CHAPTER ONE

BEHAVIOR OF RC AND RC ELEMENTS UNDER

LOAD AND BASIC CONCEPTS OF DESIGN

1.1. Introduction

Concrete is a stone like material obtained artificially by hardening of the

mixture of cement, sand, gravel and water in pre-determined proportions.

A wide range of strength properties can be obtained by appropriate

adjustment of the proportions of its constituents but it is known that it has
enough strength in compression, little tensile strength which makes it weak
in bending, shear and torsion. Thus, for common structures such as beams,
slabs, etc, concrete requires steel bars to be placed at tensile zone of the
structure which may be concreted.

Important factors contributing to strength of concrete:

- water cement ratio
- curing of concrete
- temperature
Advantages of concrete
- It is moldable in to any desired shape.
- It does not deteriorate with time.
- It is fire, weather and corrosion resistant.
- It is monolithic
Disadvantage of concrete
- It is difficult to dismantle
- It requires formwork (expensive)
- It is difficult to supervise after pouring.
- Due to crack, large portion of section not efficiently used.

Important features of concrete

Compressive strength:
- main measure of the structural quality of concrete.
- test for this property is made either on cylinder specimen (6x12 in  150 x
300 mm) ASTM standard or specimen of 150 mm cube to obtain cylinder
compressive strength fc’, or cube compressive strength fcu, respectively.
These tests are generally made on the 28 th day of moistured specimen at
70+50F. The later measurement, (cube), is used in the Ethiopian standard where
concrete is graded as C5, C10, C15, C20, C25, C30, C40, C50, in which the
number indicate strength in MPa.

1
 Stress
(f’c) tan-1Es– secant modulus

f 'c
2 tan-1Ec – tangent modulus
c

Strain 
Fig. 1.1
fc
As there is no fixed ratio of to define the term modulus of Elasticity,

whenever E is used without further designation, it is usually meant the secant
modulus, EC, in MPa.

Creep
Another important factor to be considered in stress-strain of concrete is creep-a
property where increase in strain under constant load with time is observed.
Factors attributing:
o loading at an early stage
o high-water cement ratio
o exposing the concrete to drying condition
Tensile strength (axial)
o Important in design to resist shear, torsion and control
of crack width.
o Difficult to obtain from test because of handling problems.

Based on tests for other property, empirical relation are used to obtain the tensile
strength. For instance, in Ethiopian standards,

fctk = 0.21 f ck 2/3

where, fctk = tensile strength of concrete in MPa

fck = characteristic cylinder compressive strength in MPa.

Reinforcing steel
- high strength & high cost material
- the two materials – concrete and steel - are best used in combination if
the concrete is made to resist the compression stresses and the steel
the tensile stresses
When RC elements are used, sufficient bond between the two materials must be
developed to ensure that there is no relative movement between the steel bars
and the surrounding concrete.

2
 This bond may be developed by:-
- chemical adhesion
- natural roughness
- closely spaced rib-shaped surface deformation of reinforcement bars.

Reinforcing bars varying 6 to 35 mm in size are available in which all are surface
deformed except F6.

Some bar size and areas for design purpose are given below:

Diameter F
(mm) 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24…
Area (mm2) 28 50 78.5 113 154 200 254 314 380 450
Weight(kg/m) 0.222 0.395 0.619 0.888 1.210 1.570 2.000 2.470 3.000 3.500

Characteristic properties of reinforcing bars is expressed using its yield strength

fy (fyk) and modulus of elasticity Es.

Fy ranges between 220 to 500 MPa, with 300 MPa common is our country.
Es ranges between 200 to 210 GPa.

1.2. Behavior under load

In RC structures such as beams, the tension caused by bending moment is

chiefly resisted by the steel reinforcement while the concrete alone is usually
capable of resisting the corresponding compression. Such joint action of the two
materials is assured if the relative slip is prevented which is achieved by using
deformed bars with their high bond strength at the steel-concrete interface.

To illustrate the stress-stain development for increased loading, consider the

following. Increased loading
Very low load

Tension Crack

Fig. 1.2

3
  cc fcc  cc fcc  cu fcu
As As As
d
s
D
As As
s fs s fs
s
d’ fs
As  As As
b ct fct
As
Cross-Section Strain Stress strain Stress Strain Stress
a) Very low loading b) Increased Loading c) Loading nearly failure

Fig. 1.3
- At low loads where tensile stress is less than or equal to fctk, stress & strain
relation shown in fig (a) results.
- At increased load, tensile stress produced larger than fctk (fig.b)
 Cracks developed below NA, the steel alone carry all tensile force. If the
compressive stress at extreme fiber is less than fc’/2, stresses and strains
continue to be closely proportional (linear stress distribution).

- For further increment of load, the stress distribution is no longer linear as

shown in fig (c)

If the structure say the beam has reached its maximum carrying capacity one
may conclude the following on the cause of failure.

1. When the amount of steel is small at some value of the load the steel
reaches its yield point. In such circumstances:
- the steel stretches a large amount
- tension cracks in the concrete widens visibility and significant
deflection of the beam occurs.
- Compression zone of concrete increase resulting in crushing of
concrete (secondary compression failure).

Such failure is gradual and is preceded by visible sign, widening and

lengthening of cracks, marked increase in deflection.

2. When a large amount of steel used, compressive strength of concrete

would be exhausted before the steel starts yielding. Thus concrete fails
by crushing. Compression failure through crushing of concrete is sudden
and occurs without warning.

Therefore it is a good practice to dimension sections in such away that should

they be overloaded, failure would be initiated by yielding of the steel rather than
crushing of concrete.

4
1.3. Basic concept of design and permissible stress

Design of RC member is meant to determine the size of concrete section and the
amount of reinforcement satisfying all strength requirements. Based on design
load determination and the corresponding design strength of materials different
methods of design have been introduced.

 The Working Stress Design (WSD) Method.

 The Ultimate Strength Design (USD) Method.
 The Limit State Design (LSD) Method.

When applying WSD method safety of members for strength requirements due to
service load is insured by reducing the allowable stress to a prescribed value.
For instance, the allowable compressive stress in extreme fiber of concrete
should not exceed 0.425 fck and that of tensile stress in steel 0.52 fyk, for class-I
works. These are 0.386 fck and 0.5 fyk respectively for class-II works.

Thus the satisfaction of these strength requirements can be checked by explicit

calculation. However, deflection control and durability requirements may be
satisfied through several detailings and implicit computation. Deflection limits are
assumed to be satisfied when the minimum effective depth for a particular
member is
 0.6 * f  l
 yk  e
d   0.4 
 400  
  a
where fyk is equal to character strength of reinforcement, Le is the effective span
(the shorter span in case of two way slab), is constant, a function of restraints
given below).

Table – values of  a
Member Simple End span Interior cantilever
span
Beams 20 24 28 10
Slabs:
Span ratio 2:1 25 30 35 12
Span ratio 1:1 35 40 45 10
* For intermediate values – interpolation.
Durability and control of crack width is related with finishing and provision of
adequate cover to reinforcement. Nominal cover for structural elements located
in the interior of the building with dry environment and mild condition is 15 mm,
example slab; humid environment with moderate exposure is 25 mm, example
beam; severe environment is 50 mm, example footing.

5
 CHAPTER TWO
THE WORKING STRESS DESIGN METHOD

2.1. Design of Sections for flexure

2.1.1 Singly Reinforced Sections

When the concrete compressive stress is smaller than approximately 0.5 fck and the
steel has not reached the yield strength, both materials continue to behave
elastically.

At this stage, it is assumed that tension cracks have progressed all the way to the
neutral axis and that sections plane before bending is plane in the bent member. This
situation of the section, strain and stress distribution is shown in the fig. below.
c fc
As C
a
D d
As
s T=Asfs
d’
As
b

Cross-Section Strain Stress

Fig. 2.1

c 
From the strain line,  s …………………… (i)
a d a
Es
Knowing  s  f s ,  c 
fc (Hooke’s Law) and defining modular ratio as n = ,
Es Ec Ec
(i) becomes,
fc fs which simplifies to:

a n( d  a )

a nf c
 k ………. (ii)
d f s  nf c

a = kd is an indicator of the neutral axis.

F H 0 Asfs = abfc ………. ( iii)

Defining   As as the tensile steel ratio, (iii) yields
bd

6
 fs k
bdf s = kbdf c from which ,  ….….. (iv)
2 fc 2

But (ii) may be simplified to kfs + nkfc = nfc which reduces to

fs n(1  k ) ………………. (v)

fc k
n(1  k ) k
Equating (iv) and (v) imply = , which simplifies to
k 2
 
  2n  2n   4  2n
2

2  n – 2nk  = k2 k  
 2 
 
Considering the practical value
k  n  n 2  2n ……………… (vi)
Note that (vi) satisfies the stress – strain relation as well as the equilibrium of
horizontal forces & hence is a useful relation for analysis.
a k
abf c (d  ) kbdf c d (1  )
M T 0 M 
2
3 
2
3
…….. (vii)
where M is the external bending moment.
k kjfc
Let j  1 , R  (vii) becomes M = Rbd2 from which d=
M
3 2 RB
useful for evaluation of the effective depth.

The area of steel required may be obtained by taking moment about the centroid of
compressive stress as:

a k
As f s (d  ) = As f s d (1  ) = As f s jd = M, from which
3 3
M
As = …………………..(viii)
f s jd

nf c n fs
From (ii), k  , where r = defined as the simultaneous
f s  nf c r  n fc
stress ratio.

7
 fs k n
Equation (v)  = =r  2 r = which yields
fc 2 rn
n
b =
2r ( r  n)
where  b is defined as the balanced steel ratio which may be used for designing a
member in such away that the steel and concrete will reach the respective allowable
stresses for the same applied moment.

As
Generally,  is the steel ratio used for design and
bd
i. if  <  b , the steal will reach its allowable stress at a lower load than concrete
and M = Asfsjd
ii. if  >  b , the concrete reaches its allowable stress first, and in such a case,
M = Rbd2 is the max moment which the section may sustain.

2.1.2 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Cross-section

When the cross-section of an RC member is limited, the concrete may not develop the
compressive force-required to resist the given bending moment. In such cases
reinforcement is added in compression zone resulting in doubly reinforced section. If
both concrete & steel are completely elastic the stress in compression steel is n times
the concrete stress at the same level, since the unit strains in the steel and adjacent
concrete are equal.

However, the stresses and strains in the concrete are proportional only at relatively
A’s
low strains, and at higher strains the stresses no longer increased proportionately. In
the course of time the concrete transfer part of the compressive stress to the steel and
the actual stress in the steel becomes higher than that computed on the basis of
elastic behavior.

Consider the rectangular section of an RC beam, doubly reinforced with strains and
stress distribution shown.
c fc
d’’  's As C As’f’s
a
D d
+
As
s As1fs As2fs
d’
As
b

Cross-Section Strain Stress for single Stress in compression steel

reinforcement & partial tensile steel.

8
 Fig. 2.2

M = Total bending moment

M1= Moment developed by cross-section of concrete without compression steel
working with partial steel area As1.
M2= Moment in excess of M1 developed by compressive steel As’ & partial
tensile steel As2.
 M = M1+M2 and As = As1 +As2
M1
M1 = Rbd2 and As1 =
f s jd

M2 = As2fs (d-d”) = As’fs’ (d-d”)

Thus M2 is governed by either compressive steel or tensile steel depending on the

stresses in each and their relative areas.

 s d  kd f s f s (kd  d " )
From the strain line,    f s' 
 s ' kd  d " f s ' d  kd

Because the concrete transfer parts of its compressive stress to the steel, the actual
stress in steel becomes higher than the one computed on elastic behavior. Thus
some national codes recommend to use:
2 f s (kd  d " )
f s' 
d  kd
2.1.3 T- sections

Reinforced concrete floors or roofs are monolithic and hence, a part of the slab will act
with the upper part of the beam to resist longitudinal compression. The resulting
beam cross-section is, then, T-shaped (inverted L), rather than rectangular with the
slab forming the beam flange where as part of the beam projecting below the slab
forms the web or stem. be

hf
D
b

Fig. 2.3

The T-sections provide a large concrete cross-sectional area of the flange to resist the
compressive force. Hence, T-sections are very advantageous in simply supported
spans to resist large positive bending moment, where as the inverted T-sections have
the added advantage in cantilever beam to resist negative moment.

9
As the longitudinal compressive stress varies across the flange width of same level, it
is convenient in design to make use of an effective flange width (may be smaller than
the actual width) which is considered to be uniformly stressed.
Effective flange width (according to EBCS 2, 1995)
For interior beams  T-sections
 le
bw 
be   5
C / C beam spacing
For edge beams  inverted L- sections
 le
bw 
be   10
bw  half the clear dis tan ce to adjacent beam
where le – is the effective span length & bw is the width of the web.

The neutral axis of a T-beam may be either in the flange or in the web, depending
upon the proportion of the cross-section, the amount of tensile steel and the strength
of the materials. If the calculated depth to the neutral axis is less or equal to the slabs
thickness, hf, the beam can be analyzed as if it were a rectangular beam of width
equal to be.

If the NA is in the web, as shown in the fig. below, a method is developed which
account for the actual T-shaped compression zone.

be
c fc
hf As C
d
s ASfs
As
bW

Cross-Section Strain Stress

Fig. 2.4

For simplification of analysis, the compressive force in the web below the flange will
be disregarded in comparison with that in the flange.

 Compressive force in the flange

(kd  h f )
fc  fc (2kd  h f )
kd be h f  f c be h f
C=
2 2kd

10
 (2kd  h f )
F H  0  Asfs =  bedfs = f c be h f
2kd
…………. (*)
n k
From the relation in (ii) k   fc  fs
fs n(1  k )
n
fc
Upon substitution in (*) and simplifying
2
1  hf 
n   
2 d 
k ………….(**)
hf
n 
d

(3kd  h f ) h f
Center of trapezoid, z which yields jd = d-z
(2kd  h f ) d

Substituting for k from (**) in to Z and simplifying

2 3
hf  hf  1  hf 
66 
 2    
d  d  2n  d 
j ……….(***)
hf
63
d
Having k and j as provided by (**) and (***) respectively,

hf
Ms = Asfsjd and Mc = fc (1- ) be hfjd
2kd
However, for making preliminary design one may approximate
hf M
jd = (d- ) and As = ) , may be used for initialization.
2 hf
f s (d  )
2

11
 RC SLABS

Slabs are flat plates used to provide useful horizontal surfaces mainly for roofs
and floors of buildings, parking lots, air fields, roadway etc.

Classification :- Beam supported slabs may be classified as:-

1. One-way slabs – main reinforcement in each element runs in one direction
only. (Ly/Lx >2). There are two types- one way solid slabs and one way ribbed
slabs.

2. Two – way slabs – main reinforcement runs in both direction where ratio of long
to short span is less than two. (Ly/Lx < 2)

Others include flat slabs, flat plates, two way ribbed or grid slabs etc.

Analysis of one-way solid slabs

They are considered as rectangular beams of comparatively large ratio of width

to depth and ratio of longer span to width (short span) is greater than two.

When Ll/Ls > 2, about 90% or more of the total load is carried by the short span,
i.e., bending takes place in the direction of the shorter span.

The analysis is than carried out by assuming a beam of unit width with a depth
equal to the thickness of the slab and span equal to the distance between
supports (in the short direction). The strip may be analyzed in the same way as
singly reinforced rectangular sections.

- Load per unit area on the slab would be the load per unit length on this
imaginary beam of unit width.
- As the loads being transmitted to the supporting beams, all reinforcement
shall be placed at right angles to these beams. However some additional
bars may be placed in the other direction to carry temperature and
shrinkage stresses.

Generally the design consists of selecting a slab thickness for deflection

requirement
and flexural design is carried out by considering the slab as series of
rectangular beams side by side.

12
 Remark:-
 Unless condition warrant some change, cover to reinforcement is 15 mm.
 Except those used to prevent shrinkage & temp stresses the spacing between
bars
is:
2 D , D  Slab thickness
S max  
300 mm

0.5
As min   min bd  bd for main reinforcement in which fyk in MPa
f yk

 Reinforcement shall be provided in a direction perpendicular to the main

reinforcement in one-way slab in such a way that
5D
S max  
400 mm
2.2. Bond, Anchorage and Development Length

Consider the beam element length dx, with change in stresses on the opposite
face.

Due to the change in bending moment along the axis of the member, flexural bond
stress Ub is developed along the embedded reinforcement. From equilibrium of
horizontal forces,
dM
dT 
jd
From the relation between moment and shear
Vdx
Vdx = dM  dT 
jd
The magnitude of U per unit length of bar is given by:
dT V
U 
dx jd
The resultant bond force is distributed uniformly over contact surface area and
hence nominal bond stress due to flexure can be computed as:
V
Ub   f bd (design bond strength)
jd  O
In which  O is the sum of perimeter of all bars.

13
Due to high stress gradient in the bar at the crack location, local bond stress much
higher than the one given above does occur. However, the procedure of
computing bond stress can be replaced by providing adequate embedment length
past the location at which the bar is fully stressed.

In order to ensure that a bar is securely anchored by bond to develop its maximum
usable strength, equations for the development length of bars with different
spacing is specified by building codes. For instance, the Ethiopian standards (up
on conversion to fit WSD) recommends to use a basic anchorage length of

 Db f s
1.55 * f , for deformed bars

ld  
ck

3.11* Db f s , for plain bars.

 f ck

and the required anchorage length is

As ,cal
l d ,net  al d
As , prov
where a = 0.7 for hooked & anchored bars, and 1 for others
Db = diameter of bar
As, cal, As, prov = area of steel calculated and provided, respectively fs and fck are in
MPa.

In the event that the desired tensile stress in a bar can not be developed by bond
alone mechanical anchorage at the end of eh bar can be provided by means of 90 0
bent
( ) or 1800 hook ( ) which have been standardized by
building codes.

Bar cut off and bend points

It is a common practice either to cut off bars where they are no longer required to
resist stress or in case of continuous beams, to bend up bottom steel so that it
provides tensile reinforcement at the top of the beam over the support. To
determine bend points, or bar cutting points, the moment diagram resulting from
loading for maximum span moment and maximum support moment is shown
below.

Recognizing the various uncertainties, for bars with no special end anchorage the
full development length ld, [d or 12 Db] whichever is larger, must be provided
beyond the peak stress location. The critical section may be the point of max

14
 moment or a point where adjacent terminated reinforcement is no longer needed to
resist bending.
In the absence of explicit calculation, the sketch shown may serve this purpose.
Here about half tensile steel can be bent. The sketch does not include other
minimum provisions.

Bar splices

Reinforcing bars are as by fabrication limited in length, say 12 m. Thus it is normal

to splice bars in the field. To do this, one has to notice the following regarding
splicing.

 Splicing of bars must be avoided at points of max-moment.

 Bars which are spliced should be staggered.
 Splices are made simply by lapping the bars a sufficient distance to transfer
stress
by bond from one bar to the other.
 The required length of lap for tension is approximately 1.3ld and that for
compression is ld.

2.3. Shear and Diagonal Tension

Consider a beam and stress distribution across a section

Element-1

Element-2 Diagonal tension associated

15
 with pure shear.

Element-3

Generally, diagonal tension represents the combined effect of shear and bending
stresses and the various combinations will produce different type of cracks.

Consider the portion of RC beam shown below: y1

Vc
C
F v  0 Vext  Vc  Vd  Vint
T
Vd
Fig. 2.6
where Vc = force in the uncracked portion of concrete.
Vd = force across the longitudinal steel (dowel action).
Because the longitudinal steel is supported by thin concrete cover the shear force Vd,
is normally neglected  Vext = Vc
V
Before tension crack, shear stress Vav  ext
bd
V
After formation of tension crack, Vav  ext , in which the later shows the increment of
by1
shear stress as y1<d.

Generally deep beams will show continued and increasing resistance after formation
of a critical diagonal tension crack, but relatively shallow beams will fail almost
immediately upon formation of tension cracks. However most beams are furnished
with at least a minimum of web reinforcement.

Web reinforcement may be consisting of vertical stirrups or inclined bars. The later
can be individual stirrups inclined or longitudinal bars bending where no need of
moment resistance.

Uses of stirrups: -
 To resist shear

16
  To restrict the growth of diagonal crack
 To tie longitudinal bars
 To improve ductility

Design Criteria

Generally sections located less than a distance ‘d’ from the face of support may
normally be designed for the same shear as computed at a distance ‘d’.

Only minimum Reinforcement

If V<Vc but V >0.5 Vc, the section is said to be adequate with minimum web
reinforcement, where Vc  0.0594 f ck bw d is the allowable shear force W the
section can sustain, fck in MPa. The min web reinforcement at a spacing ‘S’ may be
given by,

0.34bw S
Av 
f yk
in which, S is spacing of stirrups and Av is area of web reinforcement with in ‘S’. (Pair
area when vertical pair legs are used.)
Note that due to construction problem, the section of slabs and footings must be
adequate to withstand this diagonal tension.
Beams Reinforced for Shear

When V>Vc, there exist a requirement for web reinforcement to withstand the excess
shear. For illustration purpose consider part of a beam shown below.

Vc
C
S S S S Z
T
Vd
P

Fig. 2.6

p
Number of stirrups traversing the crack, n
S
When cracks form, the dual action, Vd, will be disregarded.

17
 Vext = Vc + nAvfs

The diagonal cracks form about 450 from the horizontal, hence, the horizontal
projection of the crack pd
p d
nAv f s  Av f s  Av f s  Vext  Vc  Vs
S S
A f d
S v s
Vs
where Vs - the shear sustained by the stirrups (Vs = Vext – Vc)
Vc - the section capacity for shear.

Analysis and Design of one way Ribbed Slab

In One Way Ribbed slabs, the supporting beams called joists or ribs are closely
spaced. The ribbed floor is formed using temporary or permanent shuttering
(formwork) while the hollow block floor is generally constructed with blocks made of
clay tile or with concrete containing a light weight aggregate. This type of floor is
economical for buildings where there are long spans and light or moderate live loads
such as in hospitals and apartment buildings.

General Requirements:

 Because joists are closely spaced, thickness of slab (topping),

50 mm

D1

12
clear dis tan ce between joists

 Unless calculation requires for rib spacing larger than 1m, toppings or slabs are
provided with mesh reinforcement of 0.001 bD in both directions for
temperature and shrinkage problem or 0.008 bD at right angle to the joist.
 Unless calculation requires, min reinforcement to be provided for joists includes
two bars, where one is bent near the support and the other straight.
 Rib with bw > 70mm, and overall depth Dj < 4 bw, joist + tslab
 Rib spacing is generally less than 1m.
 In case of ribbed spacing larger than 1m, the topping (slab) need to be design
as if supported on ribs. (i.e. As one way solid slab between the ribs).
 If the span of the ribs exceeds 6m, transverse ribs may be provided, as the
thickness of the topping will be larger.
 The girder supporting the joist may be rectangular or T-beam with the flange
thickness equal to the floor thickness.

Procedure of Design of a floor system of ribbed Slab

18
1. Thickness of toppings and ribs assumed based on min requirement.
2. Loads may be computed on the basis of center line of the spacing of joists.
3. The joists are analyzed as regular continuous T-beams supported by girders.

4. Shear reinforcement shall not be provided in the narrow web of joist thus a check
for the section capacity against shear is
carried out. The shear capacity may be approximated as:
1.1 Vc of regular rectangular sections.
5. Determine flexural reinforcement and consider min provision in the final solution.
6. Provide the topping or slab with reinforcement as per temp and shrinkage
requirement.
7. Design the girder as a beam.

19
 CHAPTER THREE
LIMIT STATE DESIGN METHOD
ULTIMATE AND SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES

3.1 Introduction

The working stress design method (WSD), discussed in chapter two, has some
shortcomings that lead to the development of limit state design methods (LSD). The
LSD method combines the best features of WSD and USD (Ultimate Strength
Design) and has gained acceptance in many countries including Ethiopia. EBCS are
based on the LSD methods.

The LSD method is based on the limit state design philosophy, which considers that
any structure that has exceeded the limit state for which it was designed is unfit for
the intended function or use.
Classification
1. The limit state of collapse (ULS)
- Concerned with load carrying capacity of structures.
2. The serviceability Limit state (SLS).
- Concerned with cracking and deflection of structures.

ULS - Considers collapse of a structure as a whole or its parts associated with: -

- Rupture of one or more critical sections.
- Loss of equilibrium or stability.
- Transformation of the structure to a failure mechanism e.t.c.
To satisfy the design requirements of the ULS:-
- Appropriate safety factors are used.
- The most critical combination of loads are considered.
- Brittle failure is avoided (Ductility is ensured).
- Accuracy of concrete works checked.
SLS - Deals with cracking or spalling of concrete not to impair appearance,
efficiency or durability of the structure. Further, deformations affecting non-

20
 structural elements such as partition walls opening frames, and/or producing
discomfort to occupants are checked.
To satisfy these design requirements: -
- Minimum depth for defection requirements is provided
- Adequate cover is provided and
- Necessary detailing of reinforcement are made

Characteristic strengths and loads

A special feature of LSD is that it uses statistics to asses the variations in the values
of the various contributions influencing the limit states of the structures (Strength &
Loads). The distribution of the material strength and variations in structural loads
follow normal distribution.
According to EBCS-2, 1995: -
 Characteristic strengths statistically is defined as
fk = fm- k1 , where
fk - Characteristic strength
fm- Mean strength
 - Standard deviation
k1- A factor that ensures the probability of the characteristic strength is not being
exceeded (k1=1.64)
 Characteristic Load is given by
Fk = Fm + K2 , where
Fk - Characteristic Load
Fm - Mean Load
K2 - a factor that ensures the probability of the characteristic load being exceeded
is small. (K2 =1.64)
For practical applications these are obtained from codes such as the ones given in
the Ethiopian standards.

21
Concrete is graded based on tests of 150mm cubes at the age of 28 days, in terms
of its characteristic compressive strength. (The strength below which 5% of all
possible strength measurements may be expected to fall.)
Class Permissible concrete grade
I C5 C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50
II C5 C15 C20 - - - -
 Steel: - The Characteristic strength fyk is the 5% fractile of the proof stress, fy, or
the 0.2% offset strength denoted as f0.2.

Partial safety factors

- Used to cover uncertainties and variabilities originating from different causes.

 Partial safety factors for material strength.

fk
fd 
m
fd - design strength
m - a reduction factor for values of mechanical strength (Partial safety factor)

 Partial safety factor for action (loads)

Fd = f Fk
Fd - the design Load
f - a magnification factor for loading

Design strength according to EBCS 2- 1995

 Concrete

0.85 * f ck
 Compression fc d 
c

2/3
f ctk 0.21 * f ck
 Tension f ct d  
s c

22
 f yk
 Steel f yd 
s (Compression and Tension)

Partial safety factors of materials

Class Loading type Concrete ,c Steel,s

I Ordinary 1.50 1.15
Accidental 1.30 1.00
II Ordinary 1.65 1.20
Accidental 1.45 1.10

Design load and partial load factors

1) DL + LL  1.3 Gk + 1.6 Qk
2) DL + LL + WL
3) DL+LL + EQL  0.751.3GK  1.6Qk   EQL
Gk - Characteristic dead load (DL)
Qk - " live load (LL)
WL & EQL - Wind and earth quake loads, respectively.

23
3.2 Derivation of design Formula for ULS of flexure
3.2.1 Singly reinforced rectangular sections
Consider the stress & strain distribution for a rectangular cross section of singly
reinforced concrete beam shown below.
c fcd fcd

x C 0.8x C
D d
As
d’
s Ts Ts
b

Cross-Section Strain Actual Stress Simplified Stress

Fig.3.1

In accordance with LSD method, at ULS of collapse:-

 εc approaches εcu = 0.0035

f yd

 
The reinforcing steel shall yield first ( y d )
Es
 Ductility is ensured by means of under reinforcement.

 At balanced failure simultaneous failure of the two materials (Concrete & Steel)
occurs.
Let x b be the depth to the NA at balanced failure. From the strain relation,

xb d  xb  cu * d
  xb 
 cu  yd  cu   yd

 If x < x b  Steel yields first

 If x > x b  Crushing of concrete takes place first.
 FH = 0  Ts = CC  As fyd = 0.8 xb b fcd

24
Substituting for xb and simplifying,

0.8 *  cu f
b  * cd
 cu   yd f yd (a steel ratio for balanced case)

However, for ductility purpose the steel ratio ρ may range b/n 0.75 ρb to 0.9 ρb, and
in some cases as low as 0.5 ρ b .
Rewriting the force equilibrium
byfcd = As fyd  b * 0.8x fcd = ρbd fyd

x  * f yd f yd
  m, where m 
d 0.8 * f cd 0.8 * f cd
 Mc = 0  Md = As fyd (d - 0.4x)
Substituting the value of x and simplifying
Md = 0.8 bd2 fcd ρm (1-0.4ρm)

 4M d 
When the above equation is solved for ρ,   0.5c1  c12     max
 bd 2 c2 

2 .5 f yd
where c1  2
, c = 0.32m fcd , m 
m 2 0.8 * f cd
The section capacity for single reinforcement case may be computed from  Mt = 0
 Mu = 0.8bx fcd (d-0.4) x = ρ max md
= 0.8bd2 fcd ρ max m (1 -0.4 ρ max m)

0.6 *  cu f cd
 max  0.75 *  b  *
For ductility requirements,
 cu   yd f yd

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3.2.2 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Sections

If the depth of an RC beam is limited due to architectural or other reasons the

section may not have sufficient compressive area of concrete to resist the moment
induced in it. In such cases the capacity of the section can be increased by placing
steel in the compression zone to carry the additional compressive force.
fcd
c fcd
Cs
d’’  's As C As’fyd
0.8x
As’
x
Cc
D d = +
As
s Ts Ts As’fyd
d’
As
b

Cross-Section Strain Actual Stress Equivalent Stress Distribution

Fig. 3.2

Assume that As & As1 are stressed to fyd.

Mu = Muc+ Musc

Where Muc is the BM carried by the concrete and partial area of tensile steel.

 Muc = 0.8bd2 fcd ρ1m (1-0.4 ρ 1m)

In which ρ1 = ρmax, the maximum steel ratio corresponding to single reinforcement

section in case of design and
As  As1
1    max for the case of analysis.
bd
Musc is the BM carried by compressive steel and the corresponding tensile steel.

Musc = As1 fyd (d-dc’)

The yielding of the compressive steel may be checked from the strain relation as

x  dc'
 sc  *  cu   yd
x

26
Alternative method using design tables (singly reinforced Sections)

Derivation

Md = 0.8bd2fcd ρm (1-0.4 ρm)

Md
 0.8 f cd m(1  0.4 m)
bd 2

Md
Let k m   0.8 f cd m(1  0.4 m)
bd 2

Md Md 1
∑Mc = 0  As   *
f yd (d  0.4 x) d x
f yd (1  0.4 )
d

1 ks * M d
Let k s   As 
x d
f yd (1  0.4 )
d

Steps
Md
b
1. Evaluate k m 
d
2. Enter the general design Table No.1a using km and concrete grade.
3. Read ks from the same Table corresponding to steel grade and km.
k *Md
4. Evaluate As  s
d

Note: - In all cases

- Md is in KN-m
- b “ “ m
- d “ “ m

27
3.2.3. T or ┌ (┐) Sections
Construction aspect of floor system of cast in place RC results in these types of
beam sections.
 le
bw 
For design and analysis of T-sections be   5
c / c beam spacing

 le
bw 
For ┌ (┐) sections be   10
bw  0.5 * clear spacing

Cross-section Design and Analysis

Design
be

hf

bW

 4M d 
- Assuming b = be compute   0.5 c1  c1   and X = ρmd
 be d 2 c 2 

28
 i) If y = 0.8x < hf, section is rectangular as assumed.
 As =  be d
ii) If y > hf  T beam analysis is required.

be

hf 0.8x
d +
As = Zf Asf Asw

bW

M uf
As = ASf + Asw = + ρwbwd in which,
Z f * f yd
Muf = (be-bw)hf fcd zf
hf
Zf  d 
2
 4M uw 
 w  0.5 c1  c1  
 bw d 2 c 2 
Muw = Mu - Muf

29
iii) When the flange is on the tension side, then the cross- section is designed as if it
were rectangular with b = bw

Analysis

As
 , X = ρmd
be * d

i) If y = 0.8X<= hf  the section is analyzed as rectangular with b = be.

Mu = 0.8bed2fcd ρm (1-0.4 ρm)
ii) If y = 0.8X< hf  the section is analyzed as T-beam.
Muf = (be-bw)hf fcd zf
M uf
ASf =
Z f * f yd
Asw = As - ASf
Asw
ρw =
bw * d

Muw = 0.8bwd2fcd ρwm(1-0.4ρwm)

Mu = Muf +Muw

30
3.3 Analysis for Shear
Design Criteria
i) Only normal reinforcement
If Vd < Vc where
- Vc = 0.25 fctd K1 K2 bwd
k1 = 1+50ρ <= 2.0
As
ρ= <= 0.02
b *d

k2 = 1.6-d >=1.0 (d in m)
- Vd - the design critical shear at’d’ distance from the fact of support, then the
section is theoretically adequate without shear reinforcement. However nominal
reinforcement is provided as given by

0.4 A A
ρw,min =  v  v
f yk bw * S bw * d
 Av * f yk
 S
 0.4bw
ii) When VRd is the limiting value of ultimate shear.
iii) Shear reinforcement
When Vc < Vd < VRd (Vd >2/3 VRd) web reinforcement shall be provided as

Av df yd
S
vs
Where Vs = Vd - Vc
VRd = 0.25 fcd bwd (the limiting value of shear)
Av = Pair area of stirrups
S = Spacing in mm

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3.4 Bond
Design bond strength
- Depends on the type of reinforcement, concrete strength & position of bar during
concreting.
- For good bond condition the design bond strength fbd is given by
fbd = fctd - Plain bar.
fbd = 2 fctd - Deformed bar.
Basic anchorage length
- The embedment length required to develop the full design strength of a straight
reinforcement bar.
- The basic anchorage length lb for a bar of diameter  is

 f yd
 lb  *
4 f bd
- Required anchorage length

As , cal 0.3 lb  for bars in tension

lb ,net  alb *  lb ,min 
As , prov 0.6 lb  for bars in compression

1.0 for straight bars

a 
0.7 for anchored bars with hooks

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 CHAPTER FOUR
TWO WAY SLABS

Introduction

Slabs with the ratio of the longer to the shorter span, between 1 & 2 transfer their
load in two orthogonal directions. i.e. some portion of the load in the short direction
and the remaining portion of the load in the long direction. These slabs are called
two way slabs and they deflect into a dish shaped curvature. This means that they
have curvature in both directions and because moments are proportional to
curvature, there are moments in both directions which require reinforcement in the
tension zone.

4.1 Approximate analysis

Consider the simply supported panel under uniform load w. Let wx and wy be load
in the x and y direction in which,

33
 Strips

wx Lx

wy

Ly

wx+wy = w
Let wx = kxw and wy = kyw
 (kx+ky)w = w  Kx+ky = 1 ….. i)
kx&ky – are load distributing factors in the short & long directions respectively.

Because the imaginary strips actually are part of the same slab, their deflections at
the intersection point must be the same. Equating the center deflections of the
strips in the short (x) and long (y) directions.

4
5 wx L4 x 5 wy L y wx L4 x k
=   4  x
384 EI 384 EI wy L y ky
Ly
Let   k x  4 k y
Lx
But kx + ky = 1  (α4 + 1) ky = 1
1 4
Hence ky  kx 
1 4 1 4

34
4.2 Analysis using Table coefficients [EBCS 2-1995]

The coefficients kx& ky as obtained using the previous discussion are approximate
because the actual behavior of a slab is more complex than the two intersecting strips.
The outer strips not only bend, but also twist. The twisting results in torsional moments
and stress pronounced near the corners.

Moments for individual panels with edge simply supported or fully fixed may be
computed from:-

Mi = αi pd Lx2

Where: - Mi- is the design initial moment per unit width at the point of reference.
Ly
α i- coefficient given in Table A -1 (EBCS 2-1995) as a function of
Lx
ratio and support conditions.
Pd – design uniform load.
Lx, Ly – shorter and longer span of the panel respectively.
Mxs

Mys Myf Lx

Mxs

Ly

Fig 4.1

Notations for critical moments

The subscripts have the following meaning.
S - Support
f – field (span)
y,x – directions in the long & short span, respectively.

35
 4.2.1 Moment adjustment

For each support over which the slab is continuous, there will be two adjacent support
moments. The difference may be distributed between the panels at either side of
support to equalize their moments as in moment distribution method for frames.

There are two alternatives:-

I) When ∆Ms < 0.2 Ms,large

 The average of initial moments may be used.
II) When ∆Ms > 0.2 Ms, large
 Apply moment distribution only to adjacent spans.

Steps to be followed

 Support and span moments are first evaluated for individual panels using coefficients
from Table A-1.
 The unbalanced moment is distributed using the moment distribution method.
 When the support moment is decreased, the span moments Mxf &Myf are then
increased to allow for the changes of support moments (equilibrium). This increase is
computed as
∆Mxf = cx∆Mxs + cx∆Mys
∆Myf = cy∆Mxs + cy∆Mys
where:- cx & cy are coefficients from Table A-2 (EBCS-2)

36
4.2.2 Flexural reinforcement
- Reinforcement to edge strip need not be less than the minimum given below.

Secondary Re inf orcement

 0.2  S max ,edge  5 * S main
Main Re inf orcement
- For secondary reinforcement S max < 400 mm
- For main reinforcement.

0.5
  min   As,min = min bd
f yk
2 D D  Slab thickness
 S max  
350 mm

4.2.3 Load on beams

 The design uniform loads on beams supporting solid slabs may be computed using
Vx = ßvx PdLx
Vy = ßvy PdLx,
where ßvx, ßvy are load transfer coefficients given in Table A-3 (EBCS 2, 1995).

 The shear force carried by concrete in slab can be taken as the one given for
beams. (Vc = 0.25fctd K1K2 bd).

37