Navigational-Aids PDF

ECE 553: NAVIGATIONAL AIDS
NAVIGATION
> The art of detecting the movement of a craft from one
point to another along a desired path.
NAVIGATION
> The term stems from 1530s, from Latin navigationem
(nominative navigation), from navigatus, pp. of navigare "to
sail, sail over, go by sea, steer a ship," from navis "ship" and
the root of agare "to drive".
NAVIGATIONAL AID
> A navigational aid (also known as aid to navigation, ATON,
or NavAid) is any sort of marker which aids the traveller in
navigation; the term is most commonly used to refer to
nautical or aviation travel. Common types of such aids
include lighthouses, buoys, fog signals, and day beacons.
NAVIGATIONAL AID
> A compass is an instrument used for navigation and
orientation that shows direction relative to the geographic
cardinal directions, or "points".
TYPES OF NAVIGATION SYSTEM
1. AUTOMOTIVE NAVIFATION
2. MARINE NAVIGATION
3. AERONAUTIC NAVIGATION
4. SURGICAL NAVIGATION
5. DISATER AND RECOVERY

NAVIGATION
METHODS OF NAVIGATION
1. NAVIGATION BY PILOTAGE >the navigator fixes his position
on a map by observing known
landmarks.
2. CELESTIAL NAVIGATION >also called as Astronomical

Navigational
>it is accomplished by measuring
the angular position of celestial
bodies.
3. NAVIGATION BY DEAD >the positions of crafts at any instant
RECKONING (DEDUCED of time is calculated from previously
CALCULATIONS) determined position, the speed of its
motion with respect to the earth with
the direction and the time elapsed.
>it is the most common and widely
used method of navigation.
4. INERTIAL NAVIGATION >navigation using motion sensors and

computers
5. RADIO NAVIGATION >uses electromagnetic waves to attain

a fix.
NAVIGATION PARAMETERS
1. POSITION >latitude and longitude
2. DIRECTION >bearing, azimuth, and relative bearing
3. DISTANCE >nautical mile (6080 ft.), statue mile

(5280 ft.), and radar mile (6000 ft.)
4. SPEED >1 knot (1 nautical mi./hr)
5. TIME >EST Meridian (GMT-5), CST (GMT-6),

MST Meridian (GMT-7), PST Meridian
(GMT-8)
WORLD TIME ZONES

1. GMT Greenwich MeanTime
0 degree (Zulu Time)
UTC – Universal Time Coordinate
Pacific Standard Time

2. PST GMT - 8
3. MST Mountain Standard Time

GMT - 7
Central Standard Time

4. CST GMT - 6
5. EST >Eastern Standard Time

GMT - 5
POINTS OF BEARING
POINTS OF BEARING
1. 90 degrees Dead Ahead
2. 0 degree On Starboard Beam
3. 180 degrees On Port Beam
4. 270 degrees Dead Astern

RELATIVE BEARING
Axes of rotation
1. Lateral Axis Pitch (Elevator)
2. Longitudinal Roll (Aileron)

Axis
3. Vertical Axis Yaw (Rudder – control mechanism)

RADAR
>Radio Detection and Ranging
>basically, a means of gathering

information about distant objects
or targets by sending
electromagnetic waves at them
and analyzing the echoes.
TYPES OF RADAR
A. According to the Location of Transmitter and Receiver
1. Monostatic transmitter and receiver are both

located at the same point
2. Bistatic
transmitter and receiver are
separated by quite large distances
3. Multistatic
TYPES OF RADAR
B. According to the Form of Transmitted Signal
1. Pulsed forms in short burst of RF energy
2. Continuous Wave gives the speed without the range

and distance using the principle of
Doppler Effect
TYPES OF RADAR
C. According to the Information Given
Primary Surveillance Radar

1. Primary
(azimuth, range)
2. Secondary Secondary Surveillance Radar

(altitude, identification)
DOPPLER EFFECT
> the apparent frequency of electromagnetic or sound waves depends on
the relative radial motion of the source and the observer
> if the source and observer are moving away from each other, the
apparent frequency will decrease, while if they are moving toward each
other, the apparent frequency will increase
DOPPLER EFFECT
> postulated by Christian Doppler in 1842
> was given a firm mathematical basis by Armand Fizeau
where: v = velocity of the target in m/sec

λ = wavelength in m
fd = Doppler frequency
θ = angle of direction of target
and the radar line of sight to the target
RADAR range
NOTE: the transmitted signal takes 6.16 µsec to travel one radar mile
Therefore,
Round Trip = 12.36µsec
Pulse repetition time
> determines the maximum distance to the target to be measured

Maximum unambiguous
range
> range beyond which objects appear as second return echoes

Minimum effective range
Duty cycle
> Duty Cycle = Average Power / Peak Power

Radar range equations
Since
Pmin = kTB(F-1)
Then,
Radar range equations
where: Rmax = maximum range

Pt = transmitting power
Ao = capture area of the transmitting antenna
S = radar cross sectional area
Pmin = minimum receivable power
λ = wavelength
TARGET PROPERTIES
> the radar cross section or effective area of the target

depends on the frequency used
RAYLEIGH REGION
> the target is small compared to a wavelength, its cross

sectional area for radar appears much smaller than its
real cross section
RESONANCE REGION
> when the circumference of a spherical target is between

1 and 10 wavelengths, the radar cross section oscillates
about the real one
OPTICAL REGION
> for shorter wavelengths, the radar and true cross

sections are equal
TARGET CROSS SECTION
The Radar Cross Section of the Target Depends on:
1. polarization of the incident wave

2. degree of surface roughness
3. use of special coatings on the target
4. aspect of the target
PULSE CHARACTERISTICS
> flat topped rectangular pulse
> leading must be vertical to ensure that the leading

edge of the received pulse is also close to vertical for the
exact measurement of the target range.
> steep trailing is needed for the transmitted pulse

so that the duplexer can switch the receiver over the
antenna as soon as the body of the pulse has passed
RADAR ANTENNAS
> use dipole or horn fed paraboloid reflectors or at least

reflectors which is basically paraboloid shape
SCANNING PATTERNS
1. Horizontal
2. Nodding
SCANNING PATTERNS
3. Helical
4. Spiral
ANTENNA TRACKING
> sequential lobe

1. Lobe Switching > the direction of the antenna
Technique beam is rapidly switched between
2 positions
> logical extension of lobe

2. Conical scanning switching
3. Monopulse tracking > a system using 4 horn antennas

displaced about the central focus
of the reflector
Radar display methods
1. A Scope
> deflection modulation of the CRT screen

1. A Scope
A-scan > range and intensity presentation

B-scan > range and azimuth presentation
C-scan > elevation and azimuth presentation
2. Plan Position Indicator
> intensity modulation of a CRT
> shows range, azimuth and speed
> shows a map of the target area
> the brightness at any point on the

screen indicates the presence of an
object there, with its position
corresponding to its actual physical
position and its range being
measured radially out from the
center
3. Automatic Target Detection
> direct feeding to a computer
3. Automatic Target Detection
> direct feeding to a computer
RADAR GENERAL TASKS
1. search for targets

2. track them once they have been acquired
TRACKING RADAR SYSTEMS
1. Tracking in angle a system that gives the angular

position of a target accurately
range information is
2. Tracking in range
continuously obtained
Radar beacons
> small radar sets consisting of a receiver, a separate
transmitter and an antenna which is often
omnidirectional
> when radar transmits a coded set of pulses at the

beacon, the beacon responds by sending back its
specific pulse code, thereby earning its name
transponder
Radar beacons apps
> IFF (Identification Friend or

Foe)
> Calculation of position, similar

to lighthouses
Beacon range equations
Interrogation
Beacon range equations
Reply
Air traffic control radar
> Aerodrome control PAR: precision approach radar

R<10 n.mi.
> Approach control ASR: airport surveillance radar

R: 10-60 n.mi
ARSR: air route surveillance

> Area control radar
-R: 60-200 n.mi.
DIRECTION FINDERS
Radio Direction Finders are

devices capable of determining the
direction of approaching radio
waves.
RDF – manual (uses loop

antennas)
ADF – automatic
 employs 2 loop antennas in 90
degrees (uses goniometer to
terminate loop antennas with coil)
AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER
(ADF)
> automatic determination of relative bearing to a transmitting radio
station or non-directional beacon. Used for weather information and
other broadcast programs. It uses AM with frequency band of 190-
1860 kHz. It employs 2 loop antennas in 900 (goniometer).
DISTRESS FREQUENCIES
> Radio Telephony 2182 kHz (A3E / J3E)
156.8 MHz (F3E)
500 kHz
> Radio Telegraphy
Instrument landing system
(ILS)
> uses localizer, glide, and marker
beacon transmitter to provide a
sloping glide path for instrument
(blind) landing approach of an
aircraft
> highly accurate and dependable

means of navigating to the runway.
When using the ILS, the pilot
determines aircraft position primarily
by reference to instruments
(ILS)
1. Localizer > provides lateral
guidance
> a VHF radio

transmitter and
antenna system using
the same general
range as VOR (VHF
Omnidirectional
Range), transmitters
between 108.10 to
111.95 MHz
(ILS)
2. Glide slope equipment > provides vertical
guidance
(ILS)
3. ILS marker beacons
Marker Code Light Distance to Modulated

Beacon Threshold Frequency
Outer Blue 4 to 7 nm 400 Hz
Middle Amber 3500 ft 1300 Hz
Inner White 1000 ft 3000 Hz

(ILS)
4. Runway lights
> approach lights (white)
provide guidance to the

pilot on an approaching
aircraft to the runway
(ILS)
4. Runway lights
Sequence lights
a part of an approach light. It

flashes twice in second in
sequence. It distinguishes
aeronautical ground lights in
an aero dome to the other
lights in the area
(ILS)
4. Runway lights
>runway edge
lights (amber)
provide sufficient
guidance to the pilot
during landing and take
off especially at night or
zero visibility
(ILS)
4. Runway lights
>threshold lights provides information on

(green) the extremely runway
where landing aircraft is
intended to land
(ILS)
4. Runway lights
>runway end lights signifies the end of

(red) runway and is placed on
lines at right angle to
the runway access
(ILS)
4. Runway lights
>PAPI lights
(precision approach
path indicator)
provides a positive indicating on the aircraft

position relative to the optimal slope during
final approach to the runway
GROUND-CONTROLLED
APPROACH (GCA)
> an airplane is talked down to a blind landing by means

of ground-based search and precision radars
GROUND-CONTROLLED
APPROACH (GCA)
> an airplane is talked down to a blind landing by means

of ground-based search and precision radars
consisting of extremely high precision microwave radar

equipment that gives the position of an aircraft in range,
azimuth, and elevation.
It is primary designed to bring the pilot through low

overcast of low horizontal visibility so that he can make a
normal landing by visual contact
GROUND-CONTROLLED
APPROACH (GCA)
basically the ground equipment at the airport consists of two
microwave radar sets, which are usually installed in a single trainer
placed adjacent to the runway.
One of the radars, known as the search system, locates all aircraft
within 30 miles or so of the airport and thus provides a radar map of
the vicinity.
It is the initial phase of the GCA and is accomplished with medium
range radar called plan position indicator
> the other radar, called the precision system, provides continuous
information regarding the position of the incoming aircraft with respect
to the runway. The plane may thus be safely talked down along the
sloping glide path
GROUND-CONTROLLED
APPROACH (GCA)
on the final approach leg, the controller, using precision scopes,
takes control.
He also broadcasts verbal instructions, principally concerning

attitude and lateral deviation from the desired glide path, and guides
the pilot virtually to the end of the runway
> on the final approach, the GCA operator uses precision approach
radar (PAR), a short-range precision radar that indicates the proper
glide path for descent
NONDIRECTIONAL BEACONS
(NDB)
are low-frequency transmitters operating into an omnidirectional
vertically polarized antenna.
Usually placed at the ILS outer and middle marker beacon sites
where it is known as compass locator
(NDB)
are beacons sending its signal equally well in all directions. It is a
low-frequency beacon with a frequency range of 200 kHz to 415 kHz.
The reception range of the radio beacon is at least 15 nautical miles

and it transmits 2 to 3 letters of identification signal from the Morse
code 8 times per minute.
NDB provides a radio station for use by aircraft. The equipment in

the aircraft consists of an ADF.
BEARINGS
Magnetic Bearing = Magnetic Heading + Relative Bearing
Example:
An aircraft has a magnetic heading of 150 degrees and a relative

bearing to an NDB station of 75 degrees. Determine the magnetic
bearing of the station in degrees.
DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENT (DME)
> an equipment that provides information of the distance between an
aircraft and the VOR station
> together with VOR, they provide the information necessary for
reroute navigation
DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENT (DME)
1. Transceiver
> sends out signals to

the ground station
DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENT (DME)
2. Internal computer
> built within the

transceiver that measures
the time interval that
elapsed until the
response
DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENT (DME)
3. Antenna
> used for both

transmission and
reception
DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENT (DME)
3. DME controls
> incorporate digital

readouts of frequency,
DME and ground speed
information
DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENT (DME)
DME displays information
expressed in
a. distance to the station
nautical miles
b. aircraft’s ground speed expressed in knots
c. time to station expressed in minutes

VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE
(VOR)
a radio facility providing bearing information to

and from such facility at all azimuth within its
service area.
It provides an unlimited number of visual course

legs through the phase comparison of a cardioids-
shaped rotating radiation pattern with a fixed 30
Hz reference signal
(VOR)
(VOR)
1. VOR receiver
> the VOR signals are received

on the antenna normally located
on the vertical stabilizer or on
the top of the fuselage. The
VOR receiver converts signals
from the antenna to the
readings displayed on the
navigation indicator
(VOR)
2. Navigation indicator
> indicator gives the pilot aircraft

position information by means
of three components:
(VOR)

a. Track / Omnibearing used to rotate the

selector azimuth ring which
displays the VOR track
(VOR)

b. To – from / off flag indicates whether the

track will take the pilot
to or from the station
(VOR)

shows the pilot the position
relative to the track selected
c. track deviation bar and indicates whether the
radial is to the right or left
(TB) when the aircraft heading
agrees generally with the
track selector
(VOR)
3. Track arrow
> a needle that you could think

of as a line that runs through the
station and points in the
direction of the selected track
that divides the area around the
VOR station into halves
(VOR)
4. Reference line
> a line perpendicular to the

track arrow and intersecting it at
the station. It also divides the
VOR reception area to
additional sectors
TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION
(TACAN)
> a microwave pulse system that provides highly accurate
bearing and range information from a shipboard or ground
radio beacon
(TACAN)
> provides an aircraft with continuous distance (range)

and bearing (azimuth) information from a ground beacon
station located within a line-of-sight range up to 195
nautical miles
> operates completely in the UHF band from 962-1213 MHz

(TACAN)
> has a total of 126 channels in the UHF band, each being
capable of providing full service for over 100 aircrafts
> provides compass direction with less than one degree

error and is capable of indicating true distance from the
ground station within about 600 feet
> can use a very small ground station antenna which

permits its installation on Air Force Mobile units and Navy
carriers
(TACAN)
1. Airborne interrogator – responsor
> the airborne set is a radio set that could be tuned to 126
channels and has a special range and azimuth circuit. It is
generally provided with two indicators, one for showing the
range in nautical miles, the other for indicating the bearing
(azimuth) of the aircraft on the station
(TACAN)
2. Ground or shipboard surface beacon
> a beacon that could be triggered by distance

interrogation pulses coming from an airborne radio set.
When triggered, it will respond by sending out
synchronized reply pulses and also identifies itself aurally
in International Morse Code characters
VORTAC
> a facility consisting of two components or is referred to
as a combination of a VOR and a TACAN therefore
deriving the name VORTAC
VORTAC
> this system is an ICAO (International Civil Aviation

Organization) Rho-Theta system implemented by co-
locating VOR and TACAN azimuth and TACAN distance
measuring capability at one sight
LOW FREQUENCY RANGE (LFR)
> range stations that provide four aircraft course legs (the
overlapping of two figure-of-8 patterns)
the low frequency radio range depends on the superposition of two

figure-of-eight directional antenna patterns at right angle with each
other.
These patterns provide on-course signals which interlock with those

of surrounding station to form easily followed airways.
When two vertical antenna towers are properly fed with radio
frequency energy they produce two figure-of-eight radiation patterns.
This makes production of on-course signals simpler and easier.

Radio range stations operate on frequency between 200 kHz and 400
kHz
> four sectors are created by these towers between which are four
regions that overlap each other. In these regions, both signals from
towers are present. Signal in this overlapping zones are heard as
continuous tones blend rather than be heard individually. As long as an
aircraft flies over this zone where on-course signals are present, pilots
would hear continuous signals
if two pairs of vertical tower are placed in a square patterns at right
angles to each other, the fifth center tower is used for transmitting
weather reports.
With two figure-of-eight patterns available the production of on-

course signals becomes a simple matter.
The code signal A is transmitted over one pair of diagonally opposite

towers, and the code signal N is transmitted over the pair of towers.
In this way, four signal zones, called sectors, are produced, two of
which carry the A signal while other two carry the N signal. Between
the four sectors there are regions of overlapping
Cone of Silence
> directly above a radio range station there exists an area where
practically no signal is heard. This area has the shape of inverted cone
and is known as the cone of silence. A pilot passing through the cone of
silence would know that he was directly over the range station whose
signal he had been receiving.
HYPERBOLIC NAVIGATION
SYSTEM
> produces hyperbolic lines of position through the measurement of
the difference in times of transmission of radio signals from two or
more synchronized transmitters at fixed points
SYSTEM
> when synchronized signals are received from two transmitting

stations, the difference in the times of arrival is constant on a
hyperbola having the two transmitting stations as foci
the measured time difference locates the receiver on the hyperbolic

line of position for that time difference.
Another pair of transmitters provides another hyperbolic line of

position.
The intersection of the lines of position provides a navigational fix.

SYSTEM
LORAN
> an electronic method of determining ship position by the
reception of signals from transmitting stations of known
locations
LORAN
radio signals consisting of short pulses are continually transmitted
from a pair of shore-based stations.
These signals are received aboard the ship by means of a specially

designed receiver.
The difference in time of arrival of the two signals is measured by

means of an indicator associated with the receiver.
The measured time difference is used together with special tables or

charts to determine line of position on the surface on the earth’s
surface.
Two lines of position obtained from two pairs of transmitting stations

intersects at a given LORAN fix.
LORAN A
> the ground waves of a LORAN A transmitter with a peak
power of 100 kW can be received over sea at a distance of
500 to 700 n.mi. and a distance of up to 1100 n.mi. with
ground and sky waves. Over land these distances are
considerably shorter.
LORAN C
> LORAN C transmitters operate at lower frequencies of
100 kHz. At this frequency, ground waves of a 300 kW
transmitter can be received up to 1200 n.mi.
LORAN D
the advantage of LORAN D over LORAN A is that ground stations
are transportable and can therefore be quickly deployed.
This mobility is gained at the expense of the substantially reduced

radiated power (30 kW peak) inherent in the somewhat smaller
transmitter and lower antenna towers (400 ft. or 120 m) to partially
compensate for this reduction in radiated power.
LORAN D is configured to use 16 phase-coded pulses 500µsec part

in each group.
LORAN D phase code is different but compatible with LORAN C

system format and 100µsec apart as in LORAN C. pulse sampling is
carried out near the signal peak because sky-wave delays are greater
at short range.
DECCA
> a continuous wave hyperbolic system operating in the 70
to 130 kHz band
> a hyperbolic navigation system which establishes a line

of position from measurement of the phase difference
between two continuous-wave signals
OMEGA
a navigation system developed by US Navy in 1957.
It is a hyperbolic system which works in the VLF region

and has a very long base line of the order of 7000 km
> a global radio navigation system that provides position

information by measuring the phase difference between
signals radiated by a network of transmitting stations
SONAR
> sound navigation and ranging
> a system used

abroad navy ships
for sonic and ultra
sonic underwater
detection, ranging,
sounding and
communications
TCAS
> Traffic alert and Collision Avoidance System
TCAS
> traffic alert and collision avoidance system
> TCAS tracks these other airplanes or intruders, if

equipped with an ATCRBS (air traffic control radar beacon
system)
TCAS
Two types of collision avoidance alerts
1. traffic advisory (TA) shows the relative

position of any intruder
airplanes
vertical maneuver to
2. resolution advisory avoid a possible
(RA) airplane collision
GPS
> Global Positioning System
> a space-based satellite

navigation system that provides
location and time information
in all weather conditions,
anywhere on or near the Earth
where there is an unobstructed
line of sight to four or more
GPS satellites
GPS
> NAVSTAR GPS
> the Navigation Satellite

Timing and Ranging Global
Positioning System
(NAVSTAR GPS) is a
worldwide navigation radio
aid which uses satellite
signals to provide accurate
navigation information
GPS
> GLONASS GPS
> Globalnaya navigatsionnaya

sputnikovaya sistema or Global
Navigation Satellite System, is a
space-based satellite navigation
system operated by the Russian
Aerospace Defence Forces.
GPS
> provides specially coded satellite signals that can be
processed in a GPS receiver, enabling the receiver to
compute position, velocity and time
> four GPS satellite signals are used to compute positions

in three dimensions and the time offset in the receiver
clock
> navigation in three dimensions is the primary function of

GPS
GPS
1. Space segment
> composed of a constellation of 24 satellites arranged in

six separate orbital planes of four satellites each on a
circular orbit and have the following characteristics:
a. 550 inclination to the equator

b. an altitude of approximately 20,200 km with an orbital
period of 12 sidereal hours
c. 11 hrs, 58 min orbital period
GPS
Satellites give:
a. satellite position
b. constellation data
c. atmospheric corrections
GPS
2. Control segment
Monitor stations locations
> Kwajalein
> Hawaii
> Ascension Island
> Diego Garcia
> Colorado Springs (master control station)
GPS
3. User segment
Main advantages
-anytime, anywhere, and in any weather
-highly accurate measurements
-GPS has almost endless applications

ENGR. MARLON C. LEYESA
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

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ECE 553: NAVIGATIONAL AIDS

5. DISATER AND RECOVERY

2. CELESTIAL NAVIGATION >also called as Astronomical

4. INERTIAL NAVIGATION >navigation using motion sensors and

5. RADIO NAVIGATION >uses electromagnetic waves to attain

2. DIRECTION >bearing, azimuth, and relative bearing

3. DISTANCE >nautical mile (6080 ft.), statue mile

4. SPEED >1 knot (1 nautical mi./hr)

5. TIME >EST Meridian (GMT-5), CST (GMT-6),

WORLD TIME ZONES

Pacific Standard Time

3. MST Mountain Standard Time

Central Standard Time

5. EST >Eastern Standard Time

2. 0 degree On Starboard Beam

3. 180 degrees On Port Beam

4. 270 degrees Dead Astern

2. Longitudinal Roll (Aileron)

3. Vertical Axis Yaw (Rudder – control mechanism)

>Radio Detection and Ranging

>basically, a means of gathering

1. Monostatic transmitter and receiver are both

1. Pulsed forms in short burst of RF energy

2. Continuous Wave gives the speed without the range

Primary Surveillance Radar

2. Secondary Secondary Surveillance Radar

where: v = velocity of the target in m/sec

> determines the maximum distance to the target to be measured

> range beyond which objects appear as second return echoes

> Duty Cycle = Average Power / Peak Power

where: Rmax = maximum range

> the radar cross section or effective area of the target

> the target is small compared to a wavelength, its cross

> when the circumference of a spherical target is between

> for shorter wavelengths, the radar and true cross

The Radar Cross Section of the Target Depends on:

1. polarization of the incident wave

> flat topped rectangular pulse

> leading must be vertical to ensure that the leading

> steep trailing is needed for the transmitted pulse

> use dipole or horn fed paraboloid reflectors or at least

> sequential lobe

> logical extension of lobe

3. Monopulse tracking > a system using 4 horn antennas

> deflection modulation of the CRT screen

A-scan > range and intensity presentation

> intensity modulation of a CRT

> shows range, azimuth and speed

> shows a map of the target area

> the brightness at any point on the

1. search for targets

1. Tracking in angle a system that gives the angular

> when radar transmits a coded set of pulses at the

> IFF (Identification Friend or

> Calculation of position, similar

> Aerodrome control PAR: precision approach radar

> Approach control ASR: airport surveillance radar

ARSR: air route surveillance

Radio Direction Finders are

RDF – manual (uses loop

> Radio Telephony 2182 kHz (A3E / J3E)

156.8 MHz (F3E)