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Pressure
For a static fluid, the only stress is the normal stress since
by definition a fluid subjected to a shear stress must deform
and undergo motion. Normal stresses are referred to as
pressure p.
i = force
j = direction
δF dF
p = lim = N/m2 = Pa (Pascal)
δA →0 δA dA
F = normal force acting over A
Geometry
∆A = ∆ ∆y
∆x = ∆ cosα
∆z = ∆ sinα
W = mg
ΣFx = 0 = ρVg
pn∆A sin α - px∆A sin α = 0 = γV
pn = px V = ½ ∆x∆z∆y
− p n ∆ ∆y cos α + p z ∆ ∆y cos α
ΣFz = 0
γ 2
-pn∆A cos α + pz∆A cos α - W = 0 2 ∆ cos α sin α∆y = 0
−
γ ÷∆ ∆y cos α
W = (∆ cos α)(∆ sin α)∆y
2 ∆x γ
∆z − p n + p z − ∆ sin α = 0
2
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006
3
γ
− p n + p z − ∆ sin α = 0
2
pn = pz for ∆ → 0
i.e., pn = px = py = pz
F p = − ∫ p ndA
SB
pg > 0
pa = atmospheric
pA > pa pressure =
pg < 0 101.325 kPa
pA < pa
pA = 0 = absolute
zero
ΣFz = 0
∂p
pdxdy − ( p + dz)dxdy − ρgdxdydz = 0
∂z
∂p
= −ρg = − γ
∂z
Basic equation for pressure variation with elevation
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006
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∑ Fy = 0 ∑ Fx = 0
∂p ∂p
pdxdz − (p + dy)dxdz = 0 pdydz − (p + dx )dydz = 0
∂y ∂x
∂p ∂p
=0 =0
∂y ∂x
p + γz = cons tan t
p1 + γz1 = p 2 + γz 2
p 2 = p1 + γ ( z1 − z 2 )
p1 = p atm = 0
7.06 p 2 = γ oil ∆z = .8 × 9810 × .9 = 7.06kPa
p3 = p 2 + γ water ( z 2 − z 3 )
= 7060 + 9810 × 2.1
27.7 = 27.7kPa
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006
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Pressure Variation for Compressible Fluids:
dp pg
=−
dz RT
dp − g dz
= which can be integrated for T(z) known
p R T(z)
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006
9
Pressure Variation in the Troposphere
dp g dz z' = To − α (z − z o )
=−
p R [To − α(z − z o )] dz' = αdz
g
ln p = ln[To − α(z − z o )] + constant
αR
g
ln p o = ln To + constant po = 101.3 kPa
αR
T = 15°C
p g T − α(z − z o )
ln = ln o
p o αR To
g αR
p ⎡ To − α(z − z o ) ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
po ⎣ To ⎦
T = Ts = −55°C
dp g dz
=−
p R Ts
g
ln p = − z + constant
RTs
p
= e −( z−z0 ) g / RTs
po
p = p o exp[−(z − z o )g / RTs ]
Pressure Measurements
Differential
manometer
Bourdon-Tube
Gage
1. Barometer
pv + γHgh = patm
γ Hg
h H 2O = h Hg = S Hg h Hg = 13.6 × 76 =1033.6 cm = 34 ft.
γ H 2O
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006
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2. Piezometer patm
p = γh gage
patm
p1 + γm∆h − γl = p4 p1 = patm
p4 = γm∆h − γl gage
= γw[Sm∆h − S l]
for gases S << Sm and can be neglected, i.e., can neglect ∆p
in gas compared to ∆p in liquid in determining p4 = ppipe.
Example:
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006
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Air at 20 °C is in pipe with a water manometer. For given
conditions compute gage pressure in pipe.
γair
l = 140 cm
∆h = 70 cm
p4 = ? gage (i.e., p1 = 0)
Pressure same at 2&3 since
same elevation & Pascal’s
p1 + γ∆h = p3 step-by-step method law: in closed system
p3 - γairl = p4 pressure change produce at
γ∆h one part transmitted
throughout entire system
p1 + γ∆h - γairl = p4 complete circuit method
γ∆h - γairl = p4 gage
p + γ −γm∆h −γ ( −∆h) = p
1 f 1 f 2 2
p − p = γ ( − ) + (γ m −γ )∆h
1 2 f 2 1 f
⎛ p1 ⎞ ⎛ p2 ⎞ ⎛ γm ⎞
⎜⎜ + 1⎟
⎟ − ⎜⎜ γ + ⎟ ⎜ γ − 1⎟⎟∆h
2⎟=⎜
⎝ γf ⎠ ⎝ f ⎠ ⎝ f ⎠
For a static fluid, the shear stress is zero and the only stress
is the normal stress, i.e., pressure p. Recall that p is a
scalar, which when in contact with a solid surface exerts a
normal force towards the surface.
Fp = − ∫ p ndA
A
F p = F = ∫ pdA
A
Horizontal Surfaces
p = constant
F = ∫ pdA = pA
dp
= −γ
dz
∆p = −γ∆z
F
(x,y) = centroid of A x
(xcp,ycp) = center of pressure
dF = pdA = γy sin α dA
γ and sin α are constants
p
F = ∫ pdA = γ sin α ∫ ydA y=
1
A A ∫ ydA
A
yA
1st moment of area
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006
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F = γ sin α y A
p = pressure at centroid of A
F = pA
Center of Pressure
ycpF = ∫ ydF
A
∫ y pdA
A
∫ y( γy sin α)dA
A
= γ sin α ∫ y 2 dA
A
2
y cp (pA ) = γ sin α ( y A + I)
2
y cp γ sin α yA = γ sin α ( y A + I)
2
y cp yA = y A + I
I
ycp = y +
yA
ycp is below centroid by I / yA
xcpF = ∫ xdF
A
∫ xpdA
A
x cp yA = ∫ xydA
A
x cp yA = I xy + x yA
I xy
x cp = +x
yA
Free surface
p = γh
Fy = F ⋅ ĵ = − ∫ pdA y dA y = n ⋅ ĵdA
Ay
= projection ndA
onto plane ⊥ to
y-direction
Fz = F ⋅ k̂ = − ∫ p n ⋅ k̂dA
A
= − ∫ pdA z p = γh
Az
h=distance
below free
surface
= γ ∫ hdA z = γV
Az
= weight of
fluid above
surface A
Pressure Diagram
p = γh = γR(1-cosθ)
n = − sin θ î + cos θ k̂
dA = Rdθ
π
F = − ∫ γR (1 − cos θ)(− sin θ î + cos θ k̂ ) Rdθ
0
p n dA
π
F ⋅ î = Fx = + γ R ∫ (1 − cos θ) sin θdθ
2
0
π
2⎡ 1
= γ R ⎢− cos θ + cos 2θ = 2 γ R 2
⎣ 4 0
= (γR)(2R ) ⇒ same force as that on projection of
p A area onto vertical plane
π
Fz = − γ R ∫ (1 − cos θ) cos θdθ
2
0
π
⎡ θ sin 2 θ
= − γ R 2 ⎢sin θ − −
⎢⎣ 2 4 0
2 π ⎛ πR 2 ⎞
=γ R = γ ⎜⎜ ⎟ = γV
⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
⇒ net weight of water above surface
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006
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Buoyancy
Archimedes Principle
FB = Fv2 – Fv1
Stem
Bulb
W = mg = γfV = SγwV
Vo S − 1
∆h = ⋅ calibrate scale using fluids of known S
a S
Vo
S=
V0 − a∆h
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006
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Example (apparent weight)
⇒ ρc = 15.3 slugs/ft3
Immersed Bodies
Positive GM Negative GM
(2) Trigonometry
xV = tan αI OO
tan αI OO
CC ′ = x = = CM tan α
V
CM = IOO / V
GM = CM – CG
I OO
GM = − CG
V
GM > 0 Stable
GM < 0 Unstable
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006
33
Fluids in Rigid-Body Motion
Ma = ∑F = FB + FS
Du ∂p
x: ρ =−
Dt ∂x
⎡ ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ⎤ ∂p
ρ⎢ + u + v + w ⎥ = −
⎣ ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦ ∂x
Dv ∂p
y: ρ =−
Dt ∂y
⎡ ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ⎤ ∂p
ρ⎢ + u + v + w ⎥ = −
⎣ ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦ ∂y
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006
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Dw ∂p ∂
= −ρg − = − (p + γz )
Note: for V = 0
z: ρ ∇p = −ρgk̂
Dt ∂z ∂z
⎡ ∂w ∂p ∂p
∂w ∂w ∂w ⎤ ∂ = =0
ρ⎢ +u +v + w ⎥ = − ( p + γ z) ∂x ∂y
⎣ ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦ ∂z
∂p
= −ρg = − γ
∂z
Streamline coordinates:
Streamlines are the lines that are tangent to the velocity
vectors throughout the flow field.
Along a streamline:
1
p + ρV 2 + γ z = C
2
∇p = −ρ[a x î + (g + a z )k̂ ] a = a x î + a z k̂
∂p ∂p
= −ρa x = −ρ(g + a z )
∂x ∂z
∂p
= − ρ ax
∂x
1. ax < 0 p increase in +x
2. ax > 0 p decrease in +x
∂p
= − ρ ( g + az )
∂z
1. az > 0 p decrease in +z
a = Ω × (Ω × ro )
centripetal acceleration
= − rΩ 2 ê r
V2
=− ê r
r
∂ 1∂ ∂
∇ p = ρ( g − a ) ∇ = ê r + ê θ + ê z
∂r r ∂θ ∂z
= − ρgk̂ + ρrΩ 2 ê r grad in cylindrical coordinates
∂p ∂p ∂p
i.e., = ρrΩ 2 = −ρg =0
∂r ∂z ∂θ
C (r) pressure distribution is hydrostatic in z direction
ρ
and p = r 2 Ω 2 + f ( z) + c
2 pz = -ρg
p = -ρgz + C(r) + c
ρ p V2
p = r 2 Ω 2 − ρgz + constant +z− = constant
2 γ 2g
V = rΩ
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006
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The constant is determined by specifying the pressure at
one point; say, p = po at (r, z) = (0, 0)
1 2 2
p = po − ρgz + rΩ
2
Note: pressure is linear in z and parabolic in r
p1 − p o r 2 Ω 2
z= + = a + br 2
ρg 2g
dz g
tan θ = =− 2 slope of ŝ
dr rΩ
⎛ Ω2z ⎞
i.e., r = C1exp ⎜⎜ − ⎟
⎟ equation of ∇p surfaces
⎝ g ⎠
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006
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