§3.

Electromagnetic Waves

§3.4. EM fields (waves) in conductors

The behaviour of EM waves in a conductor is quite different from that in a source-free

medium. The conduction current in a conductor is the cause of the difference. We shall
analyze the source terms in the Maxwell’s equations to simplify Maxwell’s equations in a
conductor. From this set of equations, we can derive a diffusion equation and investigate the
skin effects.

§3.4.1 Skin Effects in Conductors

A. Maxwell’s Equations in a Conductor

Complete Maxwell’s equations:
−→ ρ
∇· E =
²
−→
−→ ∂B
∇× E = −
∂t
−→
∇· B = 0 
→
−
−→ ∂ E
∇× B = µ ~j + ²
∂t

Fact 1: Conducting current dominates over the displacement current

In a conductor, the electric field is the driving source for the conduction current. The
collision is the source of impedance. The conduction current is governed by the Ohm’s
law:
−
→ −
→
j f = σE
where σ (S/m) is the conductivity.
The AC conductivity differs from the DC conductivity. Let ν be the collision frequency
of electrons (current carrier in conductors) with ions and ω the frequency of the EM
waves in the conductor. The equation of motion for electrons is:

d−
→v −→
m = −e E − mν −
→
v
dt
Assume −
→
v =−
→
v 0 e−iωt and use ∂/∂t → −iω, we obtain
−→ −e −
→
−iωm−
→
v = −e E − mν −
→
v → −
→
v = E
m(ν − iω)

Phys 463, E & M III, C. Xiao 1 / note11

 −
→
Recall the current density is expressed by j = −en−→
v (n is the electron number
density in the conductor),
−
→ ne2 −
→
jf= E
m(ν − iω)
which gives the AC conductivity in conductor:

1 ne2
σ(ω) =
ν − iω m

In practical situations, ω ¿ ν ∼ 1014 (1/sec) (infrared range). So the DC conductivity

ne2
σ=
mν
can be used.
Let’s now compare the magnitude of conduction current with that of the displacement
current.
−
→ − →
Assume E = E 0 e−iωt . Then
¯
¯−→ ¯¯
¯ j f¯ σE σ
¯ − ¯= =
¯ ∂→ ¯
¯² E ¯ ²ωE ²ω
∂t

−
→
∂E σ
In copper, σ = 6 × 107 (S/m). The condition for jf ' ² ∂t
, or ²ω
' 1 leads to

σ 6 × 107
ω= = ∼ 7 × 1019 (rad/sec)
² 8.85 × 10−12

At frequencies ω < 1012 (rad/sec) (communication wave frequency),

¯ − ¯
¯− ¯ ¯ →¯
σ ¯→ ¯ ¯ ∂E ¯
À 1 or ¯ j f¯ À ¯² ¯
¯ ¯
²ω ¯ ∂t ¯

Ampere’s law in a conductor:

−→ −
→ −→
∇× B = µ j f = µσ E

Fact 2: No significant charge accumulation

Because of the good conductivity, no significant charge accumulation in a conductor is
expected (ρ ' 0).

Phys 463, E & M III, C. Xiao 2 / note11

 From the charge conservation and Gauss’s law
−→ ρ
∇· E =
²
−
→ ∂ρf
∇· j f = −
∂t
we obtain
∂ρf −
→ σ
= −σ∇· E = − ρf
∂t ε
So
σ
ρf = ρf (0)e− ε t
The free charge ρf (0) dissipates in a characteristic time τ = σε , similar to the static
case in which the charge will flow out to the edge of the conductor.
If the transient phase is excluded, ρf = 0 can be assumed in a conductor. For simplicity,
we shall consider “good” conductor case in which the displacement current can be
ignored.
Maxwell’s equations in a conductor:
−→
∇· E = 0
−→
−→ ∂B
∇× E = −
∂t
−→
∇· B = 0
−→ −→
∇× B = µσ E

It can be shown that the EM waves in conductor are also TEM (Transverse EM ) waves
B. Diffusion Equation
As we did before for waves in source-free media, let’s apply curl operator to the 2nd
Maxwell’s equation:
 − →
³ −
→ ´ ∂B  ∂ −→ ∂ ³ − →´
∇× ∇× E = −∇×  = − (∇× B ) = − µσ E
∂t ∂t ∂t
LHS of the equation
³ −→´ ³ − →´ −→ −→
∇× ∇× E = ∇ ∇· E − ∇2 E = −∇2 E
So −→
2−
→ ∂E
∇ E = µσ Diffussion equation
∂t
Similarly, the magnetic field also satisfies the same diffusion equation:
−→
2−→ ∂B
∇ B = µσ Diffussion equation
∂t

Phys 463, E & M III, C. Xiao 3 / note11

C. Skin Depth
Suppose we have a plane wave. It comes from the −z direction and reaches a large
−
→
conductor surface at z = 0. Outside of a conductor: E = E0 e−iωt~ex at z = 0.

Assume the wave inside the conductor has the form

−
→ − →
E = E 0 ei(kz−ωt)

where k is an unknown constant. Recall

∂
∇ → ik, → −iω
∂t
for the waves of the above type, we find from the diffusion equation
−→ −→ π
(ik)2 E = −iωµσ E → k 2 = iωµσ = ωµσe 2 i

r
√
π
i ωµσ
k = ±e 4ωµσ = ±(1 + i)
2
Choose “+” sign to allow the electric field to damp (to “propagate”) in the +z direction.
Separate the real and imaginary parts of k:
r
ωµσ
k = k+ + ik− , k+ = k− =
2
−
→ − →
E = E 0 e−k− z ei(k+ z−ωt) (1)
−
→ − →
B = B 0 e−k− z ei(k+ z−ωt) (2)

If the “good” conductor assumption is not valid, the displacement current should be
included in the 4th Maxwell’s equation. The solution for E and B are the same as
above with s 1/2
r µ ¶
εµ  σ 2
k± = ω 1+ ± 1
2 εω

The equations (1) and (2) indicate that the amplitude of E and B fields decays to 1/e
of their values at z = 0 in a distance:
1
δ=
k−

Phys 463, E & M III, C. Xiao 4 / note11

where δ is called skin depth
For a good conductor (σ À εω):
s
2
δ= (m)
ωµσ

Also, the wavelength is λ = 2π/k+ = 2πδ inqa good conductor. The wave decays
significantly within one wavelength. Since δ ∝ 1/ωσ, deep penetration occurs for

1. Low frequency
2. poor conductor

Example: skin depth at f = 60 Hz for copper.

s
2
δ= −7 7
= 8 × 10−3 m = 8 mm
2π × 60 × 4π × 10 × 6 × 10

Phys 463, E & M III, C. Xiao 5 / note11

There is no advantage to construct AC transmission lines using wires with a radius
much larger than the skin depth because the current flows mainly in the outer part of
the conductor.
For a poor conductor (σ ¿ εω):
s
2 ε
δ= (m)
σ µ
independent of the frequency.
Example:
For sea water, µ = µ0 = 4π × 10−7 N/A2 , ε ' 70²0 = 6 × 10−10 C2 /N·m2 , and σ ' 5
(Ω·m)−1 .
Sea water is a poor conductor for frequency
ω σ
f= À = 109 Hz
2π 2πε
or λ ¿ 30 cm. The skin depth is
s s
2 ε 2 70ε0
δ = =
σ µ σ µ0
√ √
2 70 2 70
= = ' 1 cm
σZ 5 × 377

In the radioq frequency range (f ¿ 109 Hz) sea water is a good conductor, the skin
depth δ = 2/(ωµσ) is quite short. To reach a depth δ = 10 m, for communication
with submarines,
ω 1
f= = ' 500 Hz
2π πµσδ 2

Phys 463, E & M III, C. Xiao 6 / note11

 The wavelength in the air is about
c 3 × 108
λ= = = 600 km
f 500
The required λ/4 antenna would be gigantic.
§3.4.2 Monochromatic plane waves in a Conductor

A. Transverse waves
The E and B fields in a conductor
~ t) = E
E(z, ~ 0 e−k− z ei(k+ z−ωt) , ~ t) = B
B(z, ~ 0 e−k− z ei(k+ z−ωt)

can be rewritten as
~ t) = E
E(z, ~ 0 ei(kz−ωt) , ~ t) = B
B(z, ~ 0 ei(kz−ωt)

They have the same functions as EM wave in vacuum, except that k is a complex
number Following the same calculation for waves in vacuum, we can derive from
~ = 0,
∇·E and ~ =0
∇·B

the following results:

~k · E
~ = k~ez · E
~ =0 ~k · B
~ = k~ez · B
~ =0

~ and B
Both E ~ are perpendicular to ~ez , the wave propagation direction.
Let’s assume
~ = E0 ei(kz−ωt)~ex = E0 e−k− z ei(k+ z−ωt)~ex
E
From
~
~ = − ∂B
∇×E
∂t
we obtain

~ = k E0 e−k− z ei(k+ z−ωt)~ey

B
ω
|k| iφ
= e E0 e−k− z ei(k+ z−ωt)~ey
ω
where à !
k− q
−1 2 2
φ = tan , |k| = k+ + k−
k+
√
For a good conductor φ = 450 , |k| = ωµσ
The B fields lags behind the electric fields

Phys 463, E & M III, C. Xiao 7 / note11

§4.3.3 Reflection of EM Waves on a Conductor Surface

We have seen that the EM waves do not penetrate the conductor deeply. Where do
the waves go? Absorbed or reflected?
Back to our example with a plane wave perpendicularly propagating to a conducting
surface

~ = Hy~ey = H0 ei(z/δ−ωt) e−z/δ~ey

H

~ = ~j = σEx~ex = σE0 ei(z/δ−ωt) e−z/δ~ex

∇×H

~ x = [∇ × (Hy~ey )]x = ∂Hz − ∂Hy = 1 − i Hy

(∇ × H)
∂y ∂z δ
| {z }
=0

So
1−i
Hy = σEx
δ

Phys 463, E & M III, C. Xiao 8 / note11

Characteristic impedance of the conductor
r
Ex 1−i 1−i ωµσ
Z = = =
Hy σδ σ 2
r s
1−i ωµ −iωµ
= √ =
2 σ σ

For 4mm microwave, f = 75 Ghz. If the conductor is aluminum (σAl = 2 × 107 S/m)
r s
ωµ 2π × 75 × 109 × 4π × 10−7
|ZAl | = =
σ 2 × 107
= 0.17 Ω ¿ Zair = 377 Ω

The reflectivity:
ZAl − Zair −Zair
Γ= ' = −1
ZAl + Zair Zair
Almost complete reflection.

Phys 463, E & M III, C. Xiao 9 / note11