Practical Exercises

For

Geophysics 222

for

Students of Petroleum & Mining Geology

(Level 2)

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 Contents

Page

Ex 1: Seismic section & Elastic moduli ------------------------------------------ 3

Ex 2: Reflection coefficient & Attenuation--------------------------------------- 4

Ex 3: Travel-Time curve ------------------------------------------------------------- 5

Ex 4: Interval, average velocity and seismic section --------------------------- 6

Ex 5: Refraction from horizontal interfaces ------------------------------------- 8

Ex 6: Refraction from dipping interfaces ------------------------------------------ 9

Ex 7: Refraction from three-layers with horizontal interfaces ----------------- 10

Ex 8: Refraction from Faulted planar interfaces---------------------------------- 11

Ex 9: Refraction Exercises ----------------------------------------------------------- 12

Ex 10: Refraction Exercises --------------------------------------------------------- 13

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Ex. 1
Seismic section & Elastic moduli

1. Seismic trace & Seismic section: Figure above shows the appearance of both the seismic reflection
trace and seismic reflection section. In the seismic section we consider the reflectors represent bedding
planes on the subsurface geologic section, so it is required to describe this seismic section geologically.

2. a) The bulk modulus and rigidity modulus of a rock is 2x10¹⁰ N/m², and the density is 2.5x10³ Kg/m³.
Find VP, VS and the Poisson's ratio; σ.

b) Establish the relation between λ and µ, and between VP and VS when σ =⅓.
c) A load of 100 Kg is supported by a wire of 1 m length and cross-sectional area 0.1 cm². The wire is
stretched by 0.1 cm.
Find the tensile stress, tensile strain and Young's modulus of the wire.

μ κ λ Ε σ
3(κ-λ)/2 λ+(2μ/3) κ-(2μ/3) (9κμ)/(3κ+μ) λ/2(λ+μ)
λ[ (1-2σ)/(2σ) ] μ[2(1+σ)/3(1-2σ) ] (2μσ)/(1-2σ) 2μ(1+σ) λ/(3κ–λ)
3κ[ (1-2σ)/(2+2σ) ] λ[ (1+σ)/(3σ) ] 3κ[ σ/(1+σ) ] μ[ (3λ+2μ)/(λ+μ) ] (3κ-2μ)/ [2(3κ+μ) ]
Ε/[2(1+σ) ] Ε/[3(1-2σ) ] Εσ/[ (1+σ)(1-2σ) ] 3κ(1-2σ) (3κ-2Ε)/6κ

VP = √ (λ+2μ)/ρ = √ (κ+4/3μ)/ρ = √ Ε/ρ[ (1-σ)/(1-2σ)(1+σ) ]

Vs = √ μ /ρ = √ Ε/ρ [ (1)/(2(1+σ) ]
VP/VS = √ (1- σ)/ (½ -σ) = √ (κ/μ+4/3)

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Ex. 2
Reflection coefficient & Attenuation

1) Calculate the normal incidence P-wave reflection coefficient for the following interface:
Sandstone (VP = 3.0 km/s, ρ = 2.2 x 10³ kg/m³) above limestone (VP = 4.1 km/s,
ρ = 2.2 x 10³ kg/m³).
Note R =Ar/Ai = (ρ2VP2 – ρ1VP1) / (ρ2VP2 + ρ1VP1)

2) If you have two waves with frequencies 10 and 100 Hz propagating through a rock with velocity 2000
m/s, suppose that the 100 Hz wave attenuates due to absorption by 5 dB over a distance of 200 m, while
the second 10 Hz wave attenuates by only 0.5 dB over the same distance. Determine the absorption
coefficient of this rock.
N.B. Attenuation by absorption in dB = α.X/λ = α.X.f/V
T = 1/f V = λ/T λ = V.T = V/f

3) A plane seismic wave, travelling vertically downwards in a rock of density 2200 kg m-3 with seismic
velocity 2000 m s-1, is incident on the horizontal top surface of a rock layer of density 2400 kg m-3 and
seismic velocity 3300 m s-1.
(i) What are the amplitude ratios of the transmitted and reflected waves?
(ii) What fraction of the energy of the incident wave is transmitted into the lower medium?

4) A plane seismic wave travels vertically downwards at a velocity of 4800 m s-1 through a salt layer with
density 2100 kg m-3. The wave is incident upon the top surface of a sandstone layer with density 2400 kg
m-3. The phase of the reflected wave is changed by 180° and the reflected amplitude is 2% of the incident
amplitude. What is the seismic velocity of the sandstone?

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Ex. 3
Travel-Time curve

1) This is a travel-time curve for direct, reflected and refracted rays.

A. Arrange the waves concerning arrival time at these distances:
a) Before Xcrit, b) Between Xcrit and Xcros c) After Xcros
B. When the reflected rays will arrive first?

2) A refracted arrival has a slope 0.0005 s/m, the direct layer arrival has a slope 0.0008 s/m, and the
intercept time of the refracted arrival is 0.020 s.
a) What is the velocity of the upper layer?
b) What is the velocity of the lower layer?
c) What is the depth to the lower layer?
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Ex. 4
Interval & average velocity and seismic section
1) Given this multi-layer section, it is required to sketch the seismic trace at the appropriate
cumulative time.

Layer No. Thickness Interval Interval Cumulative RC Seismic

(m) velocity (m/s) TWT (s) TWT (s) Trace
L1 500 2500
L2 400 2000
L3 300 3000
L4 250 2500
L5 500 2500

Timing horizons
2) On the sheet attached,
a) Describe the three seismic sections; A, B& C,
b) On the seismic sections A & B color three good horizons and determine their times at the
three well locations.

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7
Ex. 5
Refraction from horizontal interfaces
Snell’s Law
1) State the Snell’s Law defining the critical angle of incidence and the head wave.

2) An incident P-wave enters with an angle (i) equals to 30° at an interface (VP1 = 4500 m/s &
VP2 = 6000 m/s).
Calculate its angle of refraction through the second layer (RP).
How much will be the critical angle of incidence (ic)?
If the S-wave is reflected with an angle (rs) equals to 19.5°, how much will be its velocity in the upper
layer (VS1)?

Hydrological surveys
The large difference in velocity between dry and wet sediments renders the water table a very effective
refractor. Hence, refraction surveys find wide application in exploration programs for underground water
supplies in sedimentary sequences, often employed in conjunction with electrical resistivity methods.

3) In a seismic refraction survey for the underground water table, these data were obtained:

X (m) 10 20 30 40 50 75 100 125 150 175 200

T (sec) 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.045 0.055 0.065 0.075 0.085 0.095 0. 105

It is required to:
a) Plot the Time-Distance curve and comment it.
b) Calculate the velocities available and the water table depth.

Z = ½Ti (V2V1/√V²2 -V²1)

Z = ½Xcros (√V2 -V1/V2+V1)

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Ex. 6
Refraction from dipping interfaces
In a site investigation surveying using reversed seismic refraction, these data were obtained; it is
required to:
a) Obtain the available velocities,
b) Obtain also the depths at the two ends of profile, and
c) Sketch the layer (s) at the bottom of the T-T curve.

Forward shooting:
X (ft) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
T (ms) 8.7 17.4 26.0 31.5 33.8 36.0 38.3 40.5 42.8 45.0

Reverse shooting:
X (ft) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
T (ms) 8.2 16.4 24.5 32.8 37.0 38.8 40.4 42.0 43.7 45.0

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Ex. 7
Refraction from three-layers with horizontal interfaces
In a seismic refraction survey for horizontal interfaces, the following data were obtained:
X(m) 10 20 30 40 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 250 300
T(ms) 10 20 30 40 45 55 65 75 80 85 90 100 110
It is required to:
a) Plot these data and determine the layer velocities.
b) How many layers the data showed? Determine the available thicknesses.
c) Compute the delay times for refracted layers.
Ti1 = 2 Z1 [(√V2² - V1²) /V2 V1)]
Z1= ½Xcros [(√V2 - V1) / (V2 + V1)], or
Z1=½ ti1 [V2V1 / (√V2²- V1²)]
ti2 = 2 Z1 cos ic1/V1 + 2 Z2 cos ic2/ V2, and;
sin ic1=V1/V2 and sin ic2 = V2/V3

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Ex. 8
Refraction from Faulted planar interfaces
1) In a seismic refraction survey over faulted layers, the given data were obtained:
X(m) 10 20 30 40 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350
T(ms) 10 20 30 40 45 53 59 65 72 78 84 156 162 167 173 178 184

It is required to:
a) Plot these data and determine the layer velocities.
b) What these data show?
c) Determine the throw of this fault.

The effect of a fault displacing a planar refractor is to offset the segments of the travel-time plot on
opposite sides of the fault (see Figure). There are thus two intercept times ti1 and ti2, one associated with
each of the travel time curve segments, and the difference between these intercept times ΔT is a measure
of the throw Δz of the fault.

Δz ≈ ΔT V1 V2/√ (V2²-V1²)

2) To find the depth to the bedrock in a dam site survey, travel times were measured from the shot point
to 12 geophones laid out at 15 m intervals along a straight line through the shot pint. The offsets; X
range from 15 to 180 m.
Determine the depth to the overburden from the data below.
X(m) 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
T(ms) 19 29 39 50 59 62 65 68 72 76 78 83
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Ex. 9
1) A single-ended refraction profile designed to determine the depth to the underlying layer with a top
layer velocity 3000 m/s and refractor velocity 5000 m/s. The crossover distance is found to be 500 m.
a) What is the refractor depth?
b) Calculate the travel time for the refracted wave.

Z = ½Ti (V2V1/√V²2 -V²1)

Z = ½Xcros (√V2 -V1/V2+V1)
Trefracted = X/V2 + 2Z cos θc /V1 Note Ti = 2Z cos θc /V1

2) A seismic refraction survey was carried out using twelve receivers with 2 meters intervals are used to
record direct and refracted waves; below is the recorded data:

a) Draw the travel time curve

b) How many layers are detected?
c) Find velocity and thickness for each layer

X (m) Time (sec)

2 0.005
4 0.010
6 0.015
8 0.020
10 0.025
12 0.028
14 0.0305
16 0.033
18 0.035
20 0.036
22 0.0375
24 0.039

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Ex. 10

A seismic refraction and reflection profile is performed on a terrain made of 2 layers separated by a
planar horizontal interface. The arrival-time data are given in the tables below.
a) Plot the time-distance curves for the reflected and refracted arrivals.
b) Calculate the P-wave velocity in each layer and the depth to the interface.

Reflected arrivals Refracted arrivals

X (km) T (sec) X (km) T (sec)

10.0 6.3 108.0 18.8

18.3 6.8 115.3 19.8

27.6 7.6 127.8 21.7

38.1 8.8 136.4 23.0

44.9 9.6 147.2 24.6

57.3 11.3 155.6 25.9

65.7 12.4 164.7 27.4

72.6 13.5 173.2 28.6

78.4 14.3 186.7 30.5

83.9 15.1 192.6 31.5

90.6 16.1

95.9 16.9

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