar semielliptical surface
flaws. The curves are plotted in terms of stress-intensity magnification
ratio (Kj/Kj) versus flaw spacing ratio (d/a) . Probably the most significant
point Is that there is very little interaction between coplanar flaws unless they
are surprisingly close together.
DATA POINTS -

Kie FROM COPLANAR FLAW SPEC.


USING SINGLE FLAW EQUATION

<

§2

m *
Z

Ml

S 03

13
K [e FOR LA DISH -
DCAC STEELS

# - 473 km WhT

▲ - 423 km VmT.

PLANE STRAIN STRESS INTENSITIES

COPLANAR FLAWS — Ki

a/2c -0^2

03

13
13

23

SEPARATION <4/a>

FIGURE E2-41. STRESS -INTENSITY MAGNIFICATION FOR TWO


COPLANAR ELLIPTICAL FLAWS

page 22>.4-,5q

The establishment of NDI acceptance limits when service Ufe require,


ments are known might best be shown by an Illustrative example Involving a
hypothetical pressure vessel that Is expected to encounter a rather complex
loading history.

Figure E2-42a shows the assumed service life requirement con-


sisting of one proof-test cycle (at a stress level of a times the operating
stress) followed by 1000 cycles and then 100 hr, both at a constant operating
stress level of (<r - 1.0) . To define the minimum inspection standards
required prior to service. It Is necessary to determine the critical flaw size,
(a/Q) , at the end of service (Section 2.4.2) and work backwards, evaluating
all portions of the loading profile that can cause flaw growth.

Figure E2-42b represents a dimensionless relationship of stress-to-


flaw size as shown previously (Fig. E2-6) . The ordinate now is plotted In
terms of percentage of critical flaw size at operating stress. Figures E2-42c
and d are schematic representations of the cycUc load flaw growth and sus-
tained load flaw growth, respectively.

The approach is as follows:

1. The critical flaw size at operating stress is represented as 100


percent of critical and is the maximum allowed at time T D (at the end of the
service life) .

2. Maximum allowed flaw size at time T c Is shown by Point C and


represents the maximum allowable flaw size at the start of the 100-hr sus-
tained stress period.

3. The effect of cyclic loading is shown In Fig. E2-42c by moving


1000 cycles from T c to Tg. Point B then represents the maximum allowable
size at time T fl or at the start of the 1000-cycle period. This size Is the
maximum aUowable size before the vessel is placed In service.

page
a. Service life requirement.

FIGURE 122-42. DETERMINATION OF NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION ACCEPTANCE LIMITS

g TRUCTURAt ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL fl SS^ "MOON

4. It can be shown that the previous one-cycle proof test generally


has a negligible effect on flaw growth compared with the chosen service life.

Note in this schematic illustration that the maximum allowable flaw


size is less than that which could have been present during a successful proof
test, and thus the proof test could not guarantee successful fulfillment of the
service life requirement. As a result, NDI must be capable of detecting flaws
as small as U/Q^^.

If it U determined that Inspection technique limitations preclude the

assurance of service life reliability, then either the proof-test factor must

be Increased to assure that (a/Q^^ la largest possible existing flaw

size at the beginning of service life, or conservative assumptions might be

made about flaw geometry and orientation to account for the Inability to detect
small flaw depths. For example, the length (L) of an indication seen in X-ray

inspection could be assumed to be the minor axis of an elliptical flaw where the

major axis Is large with respect to the minor axis ( i.e. , L ■ 2a, Q * 1. 0) .

Consequently, the critical flaw size must be larger (and the operating stress

lower) in order to meet the service life requirements. In other words, both

fa /O ) and (a/Q) move higher up the ordinate of Fig. E2-42b.


v i I max cr

It should be noted that in terms of "percentage of critical," flaw size


is independent of actual stress and toughness values. Obviously, the deter-
mination of finite maximum allowable flaw sizes (or smallest flaw size for
NDI detection) requires a detailed knowledge of applied stresses in the various
tank locations and of the fracture toughness of the materials used. This has
been Illustrated by the Example Problem A In Section 2.4.3.2 in which the
allowable Initial flaw size in an aluminum alloy pressure vessel is calculated
based on a required service life. In the case where NDI acceptance limits
are being considered, the calculated initial flaw depth and length are the
minimum demensions which NDI must be capable of detecting.

page 23.4.51
STRUCTURAL ANAI VSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

2.4.3.4 Proof-Test Factor Selection.

It has been previously noted that a successful proof test determines


the maximum possible flaw size which can exist after the proof test and prior
to the beginning of service. The proof test is the most powerful inspection test
presently available and offers the most reliable method for guaranteed service
life.

Figure E2-43 shows a schematic theoretical relationship between the


critical flaw size, (a/Q) t and the corresponding fracture stress, as pre-
viously illustrated in Fig. £2-6, along with a similar relationship between
initial flaw size (a/Q) and stress level. The relationships hold true for
applied stresses below the yield strength of the material. For stresses above

FIGURE E2-43. TYPICAL MATERIAL STRESS -INTENSITY

RELATIONSHIP
page 22>. ^.5 4-

the yield value the relationships follow some experimentally determined curve
up to the ultimate strength, c ^ If proof pressure is a times the operating
pressure, the critical flaw size is

1 ( "ic V

and

oper \ oper/

Thus the proof-test factor, at , Is a function of the maximum initial flaw size

and critical flaw size for the operating pressure level ^

(a/Q) l
oper 1
(a/Q) " " «*

cr
oper

Since subcritical flaw growth U a function of the Initial stress intensity as


compared with the critical value, the proof-test factor can be related as

1.1 V7» (a/Q) 1 /*


max^ oper i Qper _ l

H oper

where K is the initial stress intensity at the operating stress level and
temperature, and is the fracture toughness value at proof test

page ti-U-SS

STRUCTURAL AN ALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
temperature. It should be noted that lower proof test factors (and therefore
lower proof stresses) can be employed If the proof test is performed at a
temperature where the material has a lower K^ c than at operating temperature
and, consequently, greater susceptibility to flaws. In this way the risk of
proof-test failure is minimized insofar as practical.

The maximum at proof temperature should be employed in the


equation rather than the minimum or average because it results in the
selection of a higher proof factor, a conservative event. Figure E2-44 illus-
trates the difference between the use of maximum and minimum Kj c at proof
temperature. For a given maximum Initial flaw size, (a/Q) . (max), the
proof stress required by (min. ) is less than that required by K^ c (max.)*
In fact, if (min.) were used and a component fabricated from material
characteristic of (max.) and containing a flaw slightly longer than
(a/Q) . (max^were proof tested at the lower level, the component would pass

P LAW'S!

FIGURE E2-44. DETERMINATION OF PROOF STRESS BY MAXIMUM


AND MINIMUM VALUES OF

page 2^<k5G
r

tte proof test successfully but probably would fall in service. The us. of

K_ (max) la the proof-factor equation precludes this,


ic P

It has been shown by analysis that regardless of the structural wall


thickness, the required minimum proof-test factor a is always 1 ±
allowable Kj/K^. However, the value of the proof test In providing assur-
ance against service failure changes with decreasing wall thickness and/or
increasing fracture toughness, K^, the same as occurs with the predicted
pressure vessel failure mode. This is discussed in more detail in Ref. 22
and illustrated in Fig. E2-45.

Having experimentally obtained the cyclic and sustained flaw growth


for a material under consideration, the necessary proof-test factor can be
determined to assure that the structure will meet the service life requirements.
Proof-factor determination can be applied to at least two general problem areas
In the design of structural components: x

1. Evaluation and modification of proof-test conditions for current


components for which operating stress and mission are already fixed.

2. Preliminary design of components intended for known missions,


including selection of material, maximum operating stress, minimum proof
stress, and proof temperature.

The following sample problem Illustrates the proper selection of a proof-test


factor for a hypothetical pressure vessel design.
X. Example Problem A.

Suppose that a thick-walled liquid nitrogen 5Al-2.5Sn (EU) titanium


pressure vessel must meet a service life requirement of 600 pressure cycles
where- the pressure is sustained for a prolonged period during each cycle. The
vessel has already been successfully proof tested with LN, to a proof factor

page ll.<*-.5"7

f C*M It

Incraatlrtf Iractun I oufh nan and/of


dacraaunf will ihicfcnau

ICaia Ml
frool \

Opar j\

>

Flaw depth, a

Flaw dtpih. a
Flaw dtpih, a

Flaw dtpih. a

Probabla
fraciura
modi

• Proof

• Opar.

Fraciura
Fraciura

Fractura
Ltikaot
Laakaoa
Laafcagt

Laakaga
Laakaga

Folanlid
valut of
pioot tail

Can auura

cyclic and tuiiainad

prauura lift

Can anura

cyclic and tuiiainad

prauura lila

Can aiiuia
■uilaincd prauura
lila

Can atiura
•uitainad prauura
lila

HiQUMld

mi*, proof « - • I fl ■ I f Allow. 0. - I f K T „/K (e fl - I * K TH /K k

FIGURE E2-45. EFFECT OF WA LI, THICKNESS ON VA LUE OF PltOOF TEST

frmilCTUHAL ANftl Yfflff MAMUAL


fiWfiMt DViA*m SPACB SYSTEMS DIVISION

a - 1.25. WIU thia proof factor assure that do failure occurs during the
service life and if not, what proof factor is required?

The cyclic life curve for 5AU2.5Sn (EU) titanium is reproduced in


Fig. E2-36. The estimated threshold stress-intensity value for sustained,
stress flaw growth (K^/K^) 'is approximately 0. 92.

For long hold time, max. I^/K^ - l/a - 1/1.25 - 0.80. From
Fig. E2-36 for l^/K^ - 0.80, N * 300 cycles. For ^ Tg ^ lc M °' 92 '
N ■ 100 cycles.

In 300 cycles minus 100 cycles, or 200 cycles, the stress. intensity
would have reached the estimated threshold value for sustained-stress flaw
growth. Thus the predicted minimum life would be only 200 cycles and the
proof factor of 1.25 will not assure a service life of 600 cycles.

For 100 cycles plus 600 cycles, or 700 cycles.

c o

I^/Kj - 0.70 - —

and

0.70

Thus, the 600-cycle service life requires a proof-test factor of 1.43


times the operating pressure.

page

STRUCTURAL / ^ft? YSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

REFERENCES

1. Fracture Toughness Testing and Its Applications. ASTM Special


Technical Publication No. 381, American Society for Testing and
Materials, April 1965.

2. Irwin, G. R. : Fracture and Fracture Mechanics Report No. 202,


T&AM Department of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, University
of Illinois, October 1961.
3. Irwin, G. R. : Crack Extension Force for a Part-Through Crack in a
Plate. Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 34 E, No. 4,
December 1962.

4. Green, A. E. ; and Sneddon, I. N. : The Distribution of Stress in the


Neighborhood of a Flat Elliptical Crack In an Elastic Solid. Proceed-
ings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, Vol. 46, 1959.

5. Kobayashi, A. S. : On the Magnification Factors of Deep Surface


Flaws. Structural Development Research Memorandum No. 16,
The Boeing Co., December 1965.

6. Plane Strain Crack Toughness Testing. ASTM Special Technical


Publication No. 410, American Society for Testing and Materials,
December 1967.

7. Review of Developments In Plane Strain Fracture Toughness Testing.


ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 463, American Society for
Testing and Materials, September 1970.

8. Paris, P. O; and Erdogan, F.: A Critical Analysis of Crack


Propagation Laws. Journal of Basic Engineering, Transactions of
the ASME, Series D, Vol. 85, 1963.

9. Foreman, R. G. ; Kearney, V. E. ; and Engle, R. M.: Numerical


Analysis of Crack Propagation in Cyclic-Loaded. Structures. Journal
of Basic Engineering, Transactions of the ASME, September 1967.

10. Hudson, M. C. : Effect of Stress Ratio on Fatigue-Crack Growth in

7075-T6 and 2024-T3 Aluminum -Alloy Specimens. NASA TN D-5390,


August 1969.
page

REFERENCES (Continued)

11.

12.
13.
14.
15.

16.

17.

18.
19.

20.
Tiffany, C. F. ; Lorenz, P. M. ; and Hall. L. R. : Investigation of
Plane-Strain Flaw Growth in Thick-Walled Tanks. NASA CR-54837,
1966.

Fracture Control of Metallic Pressure Vessels. NASA SP-8040,


May 1970.

Wheeler, O. E. : Spectrum Loading and Crack Growth. Transactions


of the ASME, Journal of Basic Engineering, March 1972.

Elber, W. : Fatigue Crack Closure Under Cyclic Tension. Engineering


Fracture Mechanics, Vol. H, No. 1, Pergamon Press, July*1970.

Elber, Wolf: The Significance of Fatigue Crack Closure. Damage


Tolerance in Aircraft Structures, ASTM Special Technical Publications
486, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1971, pp. 230-242.

Pellissier, G. E. : Some Microstructural Aspects of Maraging Steel


in Relation to Strength and Toughness. Technical Documentary Report
RTD-TDR-63-404S. Air Force Materials Laboratory, Wright-
Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, November 1963.

Tiffany, C. F. ; and Masters, J. N. : Applied Fracture Mechanics.


ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 381, American Society for
Testing and Materials, April 196S.

Wessei, E. T. , et aL Engineering Methods for the Design and


Selection of Materials Against Fracture. AD 801005, June 1966.

Progress In the Measurement of Fracture Toughness and the Application


of Fracture Mechanics to Engineering Problems. American Society
for Testing and Materials Special Committee on Fracture Testing of
High-Strength Metallic Materials, Materials Research and Standards,
Vol. 4, No. 3, March 1964, p. 107.

Pyle, R. ; SchiUinger, D. E. ; and Carman, CM.: Plane Strain


Fracture Toughness and Mechanical Properties of 2219-TS7 Aluminum
and 5AL-2.5Sn(EU) Titanium Alloy Weldments and One Inch Thick
5AL-2.5Sn(ELI) Titanium Alloy Plate. NASA CR-72154, Department
of the Army, Frankfort Arsenal, September 1968.

page 2.V<k£>\

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAiR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

REFERENCES

Wllhem, D. P. : Fracture Mechanics Guidelines for Aircraft


Structural Applications. AFFDL-TR-69-111, Northrop Corp. ,
February 1970.

Shah, R. C: Fracture Mechanics Assessment of Apollo Launch


Vehicle and Spacecraft Pressure Vessels. Vol. 1, Report D2-114248-1,
The Boeing Co., November 1968.

Kobayashi, A. S. ; and Hall, L. R. : On the Correction of Stress


Intensity Factors for Two Embedded Cracks. Structural Development
Research Memorandum No. 9, The Boeing Co. , 1963.
Advanced Crack Propagation Predictive Analysis Computer Program: "flAGRO IV". T.
Hu. Rockwell International. SOD 79-0280. September 1979.

Fatigue Crack Growth Computer Program: "NASA/FLAGRO". JSC-22267, 1981.

Damage Tolerance Material Properties for Shuttle/Centaur Vehicle and CISS Structure,
GDSS-SSC-86-019. July 1986.

The Stress Analysis of Cracks Handbook. H. Tada. P. C. Paris and G. R Irwin.


Del Research Corporation, Hellertown, Pennsylvania. 1973.

Handbook of Stress-Intensity Factors, G. C. Slh. Institute of Fracture and Solid


Mechanics. Lehigh University. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. 1973.

Compendium of Stress Intensity Factors. D. P. Rooke and D. J. Cartwrlght.


Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London. 1976.

"Investigations of Deep Flaws in Thm-Walled Tanks", N. J. Masters. W. P. Haese and


R. W. Finger. NASA CR- 72606. December 1969.

Fracture Control Method for Composite Tanks with Load Sharing Liners. W. D. Blxler,
NASA CR- 134750. D180- 18850-1. Jury 1975.

"Sustained Load Crack Growth Design Data for T1-6A1-4V Titanium Alloy Tanks
containing Hydrazine". J. C. Lewis and J. T. Kenny. AIAA Paper No.. 76-769. July
1976.

Forman. R G., NASA TND-7952, "Environmental Crack-Growth Behavior of High


Strength Pressure Vessel Alloys". Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. Houston, Texas.
April 1975.
page ZS^.tZ.

c; T pUCTURAL ^/HY?' S MANUAL


GENEBAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

34. Cotter. K. H., Xeak-Before-Burst Crtterla applied to Ciyofonned Pressurant


Tanks".
AIAA-86-1603, AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE 22nd Joint Propulsion Conference.
Huntsvffle, Alabama , June 16-18. 1986.

35. ML-STO-1522A (USAF). Standard General Requirements for Safe Design and Operation
of Pressurized Missile and Space Systems, 28 May 1984.

36. 65-00223. Fracture Control Plan, Shuttle/Centaur. 9 April 1986.

37. NASA Handbook NHB1700.7A. Fracture Control Requirements for Payloads using the
Space Transportation System (STS).

page '^H ^ ^ ^

STRUCTURAL A NALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
DAMAGE TOLERANCE

rUTFRIAL DATA

The most comprehensive compilation of material fracture toughness data


is the "Damage Tolerance Design Handbook", MCIC-HB-01. This four volume
set published by the Metals and Ceramic Information Center of the Batelle
Columbus Laboratories.

Other sources of material fracture data are MIL-HDBK-5D and "Fracture


Mechanics Evaluation of B-l Materials", AFML-TR-76-137. and tef. 2G.

rnMPUTER PROGRAMS

Two programs are currently available at Convair for fracture analysis.


Both run on the Cyber.

FLAGRO IV was written by Rockwell and was used extensively on the


Space Shuttle program. This is a Fortran IV program and input
parameters are read from a formated data file. The user specifies the
problem geometry by selecting one of 14 flaw types and the
corresponding parameters such as thickness, width, hole size, edge
distance and crack size. Material data can be either input manually or
taken from the program's library of information on common materials.
Non uniform stress distributions are handled by variable correction
factors. Any loading spectrum can be applied but duration of load is not
accounted for. The user can opt to take advantage of retardation when
high load cycles are followed by low load cycles. Three types of growth
rate equations (Colllprlest, Paris, and direct Interpolation from data)
are available in the program. The software library accension number is
P5953 for FLAGRO IV.
id**- zs)

NASA /FLAGRO was produced by NASA's LBJ Space Center in 1 987. It


has much more capability than FLAGRO IV. The Material Data Library is
extensive, the user has 25 flaw geometry types to choose from, and
bending moments as well as axial stresses can be applied. The program
is interactive and menu driven with graphics capability.

page IS. SA

e T pil(VrURAL A^IY*'* MANUAL

general oTnammconwr "and space systems division ^

DAMAGE TOLERANCE

pA^AfiP TO! ERA jf F HRFMENTS

in order to comply with current military. FAA, and NASA requirements.


Aerials select for critical structural application. i must have
fracture toughness to tolerate, without failure under design loads, flaws
caused by manufacture and cracks grown during service.
in the case of the Air Force the governing document usually refer* I to In
theTrocurement contract Is MIL-A-83444 "Airplane Damage Tolerance
Requ1rements."That document specifies the following:

, ) initial flaw size assumptions. The size of the flaw

initially existing in the material 1s defined as a function of structure

geometry, method of manufacture and reliability of Inspection

technique. ^"V

2) Initial and in-service Inspection requirements.

3) Residual strength requirements. Residual strength analyis Is


cLcted to det errle the capability of a structure containing damage
to withstand a single load without catastrophic failure.

Multiple load path designs with crack arrest features can be qualified
^er Sl-A-83444 either as slow crack growth structure or as fall safe
S. Singleload path designs must be qualified as slow crack growth
structure.

A companion document to MIL-A-83444 is the "USAF Damage Tolerant


Desl^<loook". It gives a summary of 83444 as well a explaining the
rationale behind IL

The handbook also provides an in depth review of ^ analytical^ methods


iZ determining residual strength as well as estimating tt* eradt
qTowth as a function of time, cyclic load and sustained load . ^ ves
examples indicating the limitations of methods and use of matenal data
see a.uso £.rF~s 35 &2><i.

paga 25-S.'L

crrmjcTURAt analysi s manual

GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 24.0

COMPUTERIZED METHODS

A LISTING OF THE COMMONLY USED COMPUTER CODES WILL BE INCLUDED


IN THIS SECTION WHEN AVAILBLE.

7V/

page £*kO. \

QTBUCTURA) ANALYSI S MAMUAL ^ ,


GENERAL DYNTwCS/CONVAm AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 24.1

COMPUTERIZED METHODS, NON-UN EAR ANALYSIS

A LISTING OF NON-UNEAR COMPUTERIZED METHODS WILL BE INCLUDED


IN THIS SECTION WHEN AVAILBLE.

rs

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 25.0

OPTIMIZATION DESIGN
OPTIMIZATION DESIGN METHODS WILL BE INCLUDED IN THIS SECTION
WHEN AVAILABLE

page 1t>.CM

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 26.0

MISCELLANEOUS TABLES AND CHARTS

Miscellaneous data contained in this section includes:

PAGE

TEMPERATURE CONVERSION 26.1 .1

SI UNITS AND PREFIXES 26.1 .1


METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS 26.2.1

HARDNESS CONVERSION 26.3.1

STANDARD ATMOSPHERE 26.4.1

TEMPERATURE VS. ALTITUDE 26.5.1

COEFFICIENTS OF STATIC AND SLIDING FRICTION 26.6.1

page 1G>.0*|

STRUCTURAL A NAI-VgtS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference I

Table S dmm eooreraiaa factor, for booc tadmical jmica. «


ms*a* fra» ~ onic of tan»«rae*r» Co the ocher are tno*e beiotn

^M.a<°fei73.ia)4*n.M
^/•.(•r-aiwa.ia

°TrVOZ73.16

°C-3/9<°T-32)
°C-°K-273.16
°T-LS<°*-273.i6)+32
°?-JL.a*C*32

TABLE t Derived SI Unto witb Snaciai NaM

Quantity

Unit

Sym-
bol

Formuia

frequency (of a pe-


hodic pnenonie-

fbrce

pressure, street
energy, work, quan-
tity of baat
power, radiant flux
quantity of electric-
Uy.elecuic charge
ttoanc potential
differ-

uv« forea
ekctric cape ni i nre
•kcmci

flux
illuminance
activity (of a radio-
nuclide)

henz

Hi

doat equivalent
l/s

kg-m/s'

pascal

Pa

N/or

joule

N-ra
wan

J/t

couiomb

AS

volt

W/A

(and

F
c/v

ohm

V/A

A/V

weber

Wb

V.t

tasU

T
Wb/m J

henry

Wb/A

degree Cel-

•c

sius

Lm

cd'tr

luT™
U

becquerei

>q

1/s

v*y

uevert

Gy

J/kg

Sv

J/kg
TABLE Z Baa* SI Unto

Quanutv

Unit

Symbol

electric current
thermodynamic temperature
amount of substance
luminous intensity

metre

kilogram

second

ampere

kclvin
mote

*t

tnol
cd

page l& .U

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

TABLE 3 Some Common Derived Units of SI


Quantity

Unit

Symbol

absorbed dose rate

Gy/s

acceleration

incite per xcunu Kiuaicu

m/s 1

angular acceleration
raaiari per kwdu mjuiicu

rad/s'

angular velocity

radian per second

rad/s

area

Art lift #■** #•»*••

square nicirc

m'
concentration (of amount of substance)

■kaI* uf mikifi m.*JtfPa

moic per cuoic rncirc

mol/m 1

current density

ampere per square metre

A/m*

density, mass

kilogram per cubic metre


kff/m'
111

electric cnargc ucuauj

coulomb per cubic metre

C/m J

ciecinc uciu sircngiu

volt per metre

V/m

etectnc uux density

cnulnmh ner «n ui rp metre


C/m J

energy density

inule ner mhir metre

J/m'

entropy

joule per kelvin

J/K

exposure ana gamma rays;

cnnlnmh r^r Irilmrrsm


C/ka

ileal inipauij

joule per kelvin

J/K

h#>9t flux dens it v 1

W/m'

irradiance J

watt per square metre


luminance

candela per square metre

cd/m

magnetic field strength

ampere per metre

A/m

molar energy

joule per mole

j /mot
molar entropy

joule per mole kelvin

j/tmoi ■ K j

molar beat capacity

joule per mole kelvin

j/(moi • K)

moment of force

newton metre

KI .an
permeability (magnetic)

henry per metre

n/m

permittivity

farad per metre

r /m

power density

watt per square metre

w / m
radiance

watt per square metre steradian

« / (.in

radiant intensity

watt per steradian

specific heat capacity

joule per kilogram kelvin

l/i-lra fcM

J/lKg- K)
joule per kilogram

J/kR

specific entropy

joule per kilogram kelvin

J/(kg-K)

specific volume

cubic metre per kilogram

mVkg
surface tension

newton per metre

N/m

thermal conductivity

watt per metre kelvin

W/(m-K)

velocity

metre per second

m/s
viscosity, dynamic

pascal second

Pa -s

viscosity, kinematic

square metre per second

mVs

volume

cubic metre

m J
wave number

1 per metre

1/m

TABLE 4 SI Prefixes

Multiplication Factor

Prefix

Symbol

1 000 000 000 000 000 000 -

I0*

exa
E

1 000 000 000 000 000-

10"

peta

1 000 000 000 000-

10"

tera

1 000 000 000-

10*
giga

1 000 000-

10*

mega

1 000-

IC

kilo

100-
10*

hecto

10-

10'

delu-

da

0.1 -

io-'

ded

d
0.01 -

io-*

centi

0.001 -

crulli

0.000 001 -

io-*

micro
M.

0.000 000 001 -

io-*

nano

0.000 000 000 001 -

io- 14

pico

0.000 000 000 000 001 -

10"*
fern to

0.000 000 000 000 000 001 -

io-«

alio

page \ .1.

ftTpilCTURAL A NALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMtCS/CON VAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

TO COMVESI

mo
MULTIPLY BY

ACTftJ
ACtU

tooiphcru

atmospharas

anosphara*

Bta

Btu

Its

cantimatara

cantlmatars

cantisatara

c an tima t ar - gr ams

cantlaa tar- grams

c«ntima tar- grams


cantlmatars/ sac

cantlmatars/ sac

cantimatars/ sac

cantimatars/sac

cantis»tars/ sac

cantlmatars/ sac

cantlmatars/ sac/ sac

cantimatars/sac/ sac

entiottiTs/ sac/sac

cnciaturs/stc/itt

coulombs

coulombs/ sq/in

cubic cmclattiTS

cubic cantimatara

cubic fut

cubic faat
cubic faat

cubic incaaa

cubic inch** -

cubic inchaa

cubic matars

cubic matars

cubic matars

cubic matars

cubic nttirs

dagraas (angla)

dagraas/ sac

drama (U.S., fluid or

apoth.)
drama
drama
drama

*q. faat
*q. matars
kgs/sq. cm
pound*/ aq. Is.,
navton/sq. ma tar
foot-Lba
Joulas

kilowatt- tars

faat

inch a*

ma cars

cm-dyna*

aater-kgs

pound- faat

faat/mia

f aat/sac

kilomatars/ar

knots

ma tars /mis
milas/br .
faat/ sac/ sac
Vns/hr/sac
matars/ sac/ sac
milas/br/ sac
faradays

coulombs /sq. ma tar

cu. inchas

litars

cu. matars

gallons (U.S. liq.)

litars

cu. matars

litars

quarts (U.S. liq.)


cu. faat
cu. inchas
cu. yards

gallons (U.S. liq.)

\itars

radian*

resolutions /min

eubie cm.
rrama
grains
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1
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0
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1,550
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16,387
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61,023
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1,000
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10

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~ta.(a\£: s. CONVISSIOH FACTORS

page 2£.*2.1

gyp^TURAL ^NAI Y qig MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

to convert

OTO

MULTIPLY ST
faae

frrc of wacar
faac of wacar
f aac of vatar
faac of wacar
faac of wacar
f aac/min
f i«t/aia
f aac/min
f ut/stc
f aac/sac
f aac/sac
f aat/sac
f oo t- pounds
f oo t- pounds
f oo t- pounds
foot-pounds

f OOe«p01TTlril

foot-pounds

footpounds

f oo t* pounds /tain

foot-pounds/ sac

foot-pounds/ sac

foot-pounds/ sac
gallons

gallons

gallons

gal loss

gallons (liq. Br,


gallons (U.S.)
gallons of wacar
gallons /mis
gallons /tain
grains (troy)
grains ( troy)

gTMS

grans
grass
grams
grams
grams

grams /cu. cm.


grams /cu. cm.
grams /li car
grams/ Li tar
grams/ li tar
grams/ sq. cm.
Inn .)

satars
atmospharts
ia. of marcury
kgs/sq/matar

pounds/ sq. ft

pounds/ sq. In.

cms/sac

kms/nr

milas/hr

cms/ sac

kms/hr

knots

milas/hr

Bcu

gr am-cal ori as

j aulas
kg-calorias

kg-matars

kilowatt-ars

nawtan-matars

borsapowar

Bcu/ or

borsapowar

kilowatts

cu. cms.

cu. fsac

cu. incaaa

Hears

gallons (U.S. liq.)

gallons (Imp.)

pounds of wacar

cu. ft/ sac


li tars/ sac

grains (ardp)

grams

dynas

grains

Joulas/macar (navtons)
ouncas (aTdp)
ouncas ( troy)
poundal*
pounds /cu. ft.
pounds /cu. in.
grains /gal
pounds/1,000 gal
pounds /cu. ft.
pounds /sq. ft.

0
0
0

304

62.

0
0

0
30

3
0
3
1
3
4
1
1

3,785.

0.
231.
3.

L.

0.

8.

2.

0.

1.

0.
980.
13.

9.

0.

0.

0.
62.

0.
38.

a.
o.
2.

10- 3

10*

10"

10-3

.3048
.02930
.8826
.8
.43
.4333
.5080
.01829
.01136
.08
.097.
.3921
.6818
.286 x
.3238
.336
.24 x
.1383
.766 x
336 .
030 x
6263
818 x
336 x
0

,1337
0

,783
20095
83267
3433

228- at 10-3
06308
0

06480
7

307 x 10" 3
03527
,03215
07093
43
03613
417
345

062427
.0481

10'
10"

-TAaUE 3 CONVERSION FACTORS

page 2.^.2. Z

STRUCTURAL A MAI YSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

TO CONVERT
— INTO

MULTIPLY BY

inch a*
inches

(at 4°C)

horsepower
horsepower
horsepower

horsepower (250 ft lb/sec)

horsepower

horsepower

horsepower -hrs

horsepower-hrs

inches
inches of mercury
inches of mercury
inches of marcury
inches of mercury
of mercury
of water (at 4_C5
laches of water
inch- pounds
Joules
Joules /cm
Joules /cm
kilograms
kilorrass

kilo^rams/cu. meter
kiiorrams /meter
kiloframs/sq. cm.
kiiorrams/ sq. cm.
kilogram- calories
kilorr am- calories
kilotram-caloriaa
kilorram meters
kilometers
kilometers
kilometers/hr
kilometers/hr
kilometers/hr
kilometers/hr
kilometers/hr
kilowatts
kilowatts
kilowatts
kilowatt-hrs

kip

kips/sq. in-
fects
knots
loaots

Btu/min

foot* lbs /min

foot*lbs/sec

horsep ower(me trie) ( 542

kilowatts

watts

Bra

foot- lbs

centimeters

a cao spheres

feet of water
ks;s/sq. meter

pounds/ sq. ft.

pounds/ sq. in.

inches of mercury

pounds /sq. ft.

newtoo-meters

kg-maters

poundals

pounds

poundals

pounds

pounds /cu. ft.


pounds/ft.
atmospheres
pounds /sq. in.
Btu

foot-pounds
k- -me tars
foot-pounds
feet
miles
ts
knots

f eet/min
feet/ sec
teats

me tars /min
Btu /min
foot- lbs/sec
horsepower
Bra

kilonewton
mef apascals
kilometers /to
nautical miles /to
statute miles/hr
feat/sec
meters /sac

42.4m
33,000.
250.0

ft lb/sec) . 1.014
0.7457
745.7
2,547.

1.98 x 10 4
2.540
0.03342
1.133
345.3
70.73
0.4912
0.07335
5.204
0.11296
0.1020
723.3
22.43
70.93
2.205
0.06243
0.6720
0.9678
14.22
3.963
3,068.
426.9
7.233
3,281.

0.6214
27.78
54.68
0.9113
0.3396
16.67
56.92
737.6
1.341
3,413.

4.4432

6.6943

1.8532

1.0

1.131

1.639

0.5148

TABLE ^ CONVERSION FACTORS

page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
TO CONVERT

INTO

MULTIPLY 3Y

11 hICd

cu> ca.

11 C1X3

cu. faat

ix ctxa

cu. inchas
il tars

auATta (U.S. Llo. )

u was » vap V ~ • ^ •

negapascax

pounds/so,. In*

aavron/ sq • TTTP

ffaat

ma tars

lnc&as

na tars /tain
ess /sac

StStarS/aEXS

£ aat/ 3aC

na cars / ala

knots

ma tars/min

matars/ sac

faat/ Bin

IdX OBM t ■ T3 / hx

talCITS/ 3«G
mi 1 as /nr '

matars/ sac

mi 1 /tr4 n

oousd« f t

n 1 as V OJIU t • /

faat

Qlllta ^ nlUfc. /

ldlottatars

mi*as y umu e. ;

nil** ( ifiniti^
DU X S3 \ 3 b> t»*» /

faat

mils 3 (jUOltl)

fell ona tars

Bill A3 V 3 UCUCl;

mi 1 MM ( w an C . )

wH 1 a* /Ht
BU 1 m9 1 OI

f tat/l«C

m<4 T a* /'hi'

knots

mi 1 *s /h.T
matars/sac

1 1 tfPAf A**

nx x i mi tiia

lnc&as

mi is

inch as

Nfvton

pounds

Nawcon

Oynss

Navton~ma tar
{sehaflouBil

Navton/sq. mm

OUSCaS

grains

ounces

gTSBLS

OlinCaS

ouncas ( troy)

pOUttdsls

• **™*

pound a. Is
pounds

pounds

grams

pounds

kilograms

pounds

navtons

pounds

ouncas

pounds

ouncas ( troy)
pounds

poundals

pounds

pounds (troy)

pounds of vatar

cu. fate

pounds of waear

gallons

pound* faat

ca* grans

pound-f aat
matar-kgs

pounds /cu. ft.

kgs/cu. swear

Ta-&\JE S conversion factors

1,000.0

0.03331

61. 02

1.037
143.039
1.0
3.281

39,37
1.667
0.03466
0.03238
03728

237
03728
233

196
3
2
0
7

6,080/27
1.333
1.1316

5,280

1
0
1
0
0
437,

609
,3684
,467
3634
,4470
0.03937
0.001
0.22431
1 x 10 3
8.3307
1.0
3

28.3493
0.9113

14.10
0.03108
433.3924
0.4336
4.4432

16.0

14.5333
. 32.17
1.21328
0.01602
0.1198
13,823.

0.1383

16.02

page 2.C. 2*4

{STRUCTURAL ^|VSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIViStON

TO CONVERT

INTO

MDLTXJIT BT

pounds /cu. in.


pounds/ft
pounds/in.
pounds /sq. in.,
pound* / sq . in.
pounds/ sq. in-
pounds/sq.ia.
pounds /jq.ia-
quadrsnts (angle)
quadrants (angle)
radians
radians
radians /sac.
radians/ sac.
revolutions
revolutions /min
t tvo lu ti ons /min
slug
slug

s quart can r1 ma tars


squaxa feat
a quart Inrhtt
s^uart kilomaten
j quart ma tars
squart mil Lima tars
tamparatara (°C) +273
temperature ( C) + 17.78
temperature + 460

tamparatura (°T) • 32
tons (Ions;)
tons (Ions;)
cons ( Ions;)
tons (matric)-
tons (ma eric)
tons (snort)
tons (short)
hntts

kgs/cu. ma tar

kg a /mt tar

gss/em

ionospheres

feat of vatar

inches of mareury

kgs/sq. ma tar

mtgapaacals

degreas

radians

da era as

quadrants

resolutions /min

r e vo luti ons / s ac
radians

dagxtas/sac

radians /sac

kilogram

pounds

sq. incfaas

sq. ma tars

sq. cms.

sq. mil as

sq. faat

sq. inches Q

absolute temperature ( C)

tamparatara (t)

absolute temparatura (:)

tamparatura (°C)

kilograms
pounds

tons (short)

kilogram*

pounds

pounds

pounds (troy)
fitu/far

2. 7 0C X

1 04

1 ■ *KSO

170. 0
2. 307

i nit

703. 1

6.o94e x

90.0

1.571

37 .30
0 . 6366

0. 159 i

£ 1 fl 1

6.Z83

& A

6.0

A 1 A /. ^
0. 1047

14.3939

32.17

0.1330

0.09290

6.452

0.3861
10.76

1.550 x

io-3

1.0

1.8

1.0

5/9
1,016.
2,240.
1.120
1,000.
2,205.
2,000.
2,430.56

3.4192

"T^aus* ^> conversion factors

page 2.C.2.5

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Data Source, Section 1.3 Reference 3

Tensile
Strength

Vicxers-

Firth.
Diamond

Brineil
3000 kg .
lOxnxn SU
Bail

Hockweii |

A Scale

3 Scale

C Scale

60 kg
120 deg
Diamond
Cone

100 kg
1/16 in.
Dia Stl
Bail
150 kg
120 deg
Diamond
Cons

KSl

Hardness
Number

Hardness
Number

50

104

92

58
52

108

96

61

54

112

100

64


56

116

104

66

56

120

108

68

60

12S

113

70

62

129

117


72

64

135

122

74

66

139

127

76

MB

68

142

131

77.5

70

149
136

79

72

123

140

80.5

74

157
145

*?it

(O

162

150

83

78

167
154

SI"

84.5

80

171

158

52

85.5

82

177
162

53

87

HARDNESS CONVTESION . TABL2

page 2G .2*1

STRUCTURAL A ^AIYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Tensile

Vickers-

Firta
Diamond

Brineli

Rockwell

3000 lc%
10mm Stl

A Seaie

3 Scale

C Scale

Sail

60 kg;
120 def
Diamond

Cone
100 kg
1/16 in.
Dia Stl

150 kf

Diamond
Cone

ksi

Hardness
Number

Number

83

179

155

53.5
87.5

85

186

171

54

89

87

189

1 /*

55
90

89

196

56

91

91

203

136

56.5
92.5

•~

93

207

190

57

92.-5

^™

92

211

193
57

94

97

215

197

57.5

95

99

219

201
57.5

95.5

102

227

210

59

97

™™

104 '

235
220

60

98

19

107

240

225

60.5

99

20

110
245

230

61

99. 5

*M

112

yyt

61.5

100

22
115

255

241

62

101

23

118

261

247

62.5

101.5
24

120

267

253

63

102

25

HARDNESS CONVTRSI ON . TAB LI £^

page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
Tensile
Streagin

Vic Jeers-
r inn
diamond

Brineil

*»noo \ct

JUUU

10mm Sti
Ball

Rockweil

A Scale

3 Scale

C Scale
60 kg
120 deg
Diamond

Cone

100 kg
1/16 in.
Dia SU
Bail

150 kg
i^u ceg
Diamond

Cone

ksi

Number

Number
259

63.5

103

2d

265

64

27

123

■W ^
64.5

28

132

27Q

65

29

135

304

*2o
65.5

30

139

312

66

31

142

321

Jul
66.5

32

147

330

67

33

150

339

318
67.5

34

155

348

J*/

63

35

loo

<
337

68.5

36

IDS

367

347

69

37

376
337

69.5

38

176

386

367

70

39

181

396
377

70. S

40

188

406

387

71

41

194

417
398

71.5

42

HARDNESS CONVERSION. TABL2 £=>

page

ftTpnnniHAi ANA1 VSIS MANUAL

GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

Tensile

Strength
viexers-

Firta

Diamond

Rockwell

3000 kg
Item SU

A Scale

B Scale

C Scale

Ball

60 kff
120 deg

U MUmUmU
Cone

100 kg
1/16 in.
Dia Stl
BaU

150 kg
120 deg.
Diamond
Cone

ksi

Bardnese

Number

Hardness
Number

201

428
408

72

43

208

440

419

72.5

44

215
452

430

73

45

221

465

442

73.5

46
231

479

453

74

47

237

433

464

75


48

246

508

476

75.5

49

256

523

488

76

50

264

539

500

76.5

51

273

556

5X2

77
52

283

573

524

77.5

53

294

592

536
78

54

304

611

548

75. 5

55

HAKDHESS CONVULSION .TAB LI W

pagt l<i.3.^
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAtR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DtVtSlON

Data Source, Section 1 .3 Reference


TABLE .7
STANDAM ATMOSHfSRI TABU

All
fl "

r *c. «

> Hg 1

U. w

:■' -
h' '

ll/MC

All
(t

MM
1MB

it j d o r

11.4 13 0 J

ill 11. • 1

44.1 91 K
•47 7.1 r
111 S.I 1

147 J
IM J

r.n i

I.B7 1

I.M
I.M

MO 1

041

MB

■47

47B

4711
.M»
41 SI
•Ml
.Ml J
MS4 .
14 10 .
•SM
M74 .
474]

TioT

MBS .
MM
1774
MM

M44

mo

M41
M3J
•310

nil

.9447
.1744
4773
.MM

4441
Mil
MM
.9441
M70

Ml*

.4134
UM
.■111
4171

1117
llll
MM
1109

not

IBM

1000

3000
4OO0
MM

MM
MM
I0MO

)J» 31 I
144 +1 1 i
3B.S -*4 7
30 4 -34 1

13.1 -»4 ?

I.M

in

771
144
DM

444

on

in

SI3
415

.*»•
4IM
.TOM
.7470
.7341

M14
JJI*
J474
JIM
1477

.9307
.9319
44 H

SMI

.0311

9701
•73 J
•771
.444*
MM

.7MJ
.7179

nn
4414
MM

IBM
IBM
IBM

1M1
1071

OM

7M
MM

4000

loom

NOOO
17000
IJ000
144)00
IMM

11000
17M
I3MS
IMM
IMM
1«.l -4 4 1
It.] -4 1 1
114 -IB 1 1

S.I -11.7 I
SJ -14.7 1

174
103

in

1M
1 M

4M
340
744

343

.JIM
.4433
4713
.ISM

.sit?
44SI
1374
•1*3
4*43

7911

MU
UM

4111
MJ9
M41

.9744
.•ITS
.4104
.4037
•M4

Mil
.017*
.914]
.fMO

•470

43M
.40*1
.M34
SMI
VM4

»'»
070
OM
M7
OM
OM
OM
Ml
Ml
•17

jwjc

fit -1*4 1
-14 -IM 1
-S.l -M.J

-•• -m

4.77
S.SJ
4M
4 34

3.75

I4J

tot

037
1014

077 .S

MM

JM
MM

4111
.3370

.JM4
.7470
-JMO
4474
.71*0

MM
1703
4444
4J9I
4101

•400

.Mil
■ 717
.MM
.4471

MM

.•397
•Ml
•314
•707

.3111

4444

.4471
4417
4747

14000
irooo

IMOB

700M
11000
27000
73M
7*000
»0M

71M
330M

7MW

|».» -70 4
14.1 -71.1
■734 -30 4
70 • -M l

J0 .2 -34.3

3 10
7 44

1 11
I.M
t.ia

•73.4
M17
0M.1
OTfl.3
711.3

41M
.MM
.4M
.444]
4441

.7174
74*4
M33
401)
44M

4404

4773
4044

M74

J711
.01H
.444 J
.4419
.43M
•711

.4710
•717
.•174
.1130
•100

*OT»
MN

.171 J
4147
.3177

1074
1071
1071
1014

IMM

l7on
-u r -h i

-17 J -M S
-46. y -M.S
44 4 -42.S
-44.0 -44 4

0.43

0.17

i m

• 717
I MS

711 0
710.1
447.1
•374
121 4

.4373
.4173
.4071
JMI
JJII
4SJ0
4444

.•344
.4730
.4110

43 12
43M
41M
3107
7070

411T
4144
.M71
40M

.7*37

4M1
K»4
IW
4444
•404

.3311
JM4
4170
47M
7444

1011

IM

1004
•44.4
441.1

17000
IMM

IIS!!

-SI 4 -44 4
-IS.I -41.4
-M.7 -M.4
-43.2 -S1.4

0.4M

a.iM

j.jij

JJ87
7.041

MJ

snj

M7.3
S71.I

JM

44 J]
4344
JZ74
JM*

4M
4443

47M
4473

7437
2JM
7M4
7447
7313
.7M1
.7000
-7T31
.7041
,79M

.MM
.4031
47*3
4713
4714

41l»
4313
4374
419*
.IM

M0.7
M.4
Hit

on. t

0714

37n5
13O0C
UM

MOM
IMM

imm

■M l -MS
-4*4 -MS
-M.J -MS
-44 7 -H.l
-44 7 -MJ

I4U

4.347

• Mr

3.111
SSJB

47J.J
411 4
431.3
4114
3417
J471
4444
471*
4143
4447

MM

.3113
47M
44*3
.4443

4444
41 34
4MB
4*41
Ml

.Jilt
.7919
.7114
.J9I9
.7910

4471
4471
4471
4471
MJ1

.1014
.1747
1444

M4
M4
M4.9
•444
M4

30041

170B

4MM

41MB
43MB

4SMB

-471.7 -M l
-40.7 -H.J
-M.J -Mi
-M.J -H.S
-H7 -M.S
s.m

1030

4.744
4.3M
4491

173J
3394
331.1
3734
3MB

4M4
4734

Jill
.7031
.IBM

.4444
.477*
4114
4MJ
4M
4 TO*
4MI
4M
4917
44M

.7919
.7919
.7919
.7314
.7110

44J1
4471
4471
M71
4471

49M
44U
.1344

.1314
.17*1

M44

M.9
M44
M44
M.S

4IM
4M

4MM
47MB

-M.J -M.S
-40 7 -H I
-14.7 -M.1
-44.7 -M l
-44.7 -M l

4.141
3*M
1.77*
3.9*1
1.479

7934
7704
7MJ

7M.I
3474

.IMS
.17M
.1074
.IM7
.1117

.4199
41*1

JM
JMI

4JB7
4331
41*4
.1741
4149

.7910
.711*
.7910
4910
.7910

4471
4471
44JI
44 Jl
4471

.1103
.UM
1093
.1*41
.0*01*

M44
Ml
M.9
•444
M4

47M

iiiil

-M.J -M.S
-44 7 -M.S
-M.J -M S
-41 7 -H I
-44 7 -H-5

3.744
3.1 II
3.MS
1.B74
7.MJ

1304
7704
701.7
1 14.«
1M4

.Mil

.1343

.1311
JIM
.1107

JM
JJI*
J4M
J344
JM

40*1
4M0*
.JS10
4919
.7110
.7910
.791*

M71
4471
4471
4471
MJ1

4M1B
.M107
Ml 44
4JM9

M.9
M.9
9*4.9
044.9
M44

SIM
9701
MBM

3JM

-M.J -M l
-M.J -H.S
-44 7 -H I
-M.T -M S
-41.7 -MS

14*7
3 444

Mil

\fd

in 4

1714
144.0
1174

1414

.1101

.1MJ
.1034

4M77

4MI4

4371
4747

jait

4143
JM

44370
4*174
47747
4J474
47*71

.7919
.7919
.711*
.711*
.7910

44 Jl
44JI
4471
44 Jl
4471

474M
4JM
44 7M
44434
44117

Ml
M.9
0444
0444
9444

1701

•1MB
47M
•MM

MM

-M.J -M S
-M.J -MJ
-44.7 -M l
-M.T -MJ
-44 7 -443
1.011
1.434
1.433
I.J4J
1 MS

1414
1344
174.7
1134
1174

40473
4BSS1
4B1M
4JJ4J
47443

4*41
4*74

4ns

4707
J711

44744
4441*
4*117
4MM

.7119
.791*
.791*
.7919
.7919

4471
4471
4471
4471
4471

4444*
41171
49111
4M44
4444*

M4

94*.!
M. 1
•414
MJ
bomI

MMB
BMM
7MM

-M.J -M-S
-M.7 -M S
-44.7 -MJ
-M.J -444

I.M J
1.113
1.441
IJJ4
141*

1114
I0J4
1014
•T.I*
•343

47*11
44774
444M
4BIM
41431

40M

414
JSI
447
4413

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page VmA- 1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

TaM* 8. Co*mc»«nu of Stattc and SUdtng Motto*

ikvtcrcnci- knm. iiuiKjic the lutincant umU: numlicrs in parent hc*> g»* the
MateriaJa

Hard ateel on hard ataal.

MUd iteel ei> niild atotl ,

Hard •(*•! on araphitt . . .

Hard aieel on babbitt (ASTM No. 1).

Hard aieel oa babbitt (ASTM No. I).

Hard itaal on babbitt (ASTM No. 10) .

Mild ate*l on eadmium ailw

Wild ata*l on phoapbor bro&aa


Mild iwl on copper Load

Mild aieel on coat iron

Mild ateel on lead

Nickel on mild ateel.

Aluminum on mild ataal.

MunMium on mild atae!

Macneaium on iDaraceium

Tefloa on Teflon

Teflon on aioal

Tun#iten carbide oa tunreun carbide.

Tuo«at*a carbide on ewel

TuoftM carbide on cop par

Tuncawn carbide on iron

Doodad carbide on copper

Bonded carbide on iron

Cadmium oa mild ataal

Capper on mild etael


Nickel on nickel

Braaa oa mild Meal

Brace oa caal iron

Zinc oa caat iron

Macneaium oa cact iroa

Copper on cact iroa

Tin on caat iroa

Load on caat iron

Aluminum ob aluminum

Glace on «taai

Carboa oa (lane

Garnet ob mild ataal

Glaae oa nickel

Copi<cr oa flaae

Caat iroa oa caat iron

Broan on caat iroo


Oak on oak (parallel to craia)

Oak os oak (perpendicular)

Leather on oak (paraUol)

Caat iroa on oak

Leather oa caal iroa

Laminated ,

Fluiad rubber boariac oa ataal .

Static

SI id in*

Dry

0.71 ID
0.74 <t«>

o.ji <n

0.70 (11)

0.4] (II)

0.1 1 (1. a)
0.2X1, •>
0. IS (I. c)
0.11 f I. a*)
0.0075 (IB. pi
0.0032 (10. A)

0.04 (1. a)
0.23 (I. 6)
0. 13 (I. el
0.08 (1. d)
O.0S3 (I. *)
0. 17 (I. 6)
0. 1 1 (I. t)
0.09 (I. d)
0.00 ( 1. it
0.23 (1. 6)
0.12 (1. c>
0.10 {I. d)
0.11 (I. «)

Dry

t.'tS (M)

b.'ii '<•)'

0.4 (22)
0.04 (22)
0.04 f22>
0.2 (22)
0.3 (22)
0.33 (23)
0.1 (23)
0.33 (23)
0.0 (23)

'si Vt) '

1.10 d*t
0.51 (I)

o.'os'iui
i.05 (la)

1.0} ( 14)
0.04 (•)

0.71 (l>
O.U {<)
1. 10 (14)

0.42 (9)

0.34 (0)
0.41 (0)

0. 103 (13. c>


0.5 (I./)

0.01 (22. y)
0.12 (22. a)
0.00 (22. a)

0.01 (10. »>


0.003 (10. f)

0.42 (2)

0.57 (3)

0.33 (6)

0.33 (II)

0.34 (3)

0.23 (41
0.95 (II)
0.44 (3)
0.47 (3)
0.42 (3)

0.029 (3. a)
G .081 (3. c)
0.0B0 (5. t)
0.030 (5. j>
0.004 (5, d)
0. 105 (3. 4)
0.0*6 (5. 1)
0. 100 (3. m)
0. 12 (3. a)
0.09 (3. a)
0. 19 (3. «)

0. 14 ( 1. 4)
0.06 < I. el
0. I I (I. a*)

0. 14 (I. »>
0.045 (I, e)
0.07 II. d)
0.08 (II. A)
0. 13 (I. b>
0.04 (l.c)
0.053 (I. 4)

047 (2./)

173 a.n
145 (2. /)

i ij a.n

3(11./)
170 (3. *)

0.44 (3)
0.34 ())
0.33 (3)
0.44 (41
0.30 (4)
0.21 (7)
0.23 (7>
0.24 (7)
0.32 (7)
0.43 (7)
1.4 (3)
0.40 (J)

e n (3)

0.39 (31
0.54 (31
0.33 (3)
0.15 (9)

22 (4)
40 (9)

32 "(ft
32 (4)
49 (4)
.54 (9)

0.3) (12)

0.04 (21/1
0.04 (21 /)

0. IS (17. a)
0.12 (3. *»

0.04 (3. a)
0.114 (3. •)

0.070 (9, d>


0.044 ( 9. a)
0.077 (4. a)
0. 144 [9. r)
0.047 (9. a)
0.072 (9. ■)
0.073 (9. a)
0.34 (9. ()
0. 13 (9. a)
0.05 (12. I)
0.03 (13. 0

/ii r h.11 T— . ASMS 1990- (S3 Clarke. Uacoln. and Starrett. Pnc. API. 1935: (3)
Beare and

Bo^ "^T 5a« iSt: S SI- Tr~». ASME. HMO: (» Boyd an J Roberta T~

/«, IT kTj-T/ UUk. aaW JkTec*.. 1024: (7) Honda aad Unit la. Jew- / •/ M,

Vr- jlf^.r Pil.h U1T 1940 (17) Gonmt. Conlaraacc oa Frietioa and Surface Fuuah.

Jll ^L^,^J^)m^^mimmni ml: (#) medium mineral oil plua H P«"»»t

r^T^ r^oxid. b^- O") rraphiu: (4) turbine oil piu. 1 percent graphite: (I) turbwa o.
plua 1
^2lit £ZZ ilk? ^ tuSTa. id £2L Bursal) : in) olive oil: (•) palmitic acid: nc«oi«c
aod;
Z&2^M£^M>S!i* W «r,l oil; (a-) oetyl alcohol: (» «Oma : (,) 1 parent Uun.
aaid ia pereAa oiL

page 1£. G . t

r
rs

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIfl AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

SECTION 27.0

REPORT FORMAT

GUIDELINES FOR STRESS ANALYSIS REPORT STANDARDS ARE CONTAINED


IN ZS-7-002 REV. A. 8-14-63.

A COPY OF THIS REPORT IS SHOWN ON THE PAGES FOLLOWING.

page 2T.O . \

STRUCTURA1 A^AI YSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

r
1.1
1.2

TITLE
ZS-7-002

STRESS ANA TJTSYS REPORT STANDARDS


TftTfffft ny P.ONTENTS

Table of Contents.

References

Introduction.

PAGE
27.1.1
27.1.4
,27.1.4

.27.1.5

1 .0 General Requirements
Preliminary Stress Analysis Reports 27 1 - 5

Final Stress Analysis Reports 27 . 1 .5

1.3 Farms.

j_ f 4 J5eadinQs»«»»«»"« •*••*** *••**•****•*"

1.5 Legibility and Reproducibility. 27.1.6

1.5.1 Final Reports.. —

1 .5.2 Preliminary Reports

\ ,q Seciii ity — ....,.........«».»

>»....*....■»...••....*...•

27.1.6
27.1.6

27.1.6
27.1.6
27.1.6
2.0 Report Arrangement 27.1.7

„ _ 27.1.8

3 . 0 Cover..-

4.0 Security Classification Sheet 27.1.8

27 1 8

5.0 Title Rage.... — • *

5.1 FlnalRepcrt 27.1.8

5.2 Prdiininary Report 27.1.9

5.3 Arrangement of Title Block. 27.1.9

5.4 Foreword. 27.1.9

page 27.1.1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

6.0

7.0
6.0

9.0

10.0

11.0

12.0
12.1
12.2
12.3

13.0

14.0
15.0

16.0
17.0

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont)

Pag*

Table of Contenta Z1A*^>

Reference* • *-

.. 2~M- 10
Summary • • ••••••••• «-

Syabola • ? * • ' *- ' '

Sign Convention.... ••••• 2"?-*" ^

Introduction 27. \ - 1 1

Deacription * , ^

Physical Deacription

Functional Description L*7 . ( -iZ

Geometry 21- 1-l2

Section Properties • 21 - 1 . * Z

Liat of Loading Conditiona with Controlling

Yariablea 2*7 -

Suanry of Deaign Criteria 2*1. \* 13

Suanary of Method of Analyaia, Procedure and

Aaaiuaptiona • • 21- 1 -

Load Analyaia 2T*l- ! ^


C3

page2l< U?-

fiTPllCTURAL A NALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

TABLE OF CONTENTS ( Coot )

Pago

18.0 Load Analysia Su«ury Tl + \*^

19.0 Stroao Analyoia 17 A

19.1 Gonoral Roquironenta VM^A-

19.2 p«rtin«nt Data* • *•* 2"M *l4"

19.3 Diagrana - T7- 1 * 15

19.4 Loada IT-I-" 5


19.5 R«foronc»a • 2"M«*5

19 # 6 Margina of Safoty

19.7 Calculation* * l' 1 ^

19.8 Unorthodox Mathoda • VIA* ^

19.9 Spocial Factors 17* I • lk»

19.10 Allowable Stroaaoe 21 .1- Ho

19.11 NoD-critlcml Raquiroaonta 1*7. 1 - l<o

19.12 Now or Roviaod Stroaa Analyaia l^.l-Kb

Standard Sign Convention and Coordinate Axes Z~lA.

MlniBua Margina of Safoty Sugary. 27 A *Zl

Liat of Standard Symbol*. 2TJ- \

page 21.

7& V

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL D YNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

REFERENCES

HIL-A-8860
18 Hay 1960

Airplane Strength and


Rigidity - General
Specification for

MIL-A-8868
18 Hay 1960

Airplane Strength and


Rigidity - Data and Report.

INTRODUCTION
This specification covers the form, scope, com-
position and style of all stress analyses to be
submitted under terms of the applicable contracts
to demonstrate the required structural integrity.
It shall apply to both preliminary and final reports
as defined herein.

765"

page 27.14-

CTPUCTURAI ANALYSI S MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

1.0 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS ;

This specification complies with the intent and *PP*i-


csfale scope of Military Specification MIL-A-8868, Stress
Analysis Form and Content." In order to standardize the
reports, and to render the. of -ore value to those who use
then, certain rules to be followed in the preparation of
•tress analysis reports are given in the following sections.

1.1 PRELIMINARY STRESS ANALYSIS REPORTS :


Preliminary stress analysis reports contain the calculations
performed in analyzing structural components of tne contract
item prior to Stress Group approval of the drawings* draw "
ing changes, engineering orders, etc., and may include load
determination calculations as well as detailed stress analy-
sis. While preliminary reports are not ordinarily submitted
to the procuring or licensing agency, as much of the material
contained in these report- as possible should be incorporated
in the final reports. Preliminary reports serve as reference
material for salvage and design change studies. In order to
serve their function, these reports must be clear and »*H
defined, although not necessarily as neat as a final report.

1.2 FINAL STRESS ANALYSIS REPORTS :

Final stress analysis reports are compiled for submittal to


the procuring or licensing agency as substantiation of the
structural adequacy of the design of the contract item and
its components. Final reports may serve, also, as reference
material for the salvage of defective parts, design changes,
or the establishment of operating restrictions. These re-
ports, in addition to following the form outlined below,
must meet any further requirements of the procuring agency.
Final stress analysis reports shall b-s given a thorough in-
dependent check by the contractor prior to their submission
to the procuring agency. The contractor's approval of each
report is required, and shall be the signature of the re-
sponsible contractor's personnel. The latest stress analy-
sis on each model shall be submitted to the procuring agency
to fulfill the stress analysis requirements. If portions of
the analysis are under revision, the changes to be made shall
be described in an accompanying letter. For each model sub-
sequent to the first experimental model, an Index Report
listing all applicable Stress Analysis Reports for that model
shall be submitted with the Stress Analysis Reports.

pags 2T.\-5

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

1.3 FORMS :

All stress analysis reports, both preliminary and final, shall be


»ade on atandard 8^ x 11 inch vellum, whenever possible; all re-
porta shall be reproducible. Work done by the Computing Labora-
tory for inclusion in a stress analysis report shall be calculated
on vellum.

1.4

HEADINGS:
1.5
1.3.1

Each page of the stress analysis shall bear the following infor-

tion:

1.

Company Name

2.

Report Number

3.

Date of Preparation
4.

Name of Analyst

5.

Name of Checker

6.

Revision Dates

7.

Page Number.

Temporary page numbers shall be carried throughout the report until


its completion at which time permanent consecutive Arabic page num-
bers shall be assigned. The reference notation specified in Para-
graph 7.0 should also carry temporary page numbers until comple-
tion of report.
LEGIBILITY AND REPRODUCIBILITY ;
FINAL REPORTS:

The prose, in a final report,


active tense and typewritten,
may be done with soft pencil.

shall be written in third person

Calculations

1,5.2 PRELIMINARY REPORTS ;

Preliminary reports may be done entirely in pencil if desirsd.


1.6 SECURITY ;

All pages, other than the title page, shall be clearly stamped at
the upper and lower edges as to the highest elassif icstion of in-
formation contained thereon. Only those pages containing classi-
fied data are to be stumped. The report cover and title page may
need be classified highor than the highest of any individual page
if ths accumulated effect of pages falls within the scope of «
highor classification*

V.
1C1

page 21. W<o

STRUCTURAL ANALYSI S MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

2.0 REPORT A RRANGEMENT;

All final and preliminary stress analysis reports shall contain the following items
In the
order given, as applicable.

fiF/^TRHY COVER SHEET

COVER

TITLE PAGE

FOREWORD

-TABLE OF CONTENTS

J,]<rr OF REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION

SUMMARY

SYMBOLS

fiTfiN CONVENTION

pffySTCAL DESCRIPTION

nr^rn n N AT - inscription

CEOMETRY

SECTION PROPERTIES

LIST OF LOADING CONDITION S WITH CONTROL! INC, VARIABLES


SUMMARY O F DFSTON CRITERIA

STTMMARY OF MET H OH OF ANALYSTS PROCEDURE AND ASSUMPTIONS

LOAD ANALYSIS

LOAD ANALYSIS SUMMARY

STRESS ANALYSIS

A discussion of the individual subjects, their content and form, is presented in the
following
paragraphs.
page 27.1.7

STRUCTURAL jftMAt YSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/C0NVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

3.0 SECURITY COVER SHEET

For classified reports, a cover sheet is required. This sheet


indicates the classification of the report and contains the
following note:

"This document contains information affecting


the National Defense of the United States
within the raeaning of the Espionage Laws,
Title 18, U.S.C., Section 793 and 794. Its
transmission or the revelation of its con-
tents in any manner to an unauthorized per*
son is prohibited by law."

4.0 COVER :

Each basic report shall be enclosed in a standard report cover


which provides a cut-out allowing a portion of the title page
to be visible when the cover is closed. Although not mandatory,
It is recommended that covers be of sufficient light color to
permit legible rubber stamping of security and other information
thereon. The cover shall be stamped, on the back and front, at
the upper and lower edges, as to its classification *■ defined
in Paragraph 1.6.

3.0 TITLE PAGE :

3.1 FINAL REPORT :

The title page of a final report shall contain the following


items:

1. Company and Division Name

2. Company Model Designation

3. Procuring Agency Model Designation

4. Report Number

5. Completion Date of Report

6. Title of Report

page 27. l-B

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

5.1 FINAL REPO RT: fCONT.l


7.

Contract Number

8.

Signature of Person or Persons Preparing the Report

9.

Signature of Person or Persons Checking the Report

10.

Signature of Structures Group Engineer or his Representative

11.

Number of Pages in the Report


12.

Number of Diagrams In Report, If Diagrams are Printed by Another Process

13.

Record of all Revisions Made After Original Submission of Report to Procuring or

Licensing Agency

14.

Security Classification of Report

&2 PRELIMINAR Y REPORT:

The title page of a preliminary report shall contain all the items listed in
Paragraph 5. 1.
except items numbered 9, 10. 11. 12 and 13.

5J3 ARRANGEMENT OF TITLE BLOCK

The title block is that portion of the title page which Is visible through the cut-
out of the
standard report cover. The title block on all reports shall contain the following
information in the order given:

1. Report Number

2. Title of Report

3. Procuring Agency Model Description

4. . Contract Number

5.4

This single page shall summarize what contractual requirements have been satisfied by
submittal of the report. (See example on page 27.1.31}

6.0 T A P T E QF CONTENTS

The table of contents shall list, in order of their appearance in the report, all
major and
minor divisions with their appropriate page numbers in such a manner as to form an
outline of the report. As a minimum, all items listed in paragraph 2.0. after TABLE
OF
CONTENTS, shall be included. Major divisions of the stress analysis portion of the
report shall- be listed.
page 27.1.9

STRUCTURAL flfsl^VSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

7.0 REFERENCES

All drawings, report specifications, and other document, which


•re referred to in the report shall be itemized
in the list of references. Each reference shall subsequently
be identified in the report by number to aroid repetition of
lengthy titles.

A record of the references used should be kept as the report is


being written to obviate the necessity of reviewing the
report after completion to obtain the references. For addi-
tional use of references, see Para. 19.5.

References in the report should be made exactly as in the follow-


ing examples:

(Ref. p. 35) - denotes a reference to an item on


Page 35 of the subject report.

(Ref. No. 4) - denotes a reference to document No.

4 listed in Page of "REFERENCES."


(Ref. GD/A File No. 663-4-63-025) - denotes a
reference to an rt in-house w memo
which has not been incorporated
into a referenced document.

8.0 SUMMARY:

The Summary describes in concise terms the accomplishments of


the report, and in the case of a stress analysis report, con-
tains a tabulation of minimum ma rgins of safety for all com-
ponents analyzed. This margins of safety summary shall gire,
in tabular form, the following data for each component. LA
sample minimum margin of safety summary sheet is included in
this report. (Ref. p. 18).]

1. Part Number

2. Name of Part

3. Material

4. Heat Treatment or Temper

5. Critical Loading Conditions


77/

page 2"?.UO

STRUCTURAL A^AIVfilS. MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

8.0 STOMART; (Coat)

6. Type of loading for which the margin of safety


1* lowest (e.g., tension, compression, tte.).

7. Lowest computed margin of safety. This shall

bo s total (margin, and shall include any special


factors which may be required.

8. Special factors included.

9. Report page number on which the minimum margin


of safety is computed.

9.0 SYMBOLS:

Whenever possible, the symbols used in a stress analysis report


shall conform to those given in "Standard Symbols," listed in
this report. All symbols used shall be defined in a list of
symbols included in the report. See Para. 23.0 for standard
symbols.

10.0 SIGN CONVENTION :

A page showing the sign convention used in the report shall bo


included.. This sign convention shall conform to the convention
given in this specification whenever possible. (Ref. Para. 21.0).

11.0 INTRODUCTION :

An introduction shall be included in all stress reports. The


introduction shall give the following information:

1* Purpose of the report.

2. Model to which the report ia applicable


3. Specification authorizing its preparation

4. The scope of the report, i.e., the extent of


the analysis or the area covered by the report
and its limitations.

page 17.1,11

pjqtirTURAL AflftiVfilS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

12.0 DESCRIPTION :

A physical and functional description, and a sketch showing the


required basic geometry, shall be included in all stress analysis
reports* Preliminary reports may combine any or all of these
subjects in a single page if this can be done without deleting
necessary inf oraation.

12.1 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION :

The physical description shall describe with sketches, drawings


snd prose, the structure analyzed, its component parts, and its
relation to the next assembly and to the entire contract item.
This description should leave no question as to the scope of
the analysis.
12.2 FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION :

The functional description shall describe the method of operation


of the structure analyzed, its load points, method of reacting
loads, and any limitations on its operation.

12.3 GCOMCTRY :

The geometry shall include all critical dimensions* angles, toler-


ances and their relationship to each other.

13.0 SECTION PROPERTIES :

When section property calculations are extensive they shall be


grouped in an* organized arrangement and summarized. The sections
shall be illustrated in this report. (Rcf . Para. 19.3 and Para.
7.0).

14 . 0 LIST OF LOADING CONDITIONS TTTH CONTRO LLING VARIABLES:

The list of loading conditions shall include all conditions to


which the part is subjected. This list shall include:

1. Condition Number

2. Condition Title

3. Controlling Variables

4. Description of Condition

3. Reference as to source of loads and/or variables.


page 21.111

STRUCTURAL AN AIYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVA1R AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

14.0 LIST OF LOADING CONDITIONS »ITH CONTROLLING VARIABLES : (Cont)

When all possible loading conditions sre not completely covered


in the report and it ia not obvious that these conditions are
not critical, a itattMot ahall b« made to the of fact that theae
conditiona have been investigated and found to be not critical •
Condition number* and titlaa shall be cooaiatent with thoee usad
in the governing specification and/or design criteria.

13.0 SUMMARY OF DESIGN CRITERIA :

The design criteria summary •hall restate all portions of the


design criteria, with reference aa to the source, which apply
to the atructure under consideration.

16.0 SUMMARY OF METHOD OF ANALYSIS , PROCEDURE AND ASSUMPTION'S ;


This section of the report shall contain a complete statement
of the assumptions aads regarding loads, their combination,
distribution, snd aethod of reaction, and any other aasump-
tlons aads that are appiicabls to the analysis. Specific

assumptions regarding individual items may be stated in the \


analysis.

A description of the method of analysis shall be given, to-


gether with the reaaon(a) for its choice if there is a choice
of several methods.

The general procedure adopted to carry out the method of anal*


ysia shall be described ia this section of the report.

17.0 LOAD ANALYSIS 1

This section of the report shall contain calculations for the


determination of external loads which the structure must sus-
tain as required by the applicable apecif ication and/or deaign
criteria. All basic loads used for calculations shall be refer-
enced as to their source. In cssss where the analysis eontaina
conditiona in addition to those required by the appiicabls spe-
cification, the origin of the loads or their computation shall
be included.

page 17.1.13

71 k-
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

17.0 LOAD ANALYSIS : (Cont)

Internal lead* shall be computed as needed in the Stress Analy-


sis section of the report* Condition numbers and titles shall
be consistent with those used in the "List of Loading Conditions'*
(Rsf. Para. 14.0).

18.0 LOAD ANALYSIS SUMMARY :

This summary shall include all pertinent load information as


calculated in the load analysis section of the report. Prefer*
ably, tliia information shall be given in tabular form so that
critical conditions and their corresponding: loads may be readily
obtained. The condition numbers and titles shall be consistent
with those used in the "List of Loading Condi t ions, n ( Ref • Para.
14.0). The following mini mum information shall be given for
each condition summarized.

1) Condition Number

2) Condition Title

3) Point at which load is applied •

4) Magnitude of load
5) Direction of load

6) Whether load is yield, limit, ultimate, operating


proof or burst*

19.0 STRESS ANALYSIS :

19.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS :

Each page shall be titled in sufficient detail to associate that


page with a specific load or structural analysis.

19.2 PERTINENT DATA :

The following information shall precede each detail stress


analysis:

1) Drawing number of part analyzed

2) Next assembly number of part analyzed

3) Part name

4) Material and heat treat information

5) Any other information required to describe the part


and its material properties'

6) Each page must be completely identified with heading


and subheading*

When computer solutions are used, the basic equations, input,


computer program number and a tabulation and/or plot of the com*
puter results shall be included.

page 2.1 A \*r

19.3 DIAGRAMS I

Adequate sketches shall be provided throughout the analysis


which will eliminate the necessity of referring to any drawingi
The following information ehall toe given on each sketch:

1. Title

2. Part number of members shown

3. Any information required to locate the sketeh on


the overall structure.

4. Sections through the structure which are analyzed


■hall be indicated.
19,4 LOADS

Loads shall always be identified as yeild, limit, ultimate,


operating, proof or burst.

19.3 REFERENCES :

Adequate references shall be uaed throughout the analysis. All


data such a* section properties, loads, allowable stresses,
special factors, dimensions, environmental data, etc., shall be
referenced as to their source. Reference notations must be made
mm shown on Page 6.

19.3 MARGINS OF SAFETT :

Margins of Safety are discussed and shall be calculated as shown


in MIL-UDBK-3, "Metallic Materials and Elements for Flight Vehi-
cle Structures." Margins of Safety shall be based on ultimata
loads and ultimate allowable streases or yield loada and yield
allowable atresses, whichever produces the lowest margin of
safety, unless otherwise specified in applicable apecif icationa.
The Margin of Safety shall be set off to the right band side of
the page and underlined twice*

allowable load for allowab le stress) ^ m *x,xx


"• s# " design load (or design stress J ~ >

19.7 CALCULATIONS :.

All steps in the arithmetical work that are necessary for clarity
shall be included. Unita of all quantities shall be shown.
page 2"?- U 15

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

UNORTHODOX METHODS :

Unorthodox methods of stress analysis shall be substantiated for


accuracy and application. The deriration of unusual stress analy-
sis formulae shall be shown.

SPECIAL FACTORS :

Special factors such as fitting or bearing factors shall not be


included until computation of the margin of safety.

ALLOWABLE STRESSES :

The only approved sources for allowable stresses are the following

Military (and other Government Agency) Specifications


MIL- HDBK-3, Metallic Materials and Elements for

Plight Vehicle Structures


General Dynamics/Astronautics Specifications
General Dynamics/ Astronautics Structures Manual
General Dynamics/Astronautics Structures Technical

Memoranda.

The use of other sources is prohibited. If required allowable


stresses are not to be found in the above list of references, the
use of other sources must be approved by: the procuring agency's
responsible representative or the Chief of Stress* Wherever pos-
sible, the allowable strength levels shall be based upon the
analysis of representative element tests and reduced to levels
comparable to those presented in MIL-HDBK-5.

NON-CRITICAL REQUIREMENTS :

Items of major structure judged to be not critical on the basis


of previous analysis, test, or by comparison with other structure
shall bo justified by a statement of the reason(s) for not in-
cluding a detailed analysis.

NEW OR REVISED STRESS ANALYSIS :

New or revised analyses shall be required to cover structural


revisions subsequent to the first stress analysis. For all
models the structure, at all times, shall be fully justified by
the stress analysis. (Revisions to Final Reports must be author-
ized by the contract).

page 27. 1. l£
pTBUCTURAL ^At YSIS MANUAL
GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

STANOARO SIGN CONVE NTION AN O COORDINATE AXES


(FOR GROUNOTUPPSTEQUTPWENT AND FOR 0 AND E MISSILES EMPLOYING AIG)

-2

(•) Y

POSITIVE " INTERNAL'


AXIAL, SHEAR 4 MOM

LOOKING
FORWARD

TARGtT
& DOWN
FOR HANDLING
TO 3 CO*

NOTES:

1 . In general use right tend


rule oriented as shown.

2. Trailers, jigs, towers,


etc, securing flight
vehicle take axis And
sign of secured flight
vrtucle

3 . Ground structures
unrelated to (light
vehicle use same axis
and sir 35 the vtl'd*
in vet he! e position
f gravity lorccs are M.

page 11. u H
7

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

STANDARD SIGN CONVENTION AND COORDINATE AXES:


( FOR SPACE LAUNCH VEHICLES AND G.S.E.)

2. Trailers, jig*, toweis,


etc, securing flight
vehicle take axis I
sign of seemed (light
vehicle.

3. Ground structures unre-


lated to (light vehicle
use same axis & sign as
the vehicle in vertical
position < ♦*• gravity forces are *) .

77f
page IS

5T»"ETUBAL A fJ^'V^'S MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

STANDARD SIGN CONVENTION AND COORDINATE AXES


f CENTAUR BOOSTER. 0A0 BOOSTER A NO (U-E.)

POSITIVE " EXTERNAL"


FORCES k MOM.

(•) X

LOOKING
FORWARD

(-) V
NOTES:
1 . to teneral use neM bud rule oriented as shown.

2. Trailers, (ip, towers, etc. secunnt I liftit vehicle ttke m mt


sip of secured Night vehicle.

3. Ground structures unrelated to flifM vehicle use se«e am *nc


sign as the vehicle n vertical position (that lore, painty fci'.n

page

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIH AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

GENERAL 0 YNAMICS yASTRONA UTICS


CENTAUR -SURVEYOR AC-3 I ON CONFIGURATION ( FOR REFERENCE ONLY)

46.495

00.00
146.75

229.00

408.72
412.72
412.72

570.00

SURVEYOR NOSE FAIRING

WEDDING BAND

12U2

172.-45
162 JO

219.00

PAY LOAD ADAPTER

408.72

452 .00

522.61

TANK ASSY.

INTERSTAGE ADAPTER
page 21. UO

ftTpiifrruRAL A NA 1 v<;iy manual

GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

CENTAUR ST AN OAR 0 SIGN CONVENTION & COOROINATE AXES

>0.

MINIMUM MARGINS OF SAFETY SUMMARY

PAIT NAME

■o

&
9

PART NO.

MATUIAL

NT.
KSI

CftlTICAL
CONDITION

TYPE OF
LOADING

Ml.
MtfOI
INCIUOU

STRUCTURAL ^ftlY^S MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

LIST OF STANDARD SYMBOLS

A . Araa of crou aoction, aquaro inch**,


a Subscript "sllowabla"; long d invasion of a plata.

B Sloadarnsaa ratio factor*

b Width of aactloaa; subacript "banding",

br Subacript M b«*ring".

C Circumfaranca*
C p Rivot factor.

Fixity coafficiaot for column*; diotanca fron aautral axia


to axtrsma fibor; subacript "compraaaion".
er Subacript "critical".

D DiaMtfr

d Dsptb or boight; mathomatical operator d« noting

dif f arantial.

E Modulua of spasticity in tanaion; avarago ratio of atraaa

to strain for atraaa baloa- proportional limit.

• Elongation; unit ds format ion or atrain; sccaatrlcity ; aub-

acript for Eular'a formula; subscript "snduranca** •

£• tffactivs modulus of olaaticity*

£ Modulua of olaaticity in compression; avaraga ratio of atraaa

6 to atraia bolov proportioaal limit,

Z Sacaat modulua*

t t Taagoat modulua*

F Allowable atroaa; forco.

t Iatoraal (or calculatad) atraaa*


page 27. 1. 25

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAUICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

br

bru

bry

cc

CO
cp

cu

cy

cr

ee

at

LIST OF STANDARD SYMBOLS (Coat)

Allowable banding atroaa, aodulua of rupture in bonding.

Internal (or calculated) priaary bonding atroaa.

Intornal (or calculated) preciae bonding atroaa*


Endurance liait in bonding.

Intornal (or calculated) bearing atroaa*

Ultimate bearing streaa*

Yield bearing etreaa*

Allowable coapreaaivo atroaa.

Internal (or calculated) coapreaaivo atroaa*

Allowable crushing or crippling atroaa (upper liait of


column atroaa for local failure)*

Coluan yield atroaa (upper liait of column atroaa for


primary failure)*

Proportional liait in coaproaaloa.

Ultimate coapreaaivo atroaa*

Coapreaaivo yield atroaa*

Allowable normal atroaa*

Internal (or calculated) normal atroaa*

Allowable aboaring atroaa*

Internal (or calculated) aboaring atroaa*

Critical enear atroaa for buckling of rectangular pane la


Endurance liait in t oral on.

Proportional liait la ehoar.

Modulua of rupture la torsion*

page 11 A.

STRUCTURAL ANAIVSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

au

\
t

tp

ta
ty

LIST Of STANDARD SYMBOLS (Coot)

Ultiaate atreaa in pure ehear. Thia valua repreaeata the


average aheariag atreaa over the croaa aectioa.

Allowable teaaile etreaa.

Internal (or calculated) tensile atreaa.

Proportional limit in tenaioo.

Ultimata tenaile atraaa (froa taata of etaadard apeciaeaa)

Teaaile yield atraaa at which peraanant atrain aquala


0.002 in. /in. (from taata of atandard apeciaeaa).

Modulus of rigidity.

Accalaration dua to gravity*

kai

Haight or dapth; aapacially tha distance between ceatroids


of chorda of baama aod truaaee.

nt of inertia.

Slopo (dua to beading) of neutral plana of a bean, in


radlaaa (1 radiaa - 57.3" ).
Polar lOMOt of inartia.

Toraioa conataot (al for round tubee).

P )

Stiffnaaa factor - ^EI/P

A coaatant, gaaorally eapirlcal; product of inartia, Kip.

Eipa (1,000 pouada) par aquaro inch.

Langth; aubacript "lateral"; lift; aubacript "lift**.

(Not uaed, to avoid eoafuaioa with auaeral 1).

Applied MMDt or couple, uaually a banding aoaeat.

Masa; alopo of lift curve.

page 21. 1.15

-7^

QTR^irTURAL MANUAL
GBNBBAL DYNAMtCS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION
LIST OF STANDARD SYMBOLS (Coot)
M Allowable bending bom at*

H Subscript M nors»l force",

a Subscript "normal"; load factor.

"s

( Ground Load Factor Convention )


( With reapcct to ■ieaile longitudinal axia and horizon)

Longitudinal load factor, poaitivo aft*

Sid* load factor, poaitivo to tho right, whan looking


forward*

Vortical load factor, poaitivo down*

( Flight Load Factor Convention )


Load factor, poaitivo along tho poaitivo X-axis*
Load factor, poaitivo along tho poaitivo Y-axis*
Load factor, poaitivo along tho poaitivo Z-axia«
7*7

page 2^*

STRUCTURAL ANA! YStS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

LIST OF STANDARD SYMBOLS (Coat)


p

Applied Load*

Subscript "polar 1 *; subscript "proportional liait";


ecr i pt " pr i ac i pal " •

sub-

p .

Allowable load.

P-i
Pouada par square inch*

Static lOMnt of a cross aoction*

Shoar flow, dynaaic prvasure*

Stroaa ratio ■ f/F*

Badlua.
8

Shear force; aurface area*

Subscript "shear"; subscript "stif f oner"*

Appliod torsional aoaent; torque; thrust*

Thicknoas.

T a

Allovablo torsional aoaent*

Factor of utilisation; gust velocity*

Subscript "ultiaate"*

Velocity*

Weight.

Specific weight t lb/cu* in* ; dlatributed transversa

i loading*

Effective width of sheet*


pagt 21. 1.21

CfTptiCTURAL ANALYSIS? MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAM1CS/C0NVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

LIST OF STANDARD SYMBOLS (Coot)

Distance along elastic curve of a boa-; aubecript denoting


parallel to or about x-axis*

t Deflection (due to bending) of elastic curve of a beam?

distance fro« neutral axia to giv« fiber; subscript


"yield"; subscript denoting parallel to or about y-axia
2 Section aodulua, i/y.

s Subscript denoting parallel to or about Z-axia.

2, Polar aection modulus « I /y (for round tubes).

P P

page 2/7. UZ5

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

LIST OP STANDARD SYMBOLS (Cont)

Alpha
a

Angle of attack.

Beta

Angle of rotation of a normal to the elaatic axia.


T

Shearing atrain; ratio of specific hoata.

Qm flarti ah
Utl ISC llODi

6
Deflection; logarithmic decrement of viacoua damping.

Vni i 1 An

I'll mi Kriiii*

Zeta
C

Eta

•n

Efficiency; temperature recovery factor.


9

Theta

Angle of pitch; angle of tviat of elaatlc axia.

Angular diaplacement of vehicle in pitch.


e

• •

Angular velocity of vehicle in pitch.

Angular acceleration of vehicle in pitch.

lata

I
K

Lambda
Swee pb&ck angle .

Wavelength; taper ratio.

Mu

Poiaaon'a ratio; coefficient of viscoaity*

N
Nu

Kinematic viscoaity.

XI

5
page 21. 1.19

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

LIST OF STANDARD SYMBOLS (Cont)

Oaicron

Pi

Ratio of circumference to diutttr, 3.14139

Rho
Haas density; radius of gyration*

Sij

Summation.
Normal stress.

Tau

Shearing stress,

Upsilon
Phi

Angular deflection; angle of roll.


<p Angular displacement of vehicle in roll
* Angular velocity of vehicle in roll*
9 Angular acceleration of vehicle in roll
Chi

Psi

Onega

Angle of yaw; effective helix angle.


* Angular displacement of vehicle in yai
i Angular velocity of vehicle in yaw.
? Angular acceleration of vehicle in yai

Angular velocity.

Angular velocity; circular frequency.


SUPERSCRIPTS

(Dot) (i,y,— )
(Double dot) \

(Prime)

(Double Prime)
(Bar) (x,y,~)

First derivative with reapect to time.

Second derivative with respect to time.

Pirst derivative with respect to distance;


effective or precise value; designation of
a second set of axis, or quantities related
to such axes.

Second derivative with respect to distance.


Mean value.

page 2T\. \.2>o

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS MANUAL


GENERAL DYNAMICS/CONVAIR AND SPACE SYSTEMS DIVISION

EXAMPLE OF "FOREWORD"

FOREWORD
This analysis satisfies the requirements to provide a stress analysis
in support of the Critical Design Review (CDR), SDRL GD-062.

The stress analysis consists of a compilation of the working stress


notes made during the process of the design. Because this report is
due to be submitted earlier than the production drawing data pack and
■ because some drawings will not be completed until after CDR, it is not
~a complete final iteration and and hence is not a final stress analysis.
The design, the loads calculation, and the stress analysis are an
iterative process right up to the time of drawing sign-off. Therefore,
this interim stress analysis at this stage of design does not
necesssariiy have all of the final configuration, dimensions, loads or
part numbers.

The above described stress analysis completely fulfills the -


requirement for a stress analysis in support of the CDR. GDSS will,
after design release, proceed to complete the documentation of this
final Jterationjnacccordance with normal practice. The final
^?ajTalysis wiH4nd^ loads, final configuration, part numbers and
more exart^sth^^ of insuring

reliability and rr^ingr^^npteJte record Jhat can be used for "Material


"Review Board" dedstorW j£id evaluation of future missions. A
requirement exists for submitting such final stress analysis to the
customer within 90 days afterreceipt of verification loads cycle
(VLC) loads. .-'Yi; .

- page 27.1 .31

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