SENSORY PROFILE METHODS

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Table of Contents

DIFFERENCE TEST: ......................................................................................................................................... 3

TRIANGLE TEST: ............................................................................................................................................. 3

DUO TRIO TEST:............................................................................................................................................. 4

THE PAIRED-COMPARISON TEST:.................................................................................................................. 5

Rating Test: ................................................................................................................................................... 6

Ranking Test: ................................................................................................................................................. 6

Function ...................................................................................................................................................... 13

Instrumental methods of assessing food texture ....................................................................................... 15

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SENSORY ANALYSIS:
Sensory Analysis gives scientific reliability and applied development to human ability in
perceiving by senses and express intensity evaluations which make the product liking and
choice. Sensory science is a young discipline evolving and spreading in different fields involving
food and non-food products. It is related to industry but has strictly ties to our cultures, our
everyday choices of products, our likings and perceptions of the world around us. It is a science
which rationally translates the perceptions of our senses in useful information that can be
exploited to improve wellness and health, to valorize typical products, to better understand
consumers expectations and improve product quality.

Sensory analysis tests can be classified according to the kind of information that is asked and
the method complexity and, therefore, according to the level of panel training.

DIFFERENCE TEST:

Difference testing is a way to determine if a sensory difference actually exists between samples.
The degree or nature of the difference cannot be quantified, however. Descriptive tests are
generally needed to truly define differences. Difference test are as Follows:

TRIANGLE TEST:

The triangle test determines whether two products are perceptibly different but not in which
sensory attributes they differ.

At the tasting session, three coded samples are presented simultaneously to the panelists: two
of these samples are the same and one is different. Each panelist has to indicate which sample
is the odd sample. The choice of the different sample is “forced” and therefore the judges must
give an answer in any case.

The chance probability associated with this test is 1/3.

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The two samples, A and B, are presented equally often in each of the six possible serving
sequences (ABB, BAA, AAB, BBA, ABA and BAB). These sequences must be randomized across
panelists, with each sequence appearing an equal number of times; as a consequence the total
number of judges must be a multiple of six. The use of less than 30 assessors is not
recommended.

DUO TRIO TEST:

The duo-trio test, developed by Peryam and Swartz (1950), represented an alternative to the
triangle test that, for some, was a more complex test psychologically. The duo-trio test was
found to be useful for products that had relatively intense taste, odor, and/or kinestethetic
effects such that may impact sensitivity.

The duo-trio test allows the sensory specialist to know whether two products are perceptibly
different but not in which sensory attributes the samples differ. At the tasting session, each
panelist receives one sample that is marked “reference”, “R”, and two coded samples and
he/she is asked to pick the coded sample that is most similar to the reference.

The chance probability associated with this test is 1/2.

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The sample order must be randomized across panelists.The use of 32-36 assessors is
recommended to test for difference.The duo-trio test is especially useful for products that have
relatively intense taste or odor such that sensivity is significantly reduced.

A Duo-Trio Test is an overall difference test which will determine whether or not a sensory
difference exists between two samples. This method is particularly useful:

To determine whether product differences result from a change in ingredients, processing,

packaging, or storage

To determine whether an overall difference exists, where no specific attributes can be

identified as having been affected

THE PAIRED-COMPARISON TEST:

The paired-comparison test wants to determine whether two products differ in a specified
attribute, such as sweetness, crispness, yellowness, etc. Two differently coded samples are
presented to each panelist simultaneously and the panelist’s task is to choose the one that is
perceived as higher or more intense in the specified sensory attribute.

The chance probability associated with this test is 1/2.

The two samples, A and B, are presented in two possible serving sequences (AB and BA). These
sequences must be randomized across panelists with each sequence appearing an equal
number of times. The use of 30-32 assessors is recommended to test for difference.

The paired-comparison test is also used in preference tests in which the judge’s task is to
choose which of two samples is more appealing or more acceptable on a sensory dimension.

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Rating Test:

The attribute rating test requires that a standard solution of the odorant be prepared at a
concentration that is both readily recognized by most individuals and likely to evoke customer
complaints. Within an hour individuals can be trained to compare the odor type and intensity of
the standard to water samples, then rate the odor in the sample as "not detected," "less than
the standard," "equal to standard," or "greater than the standard." The attribute rating test was
successfully used. Ranking test is one of the type of rating test other are single sample test , two
sample difference test, multiple sample difference test, hedonic test, numercial scoring test,
composite scoring test.

Ranking Test:

The ranking test (ISO 8587) orders a group of products with respect to the perceived intensity
of a sensory attribute. The panelists receive some differently coded and adequately randomized
samples, usually from 4 to 6, or from 10 to 12 in evaluations which don’t involve sensory
fatigue, and they are asked to order them with respect to the increasing or decreasing
perceived intensity of a specific sensory attribute. It can be useful to include a standard sample.

Rankings indicate the direction of the perceived intensity for the product but give no indication
of the size of the perceived intensity between successive products.
The ranking test can be used not only in evaluation sessions for the product “Quality Control”
and in panelist selection and training sessions but also to execute a first screening of products
which are assessed by more accurate tests later.

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Taste (Gustation)
Taste, or gustation, is a sense that develops through the interaction of dissolved molecules with
taste buds. Currently five sub-modalities (tastes) are recognized, including sweet, salty, bitter,
sour, and umami (savory taste or the taste of protein). Umami is the most recent taste
sensation described, gaining acceptance in the 1980s. Further research has the potential to
discover more sub-modalities in this area, with some scientists suggesting that a taste receptor
for fats is likely.

Taste Receptor Cells, Taste Buds and Taste Nerves:

The sense of taste is mediated by taste receptor cells which are bundled in clusters called taste
buds. Taste receptor cells sample oral concentrations of a large number of small molecules and
report a sensation of taste to centers in the brainstem.

In humans, taste buds are most prevalent on small pegs of epithelium on the tongue called
papillae. The taste buds themselves are too small to see without a microscope, but papillae are
readily observed by close inspection of the tongue's surface. To make them even easier to see,
put a couple of drops of blue food coloring on the tongue of a loved one, and you'll see a bunch
of little pale bumps - mostly fungiform papillae - stand out on a blue background.

Taste buds are composed of groups of between 50 and 150 columnar taste receptor cells
bundled together like a cluster of bananas. The taste receptor cells within a bud are arranged
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such that their tips form a small taste pore, and through this pore extend microvilli from the
taste cells. The microvilli of the taste cells bear taste receptors.

Interwoven among the taste cells in a taste bud is a network of dendrites of sensory nerves
called "taste nerves". When taste cells are stimulated by binding of chemicals to their
receptors, they depolarize and this depolarization is transmitted to the taste nerve fibers
resulting in an action potential that is ultimately transmitted to the brain. One interesting
aspect of this nerve transmission is that it rapidly adapts - after the initial stimulus, a strong
discharge is seen in the taste nerve fibers but within a few seconds, that response diminishes to
a steady-state level of much lower amplitude.

Once taste signals are transmitted to the brain, several efferent neural pathways are activated
that are important to digestive function. For example, tasting food is followed rapidly by
increased salivation and by low level secretory activity in the stomach.

Primary Taste Sensations: As previously mentioned, five different taste sensations are currently
recognized. The first, salty, is simply the sense of Na+ concentration in the saliva. As the Na+
concentration becomes high outside the taste cells, a strong concentration gradient drives their
diffusion into the cells. This depolarizes the cells, leading them to release neurotransmitter.

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The sour taste is transduced similar to that of salty, except that it is a response to the H+
concentration released from acidic substances (those with low pH), instead of a response to
Na+. For example, orange juice, which contains citric acid, will taste sour because it has a pH
value of about 3. Of course, it is often sweetened so that the sour taste is masked. As the
concentration of the hydrogen ions increases because of ingesting acidic compounds, the
depolarization of specific taste cells increases.

The other three tastes; sweet, bitter and umami are transduced through G-protein coupled cell
surface receptors instead of the direct diffusion of ions like we discussed with salty and sour.
The sweet taste is the sensitivity of taste cells to the presence of glucose dissolved in the saliva.
Molecules that are similar in structure to glucose will have a similar effect on the sensation of
sweetness. Other monosaccharides such as fructose or artificial sweeteners like aspartame
(Nutrasweet), saccharine, or sucralose (Splenda) will activate the sweet receptors as well. The
affinity for each of these molecules varies, and some will taste “sweeter” than glucose because
they bind to the G-protein coupled receptor differently.

The bitter taste can be stimulated by a large number of molecules collectively known as
alkaloids. Alkaloids are essentially the opposite of acids, they contain basic (in the sense of pH)
nitrogen atoms within their structures. Most alkaloids originate from plant sources, with
common examples being hops (in beer), tannins (in wine), tea, aspirin, and similar molecules.
Coffee contains alkaloids and is slightly acidic, with the alkaloids contributing the bitter taste to
coffee. When enough alkaloids are contained in a substance it can stimulate the gag reflex. This
is a protective mechanism because alkaloids are often produced by plants as a toxin to deter
infectious microorganisms and plant eating animals. Such molecules may be toxic to animals as
well, so we tend to avoid eating bitter foods. When we do eat bitter foods, they are often
combined with a sweet component to make them more palatable (cream and sugar in coffee,
for example).

The taste known as umami is often referred to as the savory taste. The name was created by
the Japanese researcher who originally described it. Like sweet and bitter, it is based on the
activation of G-protein coupled receptors, in this case by amino acids, especially glutamine.
Thus, umami might be considered the taste of proteins, and is most associated with meat
containing dishes.

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Examples of some human thresholds:

Taste Substance Threshold for tasting

Salty NaCl 0.01 M

Sour HCl 0.0009 M

Sweet Sucrose 0.01 M

Bitter Quinine 0.000008 M

Umami Glutamate 0.0007 M

Taste is associated mainly with the tongue, although there are taste (gustatory) receptors on
the palate and epiglottis as well. The surface of the tongue, along with the rest of the oral
cavity, is lined by a stratified squamous epithelium. In the surface of the tongue are raised
bumps, called papilla, that contain the taste buds. There are four types of papilla, based on
their appearance: vallate, foliate, fungiform and circumvallate.

1. Filiform: These little projections are the most common type of lingual papillae. They are
small and round and do not contain taste buds.
2. Fungiform: These mushroom-shaped papillae contain taste buds and sensory cells and
are located primarily at the tip of the tongue.
3. Foliate: These leaf-shaped papillae are located on the side borders of the tongue and
also contain taste buds.
4. Circumvallate: These larger papillae are located on the back third of the tongue in a v-
shape and also contain taste buds.

Gustatory Nerve Impulses

The number of taste buds within papillae varies, with each bud containing several specialized
taste cells (gustatory receptor cells) for the transduction of taste stimuli. These receptor cells
release neurotransmitters when certain chemicals in ingested substances (such as food) are
carried to their surface in saliva. Neurotransmitter from the gustatory cells can activate the
sensory neurons in the facial and glossopharyngeal cranial nerves.

Once the taste cells are activated by molecules liberated from the things we ingest, they release
neurotransmitters onto the dendrites of sensory neurons. These neurons are part of the facial
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and glossopharyngeal cranial nerves, as well as a component within the vagus nerve dedicated
to the gag reflex. The facial nerve connects to taste buds in the anterior third of the tongue. The
glossopharyngeal nerve connects to taste buds in the posterior two thirds of the tongue. The
vagus nerve connects to taste buds in the extreme posterior of the tongue, verging on the
pharynx, which are more sensitive to noxious stimuli like bitterness.

Axons from the three cranial nerves carrying taste information travel to the medulla. From
there much of the information is carried to the thalamus and then routed to the primary
gustatory cortex, located near the inferior margin of the post-central gyrus. It is the primary
gustatory cortex that is responsible for our sensations of taste. And, although this region
receives significant input from taste buds, it is likely that it also receives information about the
smell and texture of food, all contributing to our overall taste experience. The nuclei in the
medulla also send projections to the hypothalamus and amygdalae, which are involved in
autonomic reflexes such as gagging and salivation

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Flavor profile analysis

The Flavor Profile method is one of a group of methods used to describe sensory characteristics
and is thought of as the “mother” of many other descriptive methods. It was originally
developed by scientists at Arthur D. Little in the late 1940’s and has been used extensively to
describe the Flavor of foods. Although many articles have been published describing aspects of
the method, two major documents describing the method have been published.

In essence the flavor profile describes flavor in terms of 5 major components:

 character notes or attributes

 intensities of those attributes
 the order of appearance of the attributes
 Aftertaste
 amplitude (a complex phenomenon defined as the overall impression of the
blendedness of the analyzable and nonanalyzable flavor components).

The original scale for the flavor profile was 5 points:

 not present
 threshold
 Slight
 Moderate
 Strong

but in practice, attributes that were not present were not given zeros, they simply were not
mentioned in the profile. Over time the scale has be adapted to more points (e.g. 7, 15) to
accommodate more differentiation of the intensity.

A major component of the profile method is a highly trained panel of 4-6 (usually) members
who individually evaluate the products and then work in discussion as a group to determine a
consensus profile. This consensus leads to data that acts as a mean value (although it is not an

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average of the panelists scores, it is a single score agreed upon by all panel members). This
component of the profile method was criticized in the 1960’s and 70’s by some scientists as
offering too much leeway to a panel leader or headstrong panelist to bias the scores.
Authorities on the method argue that the appropriate selection of panelists, the extensive
training involved, and the blind nature of the testing provide adequate insurance that the
method is not biased.

 Recommended for: Research and development, product comparisons, defining product

attributes, quality control, shelf-life studies
 Advantages: Small, trained panel focused specifically on flavor
 Disadvantages: Potential for bias or influence by dominant panel members

TEXTURE PROFILE TEST

What is Texture Profile Analysis?

Texture profile analysis is the measurement and description of the textural properties of food.
Texture can be measured by a trained sensory panel (organoleptic) or using specialised
equipment (instrumental). It is a popular double compression test for determining the textural
properties of foods.Measurements are made by compressing an item to a set distance and
analysing the force it takes for the item to deform. The test was often called the "two bite
test" because the texture analyzer mimics the mouth's biting action.

The beauty of TPA as an analytical method is that it can quantify multiple textural parameters in
just one experiment. That is also the method's curse since many researchers rely on TPA's
labeled characteristics without considering whether the test method provides metrics that are
relevant to the experimental objective.

Function

A quantitative scale has been created for each textural attribute.

The primary categories for texture profile analysis are:

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 Hardness– the initial force used to deform

 Cohesiveness– how the item holds together
 Viscosity– flow rate
 Elasticity (Springiness) – the rate at which a deformed item reforms
 Adhesiveness – rate at which item comes away from probe(instrumental) or roof of
mouth/teeth (organoleptic)

The primary categories can be further broken down into secondary categories:

 Resilience – measurement of how a sample recovers from deformation in relation to

speed and forces derived.
 Brittleness (Fracturability) – the initial force needed for a material to fracture
 Chewiness – energy required to chew a solid food until it is ready for swallowing
 Gumminess – energy required to disintegrate a semisolid food until it is ready to
swallow

The primary and secondary categories may be further broken down as needed to define the
characteristics in a specific food item. For example, mouth coating and melt rate are used to
describe ice cream much better than hardness or chewiness.

The test is usually repeated up to 15 times for statistical accuracy.

Characterisation of food texture commonly falls into two main groups, based on

1. sensory
2. instrumental methods of analysis

Sensory evaluation of food texture by touch includes the use of the fingers, as well as the lips,
tongue, palette and teeth in the mouth.

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Instrumental methods of assessing food texture

Can be carried out under more strictly defined and controlled conditions and analysis gives
consistent results, if analysed in constant condition.

Instrumental procedures are generally more sensitive and reproducible than their subjective
sensory equivalents where variation in results is generally attributed to vaiation in sample
heterogeneity rather than instrumental precision

Texture qualities falt by tongue, palette, teeth, or fingers

 Texture-mouthfeel: how a food feels in your mouth (sticky, smooth, tender)

 Tactual and mouthfeel play an important role in examining the body and texture
characteristics
 The tongue and palate evaluate feeling of meatlines and grittiness in butter and sandy
defect in ice cream and sweetened condensed milk
 The pressure between the teeth and jaws determine the hardness, Chewness and
Gumminess
 The fingertips and ball of the thumb help in determining other textual attributes,
notably stickness, elasticity – sponginess and brittleness
 Creamy was as a mouthfeel characteristics possessing the textural property producing
the sensation of the presence of a miscible, thick, smooth liquid in the oral cavity

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Food products Textural attribute most commonly associated

Carrot (raw) Hard/ crunchy

Butter Soft

Toffee Gummy

Meat/ paneer Chewy

Biscuit Brittle

Oranges Juicy

Chest nut puree Pasty

Semolina Grainy

Salt Gritty

Peanut butter, soup, dairy product Creamy

This technique provides a universal language for food scientists, vendors, sales staff, and
customers. Knowing the textural profile of a product can determine the attributes that increase
consumer liking. What TPA measures?

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Texture references were first developed by Szczesniak et al. (1963) using various intensity
scales. For example, the 9-point intensity scale was used for evaluating hardness, the 7-point
scale for evaluating brittleness and chewiness, and the 5-point scale for evaluating gumminess.
The standard references were developed under the requirements that

1) the selected food items possess the desired intensity of the textural characteristic,

2) the characteristic was not overshadowed by other textural parameters, and

3) the standard references were available and had constant quality.

Later, other scales (category, line, magnitude estimation) have been employed to train Texture
Profile panels. The method was expanded to other types of food and non-food products such as
baked products (Bramesco and Setser, 1990), sponge cake (Civille, 1977), cookies and rice
(Civille and Liska, 1975), fruits and vegetable (Diehl and Hamann, 1979), yam and cassava
(Onayemi, 1985), Asian noodles (Pipatsattayanuwong, 1998), skin care products (Schwartz,
1975), and fabric and paper goods (Civille and Dus, 1990).

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