CHAPTER # 01 (Measurements)

Long Questions
Q. 1
Ans.
Science ;
The systemized knowledge which is obtained through observation and experiment is called science.
Study of Science is divided into two main categories .

A) study of living things termed as biological sciences which includes biology , zoology , botany etc.
and

B) study of non living things termed as physical sciences which includes physics , chemistry , mathematics
etc.

Our concern is with physical sciences and specially with physics.

Physics:-
It is the branch of science which deals with the study of properties of matter, energy and their mutual
relationship.
Explanation:-
Physics is a Greek word means study of nature.
Properties of matter:-
It means to study hardness, stiffness, density, thermal expansion etc.
About energy:-
What is energy, how different form of energy produced etc.
Relationship:-
We study about relation b/w energy and matter. Can matter be converted into energy or not etc.
So for this we use Einstein equation.
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐2

Goal of physics:
To find most basic laws that govern the universe and to formulate those laws in most precise and
simplified possible way.
Scope:-
Physics has high scope in day to day fast communication.
In today technological world many important devices can be understood correctly only with
knowledge of physics.
Example: in medical world think of laser surgery, MRI, Radio tracers, X-ray imaging etc.
By studying physics we acquire skills that are useful in other discipline.
Society resources:
Society resources are limited so it is important to use them in beneficial way which can be possible
through physics.
Technological device:
 Technological devices that are used in regular basis, computer, GPS, smart phone, mp3 players,
satellite all are possible through physics.
Knowledge of physics is useful in everyday life. Physics explain every phenomena just like why
white roof helps to keep the house inside cool.
Finally by studying physics we hope to develop a sense of the beauty of the fundamental law’s
governing the universe.
In short physics is the science of measurement.
Measurement:-
The comparison of unknown quantity with known quantity called standard is known as
measurement.
Explanation:-
In world most of things are unknown so for measuring we made some standard.
E.g. measuring mass we put kg as a standard
Similarly for Temperature:-
Kelvin is the standard for measuring temperature.
Length:-
Meter is the standard for measuring length.

Importance:-
Measurement having great importance in our daily life. We buy and sale something with
help of measurement. In modern age measurement is the key.
e.g.
 Landing of space craft at moon surface also need measurement.
 Distance from earth to moon is possible through measurement.
Conclusion:-
Measurement is necessary for daily use and scientific use.
Quantity:-
Anything that can be observe OR The property that can exist as magnitude which can be
compared in term of more or less or equal by assigning numerical value.
PHYSICAL QUANTITY:-
Anything can be measured and observed is known as physical quantity.
Example:-
Length, height, volume, force, temperature, mass, etc.
All physical quantity having magnitude to measure.
Magnitude:-
Number with proper unit is known as magnitude
E.g. 13N, 4Kg
Both example 13 and 4 are number and N and kg are unit.
Unit:-
The standard with which things are compared is known as unit.
 N→unit of force, Kg→unit of mass, Sec→unit of time, K→unit of temperature.etc.
Classification of Physical Quantities.

Base Physical Quantity Derived Physical Quantity

Base Physical Quantity:-

The minimum number of physical quantities in term of which other physical quantities are
expressed is known as Base Physical Quantities.
Typical Example:-
Examples of base physical quantities are length, mass and time etc.
Explanation:-
All other physical quantities are expressed in term of base physical quantities except radian
and steradian.
Reason:-
These quantities are simplest and comprehensive.
In Number:-
In number these are seven which are given below with units.
Quantities Units symbols
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second S
Temperature Kelvin k
Current Ampere A
Amount of substance Mole mol
Light intensity candela cd
Base Unit:-
The units of all base quantities are known as Base Unit.
Example:-
Kilo gram, Second, Meter etc.

DERIVED QUANTITIES:-
All those quantities which are derived from base Physical Quantities are known as derived
Physical Quantities.
OR
The Physical Quantities derived by dividing or multiplying two or more base quantities is
known as derived Physical Quantities.
Typical Example:-
Speed, Velocity, Force, Acceleration, Power, Work etc.
Explanation:-
All above physical quantities are derived from base physical quantities. Such as Speed.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Distance is measure in meter unit of length which is base physical quantity.

Time is also base physical quantity so by dividing length on time we get another quantity
speed which is a derived quantity.
Similarly:-
Force, Velocity etc. all are derived physical quantities.
Derived Units:-
The standard which are derived from base unit is known as derived unit.
OR
The units of derived physical quantities are known as derived unit.
OR
When the base standard are multiplied or divide so we get another standard or unit with
which things are compared is known as derived unit
Example:-
Unit of Speed 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
Meter (𝑚) is a base unit.
Sec (𝑠) is a base unit.
So by dividing two base units we get another standard for measuring Speed.

Similarly:-
Unit of force, velocity acceleration etc. all derived units.
e.g.
𝑘𝑔𝑚⁄ 2
Force unit Newton = 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Work  joule =𝑁𝑚
𝐽
Power .watt = ⁄𝑠𝑐 = 𝑁𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
Etc.
Supplementary Units:-
The S.I unit which are not yet classified either base or derived unit is known as
Supplementary Unit.
Number:-
In number these are Two.
Name:-
(1) Radian (2) Steradian
Radian:-
The unit of plane angle subtended by an arc of length equal to its radius at center of circle is
known as radian.
 360
1𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 57.30=
2𝜋

C
Fig:
Proof
A
1 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 3600→ (𝐼)
r
1𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 → (𝐼𝐼)
Compare eq (I) and (II).
2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 3600
360
1𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 2𝜋
360
1𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 2(3.14)

1𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 57.30
Other Units of Plane Angle:-
Revolution, minutes and degree are other unit of plane angle mean we can measure plane
angle in revolution, degree and minutes.
1𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 3600
1𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 60𝑚𝑖𝑛
STERADIAN:-
It is the unit of solid angle. Or three dimensional angle.
Definition:
It is three dimensional angle subtended at the center by a surface area which is equal to the
square of radius of the sphere.
Symbolically:-
If area taken on sphere = (radius)2
i.e. 𝐴 = 𝑟2
Then the angle at “o” that is center by a surface area ‘A’ is 1 steradian.
Figure:-

𝑟2

𝑟r

Solid angle for sphere:

Solid angle for sphere at center is 4𝜋𝑠𝑟.
Explanation:-
The surface area of closed sphere of radius r is 4𝜋𝑟2. So according to definition.
The solid angle subtended by closed sphere at its center is surface area of the sphere divided by its
radius square.
Mathematically:-
 𝐴(𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒)
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐼𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 =
𝑟2(𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠)
𝐴𝑠 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟2
4𝜋𝑟 2
= 𝑟2

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 4𝜋𝑠𝑟

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION:-
Def: The expressing of number in power of ten is known as scientific notation.
OR
Writing of number in standard form 𝑀 𝑥 10p is known as scientific notation. It eliminates the need
to write zero to locate the decimal point correctly.
Internationally accepted practice:-
There must be only one non zero digit to the left of a decimal point. While writing number in
scientific form.
For example:-
234.5 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠
23.45𝑥10 = 2.345𝑥102
So all above are standard or scientific form of given decimal.

Prefixes of power of ten:-

Def: the certain specific power of ten which have been given specific names and frequently used in
measurement is known as prefix.
Symbol:-
All prefix having their own symbol used in measurement.
Use:-
The symbol are written before units of the quantities
Example:-
1000𝑔 = 1 × 103𝑔 = 1𝑘𝑔 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
Some of them are given below.
Name symbol Equivalent
Exa E 1018
Peta P 1015
Tera T 1012
Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Kilo K 103
Deca da 101
Deci d 10-1
Centi c 10-2
Milli m 10-3
Micro 𝜇 10-6
Nano n 10-9
Pico p 10-12
Femto f 10-15
Atto a 10-18

1) Convention for writing unit:-

Full Name:

1). Never start unit full name with capital letter even if named after scientist.

Always start with small letter for full name.

Example:

1 Newton →wrong

It can be written as

1 newton → right

Similarly:

1 Henry → wrong

1 henry → right.

2) Symbols:

2). Symbol of units after scientist has initial capital letter.

Mean when we write unit after scientist symbolically, his first letter will be capital.

Example:

1 newton = 1N

1hertz = 1Hz

1henry = 1H

3) Combination of units:

3) The combination of unit must be written one space apart from each other.

Note: Do not write one symbol after other without space.

Example:

Unit of Torque

N m → right

Nm → wrong

m s-1 → right

ms-1→ wrong.

4) Prefix:

The prefix is written before the unit without any space.

Mean prefix should be written before and adjacent to the unit.

Example:

10kg → right

10𝜇m → right

10kg → right

10kg → wrong

10𝜇m → wrong etc.

5) Double prefix:

Do not write double prefix in single calculation.

Always mention single prefix. The double prefix is wrong to write.

Mean: double prefix is not allowed.

Example:

mass = 10𝜇𝜇g → wrong

pressure= 10𝜇n g𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠 → wrong

mass = 10𝜇g or 10kg → right

pressure = 10ng𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠 → right

6)Power of multiple:

When multiple base is raised to a power so the power applies to the whole multiple not just to base
unit.

Example:

(1km)2 = (1x103m)2

1(103)2m2

1x106m2

7) Substituting of value in final result:

Before substituting values in final result make sure that all units are in same system.

c.g.s, fps or S.I.

Explanation:

Make sure that all quantities belongs to same system of unit because if some value are in S.I and
some in fps. Then the result will not be correct.

ROUNDING OFF NUMBER:

In measurement the quantities are always round of up to certain level of accuracy.

RULES FOR ROUNDING OFF A NUMBER

1) Dropping digit less than 5:

If dropping digit is less than 5 then last retain digits is kept as it is

Example: 12. 134321

If we want to round off the number up to 2nd decimal place

Dropping digit:

The dropping digits are “4” 3rd decimal place after decimal point

Correct Answer: 12.13

2) Dropping digit greater than 5:

If dropping digit is greater than 5 then drop the digit and add one to the last retained digit.

Example: 12.137658

If we want to round off the number up to 2nd decimal place after decimal point.

Dropping digit:

The dropping digit is 7 which is at 3rd decimal place after decimal point and is greater than 5 so
drops the digit and add one to retained digit

Final result: 12.14

3) Dropping digit equal to 5:

If dropping digit is 5 then the following situation occurs.

Case 1st:

1) If non zero digit exist after 5:

If non zero digit exist after 5 which is to be rounding off. Then add 1 to the last retained digit
whether it is even or odd.

Example: 26.34501

Rounding off up to 2nd decimal point by dropping 5

Final result 26.35

Example: 44.33567

Dropping digit dropping digit is 5

Final result, after rounding off

44.34

If zero exist after 5:

Then check the digit before the dropping whether it is even or odd.

If the digit is even then there will be no change write same as it is.

If the digit is odd then dropping five and increase it by one.

Significant figure:

The number of accurate known digits and 1st doubtful digit are known as significant figure.

Importance:

It shows the extent or limit to which reading are reliable.

Example 1:

1003 there are four significant figure. The 1st three digits to left are accurately know but the last one
is doubtful may be it is not exactly 3 it may be less are greater than 3 mean 3.5 or 2.5. so the last
digit is doubtful over all there are four significant figure.

Example 2:

12.03 cm

12.02 cm

12.06 cm

In given examples first three are accurately are known and the last digit is doubtful.

Rules of finding significant figure:

1) Non zero digits:

All non-zero digits are significant (1-9)

Example:

From (1-9) all are significant.

Example:25.385in this figure there are all digits are significant so number of significant figure is 5.

2) Counting significant figure:

For counting significant figure always start from non-zero digits on left of decimal point to the last
digit on right.

Example: 00123.45

So in this figure to count significant figure we will start from left so by counting there are 5
significant.

3) Zero b/w non zero digit:

Zero b/w non zero digit is significant.

Example: 10.0005

So number of significant is 6. The zero b/w 1 and 5 are also significant.

4) Zero to the right of decimal symbol And Left of non-Zero digit:

If zero exist right of decimal symbol and left of non zero digit. Then these are non significant.

Example: 1) 00012

2) 0.00063

In both example zeros are non-significant so number of significant figure are 2 in both examples.

So there are two significant figures. Which are 1 and 2 in 1stexample. 6 and 3 are significant in 2nd
example.

5) Zero to the right of decimal symbol after non zero digit:

When zero exist to right of decimal point after non-zero digit they are significant.

Example: 3.0000

In this example there are four zero to the right of decimal which are significant and the digit 3 is
also significant so

Number of significant figure is

In this example number of significant figure is 5.

6) In integer like 600, 8000 etc OR zero after non zero digit:

The zero exists after non zero before decimal symbol may be significant may not. It depend on the
least count of measuring instrument.

Example: 8000kg

In this above example zero after the non-zero digit. May or may not significant depend on least
count.

If least count is 1kg the no of significant is four.

Expression: 8.000 x 103kg

If least count is 10kg:

Then number of significant figure is three.

Expression: 8.00 x 103kg

Similarly:

If least count is 100kg

Then number of significant in above example is two.

Expression: 8.0 x 103kg.

7) Scientific Notation:

Scientific Notation is non significant.

When we record a measurement in scientific notation or in standard form then scientific notation is
non significant.

Example: 3x 103kg
In above example number of significant figure isone.103isnon-significant.

Similarly:

32𝜇F

In above example there are to significant figure. As

30𝜇f= 30x 10-6F

10-6 is non-significant.

3 & 2 are significant.

Q. 3

Ans.

ERRORS AND UNCERTAINTIES:

Error:

Def: The difference b/w the actual & measure value is known as error.

Explanation:

If we want to measure length of cloth having actual value1m and we measure less or greater. Then
1m means 99cm or 99.5cm. So there is contradiction in actual value and measured value so this is
known as error.

Mathematically:

Error can be found by subtraction actual value and measure value.

1𝑚 = 100𝑐𝑚 − 99𝑐𝑚 = 1𝑐𝑚

OR

100𝑐𝑚 − 99.5𝑐𝑚 = 0.5𝑐𝑚

So in above example there is an error of 1cm and 0.5cm.

In all measurement the error occur due to (1) Negligence or in experience of person (2) Faulty
apparatus (3) In appropriate technique (4) Sudden environment change may also occur an error.

Types of Error:

Basic three type of error.

I. Personal error
II. Systematic error
III. Random error

1) Personal Error:

The error cause due to improper knowledge about instrument or incorrect reading of scale is known
as Personal Error.
Improvement of measurement:

This error can be removed to some extend by two things.

1) Take care:
If the experimenter take care during the measurement of any quantity personal error
will be removed to some extent.
2) Knowledge about device:
If the experimenter perform . Some experiment to measure some quantity so he
must have proper knowledge about measuring device.

Systematic Error:

Def: The error caused due to poor calibrating instrument and faulty apparatus is known as
systematic error.

Explanation:

If we are measuring length of pen by means of ruler and that pen when measured by mean of
vernier caliper so there will be error in both measurement but ruler having greater error to poor
calibration.
Similarly in vernier caliper if we did not care of zero error then error will be caused. So all these
error are systematic error.
Similarly error arise in screw gauge and spherometer.

How to remove or decrease systematic error:

Systematic error can be remove to some extent by comparison.

Comparing method:

In this method we compere faulty instrument with some accurate and standard instrument. The
difference of the two can be added or subtracted to the measurement. Positive error is subtracted
from faulty instrument reading for correctness. And negative error is added to faulty instrument
reading for correctness.

Random error:

This error is also known as accidental error.

Def: The error caused due to repeated measurement of some quantity under same condition.
OR
If we take single measurement again and again due to which error caused.
Cause:
This error arise due to change in temperature or other unknown cause.

Q.4
Ans.
Uncertainty:
Definition:
The possible estimate range of an error is known as uncertainty.
How to indicate:
In order to understand that in measurement how to indicate uncertainty are given as. Let we have
block to measured its length with meter rod and found 22.5cm as least count of meter rod is 0.1cm.
so total uncertainty in measurement will be ± 0.1cm. This total uncertainty develop due to
uncertainty at one end is 0.5cm and uncertainty at other end is 0.5cm. So total uncertainty
developed is 0.1cm. Let 1st end of above block concede to 10.5cm and 2nd end consider to 33cm so
length of block will be with uncertainty at each end 0.5cm.
(33 ± 0.5) − (10.5 ± 0.5) = (22.5 ± 0.1)𝑐𝑚
It means length of blocked is b/w 22.4cm and 22.6cm.
Recording uncertainty:
Two way of recording uncertainty.
1) Absolute value uncertainty: “The absolute uncertainty indicated the precision of
measurement.”
For example: Length of book measure with meter stick. Meter stick least count is 0.1cm.
there for absolute uncertainty is ± 0.1cm.
2) Relative or fractional uncertainty:
It tells us about degree of accuracy in measurement.
Mathematically: ∆𝑥⁄
𝑥
Δx represent absolute uncertainty where x is measured value.
Assessment of uncertainty in final result:
For assessing the uncertainty in final result we have different rule as below.
Rule of sum or difference:
For two measured quantities when added or subtracted. The uncertainty in final result will be the
sum of absolute uncertainty in each measured value.
Example: let two quantities have uncertainty.
Addition or subtraction:
Let we want to add or subtract both these measured value.
𝑅 =𝑎±𝑏
Uncertainty in final result:
The absolute uncertainty in final result will be the sum of absolute uncertainty in “a” and “b”.
Mathematically:
Total uncertainty in R=uncertainty in a+ uncertainty in b
Let a = (12.6 ± 0.1)𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = (5.7 ± 0.1)𝑐𝑚

For subtraction:

𝑅 =𝑎−𝑏
(12.6 − 5.7) ± (𝑜. 1 + 0.1)
𝑅 = (6.9 ± 0.2)𝑐𝑚

So total uncertainty in final result is

0.2𝑐𝑚
QUOTIENT OR PRODUCT RULE:

If two or more measured quantities are divided or multiplied. Then uncertainty in final result will be
the sum of relative uncertainty in each measured quantities.

Step1: For product or quotient of two quantities 1st we find the relative or percentage uncertainty in
each.
Step2: After finding the relative or percentage uncertainty add them. Mean add both percentage
uncertainty. In both product or division of two measured quantities.

It will give the total percentage uncertainty in final result which can be converted into absolute
uncertainty.

Example: let we want to calculate resistance.

Formula:𝑅 = 𝑉⁄𝐼
To find R voltage (V) is divided by current I. If both voltage and current have absolute uncertainty.
Let 𝑉 = (5.2 ± 0.1)𝑉
𝐼 = (0.84 ± 0.05)𝐴

To find R and uncertainty in resistance following steps are taken.

1st step: 𝑉 = 5.2 ∆𝑉 = 0.1

𝐼 = 0.84 ∆𝐼 = 0.05
Divided measured value.
𝑅 = 𝑉⁄𝐼 = 5.2⁄0.84
𝑅 = 6.2 → 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Now for uncertainty in resistance

2nd step: Find percentage uncertainty in each.

𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦
Percentage uncertainty in 𝑉 = 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 × 100
∆𝑉
= × 100
𝑉
0.1
= 5.2 ×100

= 2%
Now
𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝐼
Percentage uncertainty in I= 𝑐𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 × 100
∆𝐼
= 𝑥 100
𝐼
0.05
=0.84 𝑥 100

= 6%
Now add both uncertainty
Percentage uncertain in R = 2% + 6%
= 8%

Conversion in absolute uncertainty:

 ∆𝑅
As percent uncertainty in R= × 100 = 8%
𝑅
𝑅
For ∆𝑅 = 8% × 100
6.2
∆𝑅 = 8 × 100

Absolute uncertainty ∆𝑟 = 0.5

Final result 𝑅 = (6.2 ± 0.5)Ω

Power Rule:Let we have a measured quantity having raised to a power than uncertainty in final
result will be obtained by multiplying percentage uncertainty with measured quantity power.

Example:We want to measure volume of sphere having radius r with uncertainty ∆𝑟 then
uncertainty in final result will be:
𝑟 = (2.25 ± 0.01)𝑐𝑚
𝑟 = 2.25 ∆𝑟 = ±0.01𝑐𝑚

1st step: final percentage uncertainty

𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑟
= 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑥 100
∆𝑟
= 𝑥 100
𝑟
0.01
= 2.25 𝑥 100
%age uncertainty = 0.4%

For volume:
As volume of sphere is
4
𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟3
Putting values
4
𝑉 = 3 (3.14)(2.25)3 = 47.7

As “r” having power 3 so

Multiplied %age uncertainty by 3 and then convert in absolute uncertainty as

%age uncertainty 𝑣 = 3(0.4)% = 1.2%

𝑉
The absolute uncertainty in 𝑉 = ∆𝑉 = 1.2% 𝑥 100

47.7
∆𝑉 = 1.2% 𝑥 100

∆𝑉 = ±0.6

Final result of volume = 𝑉 ± ∆𝑉

=(47.7 ± 0.6)𝑐𝑚

Uncertainty in average value:Steps for average value uncertainty:

1st step: 1st find the average or mean value.

2nd step: Find the deviation for each value from mean value.

3rd step: Take mean of the deviated value and that will be the uncertainty in final result.

Example:
 𝑋1= 1.50𝑐𝑚 𝑋2= 1.51 𝑋3= 1.52
𝑋1+𝑋2+𝑋3
Mean value = 3
1.50+1.51+1.52
3

𝑋 = 1.51𝑐𝑚

Now deviation in each from mean value.

∆𝑋1= 𝑋 − 𝑋 1
1.51 − 1.50 = 0.01𝑐𝑚
∆𝑋2= 𝑋 − 𝑋 2
1.51 − 1.51 = 0.00𝑐𝑚
∆𝑋3= 𝑋 − 𝑋 3
1.51 − 1.52 = 0.01𝑐𝑚
Take average of deviation value
∆𝑋1+∆𝑋2+∆𝑋3
= 3
0.01+0+0.01
= 3
= 0.0067𝑐𝑚
∆= 0.007𝑐𝑚
Final result
Final R = 𝑋 ± ∆𝑋
R= (1.51 ± 0.007)𝑐𝑚

Uncertainty in timing experiment: Time period of simple pendulum or mass spring system can be
obtained by dividing total time by total number of vibration.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Symbolically: 𝑇=
𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Explanation: If simple pendulum completes3 vibrations in 54.6s. Then absolute error in time in
0.1sec.So uncertainty 0.1
1
Reason: Stop watch is accurate to 10 of second so least count of stop watch is 0.1 which is absolute
uncertainty. 1st find fraction uncertainty in 30 vibrations .

Topic.

PRECISSION AND ACCURACY:

Definition:

A precise measurement is the one which has less precision or absolute uncertainty:

Or

An accurate measurement is the one which has less fractional or percentage uncertainty or
error.

Explanation:

The precision of a measurement is determined by the instrument of device being used. The
accuracy of a measurement depends upon the fractional or percentage uncertainty in that
measurement.
Example:

When the length of an object is recorded as 25.5 cm by using a meter rod having smallest
division in millimeter, it is the difference of two readings of the initial and final positions. The
uncertainty in the single reading as discussed in the previous example is taken as ±0.05 cm which
is now doubled (due to initial and final readings) is called “absolute uncertainty”. Thus absolute
uncertainty= ±0.5 ± 0.5 = ±0.1𝑐𝑚

The absolute uncertainty is equal to least count of the measuring instrument i.e. meter rod.
This is also called precision.

First Case:

Precision or absolute uncertainty (least count =± 0.1 𝑐𝑚.

As the length of the object recorded by a meter rod having least count ′0.1𝑐𝑚′is 25.5𝑐𝑚. then
0.1𝑐𝑚
fractional uncertainty = 25.5𝑐𝑚 = 0.004

0.1 100 0.4

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 = 25.5 × 100 = 100 = 0.4%

Second Case:

Another measurement of length is taken by vernier caliper with least count as 0.01𝑐𝑚 is
recorded as 0.45𝑐𝑚 it has.

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 (𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡) = ±0.01𝑐𝑚

0.01
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 = 0.45 𝑐𝑚

0.01 100
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 = 0.45 × 100

2
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 = 100 = 2.0%

This shows that the reading 25.5𝑐𝑚 taken by meter rule is less precise but is more accurate. In fact
it is the relative measurement which is important. The smaller a physical quantity, the more precise
instrument should be used. Thus the measurement 0.45𝑐𝑚 demands that a more precise instrument
such as micrometer screw gauge with least count 0.001𝑐𝑚 should be used.

Q.5

Ans.

Dimensions: Dimension represents the nature of physical quantity.

Explanation: As different quantities have different dimension so for the nature of physical
quantities we find dimension.
Dimension also represent the quantities in term of base quantities mean from which base physical
quantities it compose of.
Example: Length, width, Breath, Diameter, depth or wavelength. Which are measured in meter
denoted by the same dimension i.e. Length [L].
Dimension Representation: dimension can be represented by capital latter of that quantity with
closed brackets.
Example: Quantities Unit Dimension
Length meter [L]
Mass kg [M]
Time sec [T]
Dimension of derived quantities: Dimension of derived quantities can be represented in term of
base quantities dimension from which it is derived.

For Example: unit dimension

Dimension of area = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑋 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑚2 = [𝐿2]
𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ [𝐿]
Dimension of speed = =𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 = [𝑇] = [𝐿𝑇-1]
𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Dimension of derived quantities obtained easily from base S.I unit. As speed unit is 𝑚⁄𝑠 so for
meter we have dimention [L] and for time we have [T]. [𝐿⁄𝑇] = [𝐿𝑇-1]

Dimension of velocity is same as speed [𝐿𝑇-1].

Dimension of acceleration: As acceleration is given by 𝑎 = 𝑉⁄𝑡 for dimension of 𝑎.

𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Dimension of 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

[𝐿𝑇 −1 ]
= [𝑇]

= [𝐿𝑇 −1 ] [𝑇 −1 ]

Dimension of 𝑎 = [𝐿𝑇 −2 ]
OR [a] = [LT-2]
From unit: As unit of accelerating is 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑚 →represent meter unit of length and its dimension
is [𝐿]
Sec represent second unit of time and its dimension is[𝑇].
Putting dimension:
[𝐿]
Dimension of 𝑎 = = [𝐿𝑇 −2 ]
[𝑇 2 ]

Term used in dimension:

1) Dimension variable: Those physical quantities which have dimension but variable magnitude
are dimensionally variable quantities. Means it magnitude changes or varies time to time but having
dimension.
Example: (1) Force (2) Energy (3) Acceleration etc.
All above example having dimension but variable magnitude.
[𝑀][𝐿]
Dimension of force:1𝑁 = 𝑘𝑔 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 = [𝑇 2 ]

Dimension of force = [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ]

Dimension of energy: Dimension of energy is same as work.
 Dimension of energy= [𝑀𝐿2𝑇 −2 ]

Dimensional constant: Those physical dimensional quantities which are constant in magnitude are
dimensional constant.

Examples:

1) Gravitational constant (G)= 6.67 x 10-11Nm2/Kg2

2) Planks constant (h)= 6.63 x 10-34J S
3) Speed of light in vacuum (c) = 3 x 108m/s
4) Idea gas constant (R) etc.

All above example are dimensional quantities but their magnitude is constant having fixed value.

Dimension of (G):
𝑚1 𝑚2
Since 𝐹 = 𝐺 × 𝑟2

𝑓𝑟 2
𝐺=𝑚
1 𝑚2

Putting dimension of each quantities

Dimension of force = [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ]

Dimension of r2 = [𝐿2 ]

Dimension of m1m2= [𝑀2 ]

[𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ][𝐿2 ]
Dimension of G = [𝑀2 ]

Dimension of (G) = [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ][𝐿2 ][𝑀−2 ]

= [𝑀 −1 𝐿3 𝑇 −2]

= [𝑀 −1 𝐿3 𝑇 −2]

Dimension of speed of light in velocity (C): same as speed and velocity

Dimension of (C) = [𝐿𝑇 −1 ]

Dimensionless variable: Those physical quantities having variable magnitude but dimensionless
means no dimension are dimensionless variable.

Example:

1) Plane angle (radian)

2) Solid angle ( steradian)
3) Strain (S)
4) Co-efficient of friction (𝜇)

All above example having variable magnitude but dimensionless.

Dimensionless constant: Those physical quantities having no dimension but magnitude constant
are dimensionless constant.

Example: 1) Pure number (1,2,3…….)

 22
2) 𝜋 = 3.14 = 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
7

Advantage of Dimension analysis: By means of Dimension Analysis we check homogeneity of

physical equation.
Mean the equation we write is dimensionally correct or not.

For Example: 𝑠 = 𝑉𝑖𝑇 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2 is an equation which is dimensionally correct meanings that the
dimension of both sides are the same.

Prove: 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑖𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2

L.H.S:
Dimension of 𝑠 = [𝐿]

R.H.S:

Dimension of 𝑣𝑖𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2 → (𝐴)

Dimension of 𝑣𝑖 = 𝐿𝑇 −1

Dimension of 𝑡 = [𝑇]

Dimension of 𝑎 = [𝐿𝑇 −2 ]

Dimension of 𝑡 2 = [𝑇 2 ]

1⁄ having no dimension.
2
Putting dimension of each in (A)
1
[𝐿𝑇 −2 ][𝑇] + [𝐿𝑇 −2 ][𝑇 2 ]
2

1
[𝐿] + [𝐿]
2

3
[𝐿]
2

3⁄ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
2

Conclusion: The dimensions of both sides are same which is length [L]

Dimension of R.H.S = Dimension of L.H.S

[L] = [L]

By mean of Dimension analysis we deduce the relation i.e. relation of time period for simple
pendulum.

Prove: In simple pendulum the quantities on which time period depend.

1) Length of Pendulum (L)

2) Mass of Pendulum (m)
3) Gravitational acceleration (g)
4) Angular displacement (𝜃)
So
 𝑇 𝛼 𝑙𝑎
𝑇 𝛼 𝑚𝑏
𝑇 𝛼 𝑔𝑐
𝑇 𝛼 𝜃2
Combine:
𝑇 𝛼 𝐿𝑎 𝑚𝑏 𝑔𝑐 𝜃 𝑑
𝑇 = 𝑘𝑙 𝑎 𝑚𝑏 𝑔𝑐 𝜃 𝑑 → (𝐴)
Compare dimension on b.s side:
Dimension of T = [𝑀0 𝑙 0 𝑇 1 ]
Dimension of g = [𝐿𝑇 −2 ]
Dimension of L = [𝐿]
Dimension of m = [𝑀]
Dimension of 𝜕 = no dimension
So
[𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 1 ] = 𝐾[𝐿]𝑎 [𝑀]𝑏 [𝐿𝑇 −2 ]𝑐
= 𝐾 𝐿𝑎 𝑀𝑏 𝐿𝑐 𝑇 −2𝑐
= 𝐾𝐿𝑎+𝑐 𝑀𝑏 𝑡 −2𝑐

Compare power for [L]:

0 = 𝑎 + 𝑐 → (1)
Compare power for [M]:
0 = 𝑏 → (2)
Compare power for [T]:
1 = −2𝑐

𝑐 = −1⁄2 → (3)

Put the value c in (1) to get value of a

𝑎 = 1⁄2

Putting value of a, b, c in eq (A)

1⁄ −1
𝑇 = 𝑘𝑙 2 𝑚 0 𝑔 ⁄2

𝑙1⁄
𝑇 = 𝑘 𝑔1⁄2
2

𝑇 = 𝑘√𝑙⁄𝑔

Where k found experimentally( 𝑘 = 2𝜋)

𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑙⁄𝑔

Dimension of Plank’s constant (h):

As energy of photon is given by
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 → 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

ℎ = 𝐸⁄𝑓 → (𝐴)

Putting dimension of energy and frequency in (A)

𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Dimension of ℎ = 𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 → (1)

As Dimension of 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]

And Dimension of 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑇 −1
Putting the dimension of energy and frequency in equation (1)
[𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]
 Dimension of ℎ = [𝑇 −1 ]

= [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ][𝑇]
Dimension of ℎ = [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −1 ].
[ℎ] = [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −1 ]
 Exercise Short Questions
1. Define the number π and show that 2π radian =3600?

Answer:
Definition of π
The ratio of circumference of a circle to its diameter is called π.
Mathematically
If ‘C’ is the circumference and ‘d’ is diameter then
𝐶
π =𝑑
Derivation: Let us consider a circle of diameter ‘d’ and circumference ‘c’ as shown

As we increase the diameter of circle its circumference will increase

Mathematically:
C∝𝑑
C = Constant d
C= πd
𝐶
π=𝑑
Value of π
π is constant and its value is given by
π = 22/7
= 3.14
It has no unit it is a pure number
2π radian =3600
Derivation:
Let us consider a particle moving in a circle as shown in figure
If it moves one complete cycle then the angle traversed by the position vector will be
a) In degree
θ=360…………… (a)
b) In radian
θ = S/r……….. (b).
For the complete cycle
S= 2πr
S=r
Putting respective values in (b) we get
θ = 2πr/r
θ = 2π radian………(c)
Comparing eq (b) and eq (c) we get
2π radian = 360
Hence the required result.

2. Define the term error, uncertainty, precision, accuracy in measurement

Error
The difference between the measured value and actual value is called error
Mathematically
Error =actual value –measured value
Important points
 Error can never be removed but can be minimzed
 Error is always with the measurement whether due to
 Person
 Apparatus
 Environmental effect
  Error must be consider in experimental studies
Uncertainty
Definition
The maximum possible range of an error in any measurement is called uncertainty
Expression
It is expressed by ± least count of the device
Important points
 It is not due to person, apparatus or environmental effect but it is the limitation imposed on us by
nature
 Any measurement without uncertainty is meaningless
 It gives us a limit up to which a measurement is possible with error
Precision
Definition
A measure of reproducibility of same result in the measurement is called precision
Important points
 Smaller the least count higher will be the precision
 Choice of the instrument depends upon the precision of measurement
 High precision does not imply high accuracy
Accuracy
Definition
A measure of how close a reading is to the actual value is called accuracy
Important points
 It is the demand of measurement
 It is determined by relative or fractional error
 Precision is the part of accuracy
3. Explain several repetitive phenomena occurring naturally which could serve reasonable time
standard?
Answer:
Any natural phenomena in nature which is repetitive having constant time period and specific frequency
can be used as time standard. Some of the naturally occurring repetitive phenomena that can be used as
time standard are
a. Change of shadow of objects
b. Oscillating pendulum
c. Rotation of planets
d. Dropping of certain mass of sand or water through hole
e. Characteristic vibration of crystal
f. Position of moon
g. Heart beat
a. Change of shadow of object
The old people in our villages predict the exact time on the basis of shadows of trees and buildings.
One can’t imagine their predictions are very closed to the time displayed by watches. they also
predict the time of prayers on the basis of this.
b. Oscillating simple pendulum
Since motion of the simple pendulum is periodic in nature so it was used in the mechanical clocks by the
earlier physicist to express time.
4. Why do it is useful to have two units for the amount of substance ,kilogram and mole?
Answer:
It is useful to have two units for the amount of substance kilogram and mole because a single unit cannot
fulfill the quantitative study requirements of science both at microscopic level as well as at macroscopic
level.
Some of the illustrated examples are:
1. Universal Constant:
In universal gas law, the number of atoms/ molecules in a substance is more significant than mass in
kilogram.
For example:
If PV= KNT is expressed in mole then K is universal constant.
But:
If PV= α m T is expressed in mass of kilogram then α is not a universal constant.
2. Mass At Microscopic Level:
In laboratory, the mole is convenient method to find the mass of small particles because no instrument can
be used to measure the mass of atoms, molecules or ions

3. Stoichiometric analysis:
In Stoichiometric analysis
 Proportion of entities in reaction
 Formula of compound
 Counting of different entities and their comparison is more significant in mole than kg.
5. Mass at macroscopic level
When we study the physical world then kg is more significant than mole to explain the effects.
Conclusion:
Two units kg and mile for the amount of substance is useful because of
I. In some cases mole is more significant than mass in kg and vice versa
II. Mole is tool to find the mass at microscopic level where kg is used at macroscopic level
III. Some laws have universal constant in terms of moles and some in terms of kg.
6. Show that famous Einstein equation E=mc2 is dimensionally consistent.
Proof
The famous Einstein equation is given as
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
The dimensions of energy is [𝑀1 2 −2 ]
𝐿 𝑇
1
Dimensions of mass [𝑀 ]
Dimensions of speed of light is [𝐿1 𝑇 −1 ]
Dimensions of square of speed of light is [𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]
Writing the Einstein equation in the form of dimensions
[𝑀1 𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ] = [𝑀1 ][𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]
[𝑀1 𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ] = [𝑀1 𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]
So the dimensions of left hand side =dimensions of right hand side
Conclusion
Hence the famous equation of Einstein E=mc2 is dimensionally consistent.
7. Deduce the dimensions of the gravitational constant
Answer:
The dimensions of gravitational constant are
[𝑀−1 𝐿3 𝑇 −2 ]
Deduction
According to Newton’s universal gravitational law
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝐺
𝑟2
On rearranging
𝑟2𝐹
𝐺=
𝑚1 𝑚2
2 [𝐿2 ]
Dimensions of 𝑟 =
Dimensions of F = [𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 −2 ]
Dimensions of m =[𝑀1 ]
Writing the respective dimensions in equation 1 the dimension of G is
[𝐿2 ][𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 −2 ]
[𝐺] =
[𝑀1 ][𝑀1 ]
 [𝑀1 𝐿3 𝑇 −2 ]
[𝐺] =
[𝑀2 ]
[𝐺] = [𝑀 𝐿 𝑇 −2 ][𝑀−2 ]
1 3

[𝐺] = [𝑀−1 𝐿3 𝑇 −2 ]
Conclusion
Hence proved that the dimensional formula of the gravitational constant is
[𝑀−1 𝐿3 𝑇 −2 ]

8. Find the dimensions of kinetic energy

Answer:
The dimensions of kinetic energy are [𝑀1 𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]
Deduction
As we know that
1
KE=2 𝑚𝑣 2
Dimensions of m =[𝑀1 ]
Dimensions of velocity is [𝐿1 𝑇 −1 ]
Dimensions of square of velocity is [𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]
Writting equation in the form of dimensions
[𝐾𝐸] = [𝑀1 ][𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]
[𝐾𝐸] = [𝑀1 𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]
Conclusion
Hence the dimensions of KE are
[𝑀1 𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]

9. Give the drawback to use the period of a pendulum as a time standard .

Answer:
The period of simple pendulum was used as time standard in the early ages of physics but the demand of
high accuracy of measurement in the latest well developed science and technology reject it due to
a. Variation of the length of simple pendulum.
b. Variation of the value of g.
Explanation
Being periodic motion in nature the simple pendulum can be used as the time standard and its time period
is given by
𝟏 𝒍
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 √𝒈
The time period of simple pendulum depends upon
 Length of simple pendulum
 Acceleration due to gravity
The two factors are variable and may be affected by
1. Temperature
2. Time
3. Location
So time period of simple pendulum is not a fixed quantity and is not in agreement with the demand of
highly accurate time standard in modern sciences.
Conclusion:
Due to significant changes in the time period of simple pendulum by
 Environmental effects
 Properties of earth
 Natural variations
The motion of simple pendulum is not used as time standard.
 10. Are radians and steradians the base units of SI? Justify your answer
Answer:
No radian and steradian are not base units of SI. They are supplementary units due to purely
geometrical nature and are units of dimensionless quantities plane angle and solid angles. they are also not
derived units.
Explanation
Being units of dimensionless quantities and having purely geometrical nature ,general conference
on weight and measures has yet not classified certain units of system international to be either base or
derived so they are supplementary units .
SI unit of plane angle is radian and for solid angle steradian.
Conclusion
Hence radian and steradian are not the base or derived units but supplementary units of SI.
11. What does the word micro signify in the words micro wave oven?
Answer:
The word “micro” in microwave oven signifies the smaller wavelength radiations in radio wave region of
electromagnetic spectrum but does not mean 10-6
Because waves used in microwave oven are of following properties
Wavelength, λ= 12cm
Frequency =2450MHz
Explanation
The wave used in microwave oven are 2450MHz using speed of light in
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
𝑣
𝜆=
𝑓
3 × 108
𝜆=
2450 × 106
𝜆 ≅ 12𝑐𝑚
Conclusion
So in microwave oven wavelength used is in the order of centimeter but not 10−6

12. Density of air is 1.2 kg m-3. Change it into gm cm-3.

Given data
Density of air,ρ = 1.2 kg-m-3
To find out
Density of air ,ρ in g-cm-3 = ?
Conversion factor
1kg=1000g=103g
1m=100cm=102cm
Solution
When we convert a unit to sub-multiple the we multiply the factor that is
𝑘𝑔
Ρ=1.2𝑚3
1.2×1000𝑔
Ρ= (100𝑐𝑚)2
1.2×103 𝑔
Ρ= 106 𝑐𝑚3
Ρ=1.2× 103 10−6g-cm-3
Answer
Ρ=1.2× 10−3g-cm-3
This is the required density of air in g-cm-3
13. An old saying is that A chain is only as strong as its weakest link. what analogue a statement can
you make regarding measurement?
Answer:
An old saying is that “A chain is as strong as its weakest link”
The analogous statement regarding measurement is
 “A result obtained by mathematical computation of experimental data is only as much accurate
as its least accurate reading in the experimental data “
Explanation
The final result of an experiment depends on the accuracy of each measurement in the
experimental data. In data each measurement is like a link in a chain. An inaccurate measurement
is the weakest link for the final result .Hence the accuracy of the final result is limited to the least
accurate measurement .
For example
The measured data for the value of g by using simple pendulum as a measuring device is
9.7m-s-2,7.1m-s-2,9.2m-s-2,9.4m-s-2
The weakest link in this data is 7.1m-s-2 which limits the result to 8.85≅ 8.9m-s-2
The actual value of g =9.8m-s-2.The experimental results 9.7m-s-2,9.4m-s-2 and 9.2m-s-2 are close to
9.8m-s-2 and the average is 9.4m-s-2 which is more close to 9.8m-s-2 than 8.9m-s-2
Hence in the data 7.1m-s-2 is analogous to the weakest link in the chain.

14. Differentiate between the light year and year?

Light year Year
1. The distance travelled by light in one year 1.the duration in which earth complete one
is called light year rotation about sun is called one year
2. It is the unit of distance 2.it is the unit of tome
3. Light year = 9.5× 1015 𝑚 4. 1year=3.15× 107 𝑠
5. It is astronomical unit 4.it is age dating unit.