INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY  Histology – study of tissues

 Bio – means life  Cytology – the study of the structures & functions of cells
 logos – to study / the study
 BIOLOGY – is the study of life / the study of living things CELLS
 Biologist – the person who studies Biology The Cell Theory
 1665 – Robert Hooke
Brief History of Biology -Observed cells in cork.
 Aristotle – Greek philosopher; first who classified living things as to air, land, or -Coined the term "cells” which came from the latin word cella, meaning “small
water dwellers; Father of Biology room”
 Galen – Greek physician; first to dissect apes and pigs; Father of Anatomy -He coined the term “cell” for the box like structures he observed when viewing
 Andreas Vesalius – made the first dissection on human anatomy; discovered cork tissue through a lens.
Comparative Anatomy -He also published the book Micrographia
 William Harvey – showed conclusively that the heart pumps blood and the  1673-Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
blood circulates -A Dutch shopkeeper who had a great skill in making lenses
 Marcello Malphigi – Italian physician & anatomist, founder of microscopic -He found motile objects. He stated that motility is a quality of life, therefore, there
anatomy were living organisms
 Anton Van Leeuwenhoek - first to use microscope; discovered microorganisms -He observed the movements of Protista (a single-celled organism) and termed as
such as protozoans called animalcules “animalcules”.
 Charles Darwin – wrote the book On the Origin of Species By Means of Natural -He also discovered the bacteria and protozoa
Selection  1809- Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet
-He noticed that the cell is not empty like Hooke’s observation
Divisions of Biology  1827-33 - Robert Brown
2 Major Divisions of Biology -noticed that pollen grains in water jiggled around called “Brownian motion”
1. Botany – the study of PLANTS -discovered the nucleus
2. Zoology – the study of ANIMALS  1835- James Dujardin
-He observed the substance inside the cell and called it sarcode,
Branches of Biology -he named the complex compound inside the cell as protoplasm.
 Anatomy – the study of structures of entire organisms and their parts  1838 - Matthias Schleiden
 Physiology – the study of how the body and its parts work -A botanist who concluded that all plants are made of cells.
 Ecology – study of how organisms interact with their environment & with other  1839 - Theodor Schwann
organisms -A zoologist who concluded that all animals are made of cells.
 Parasitology – the study of the organisms that live in or on other organisms  Matthias Schleiden & Theodor Schwann
that caused diseases They proposed the unified cell theory that states that all living things are composed
 Taxonomy – the study of the classification & evolutionary interrelationships of one or more cells, that the cell is the basic unit of life, and the new cells arise from
among organisms pre-existing cells
 Embryology – study of the development & growth of organisms  1855 - Rudolph Virchow
 Microbiology – the study of microorganisms such as bacteria, protozoans, and -A physician who did research on cancer cells and concluded “Omnis cellula e
viruses cellula”. “All cells are from other pre-existing cells.”
 Paleontology – the study of fossils, the preserved remains and traces of
organisms from the past Cell Theory States that:
 Genetics – the study of how traits are inherited & passed on one generation to 1. All living things are made of cells.
the next 2. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
 Morphology – the study of gross structures & forms of organisms
  Largest cell on the human body : ovum
Size= 1000 µm in diameter (1 mm)
 Smallest cell in the human body is the sperm cell.
Modern Version of Cell Theory
 All known living things are made up of one or more cells.
 All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.
 The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms.
 The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.
 Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.
 Cells contain DNA which is found specifically in the chromosome and the RNA
found in the cell nucleus and cytoplasm.
 All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar
species.
 Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.
 All cells have the same basic chemical composition.
 All living organisms are composed of and depend on cells to function normally.
Components of the Cell
 Organelles(Animal): nucleus, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, ribosome, centrioles and vacuoles
 Plant cell have chloroplast in addition but did not have centrioles
 Cellular component of a cell as seen via electron microscope are: Plasma
membrane and cell wall, cytoplasm
Organelles
 cell surrounded by plasma membrane contain cytoplasm ~~ jelly like
substance
 Plant cell - addition of cell wall
 Specialized structure which surrounded by its own membrane and perform
specific function
Function of Cellular Component
Functions and Structure of Organelles
1. Nucleus
S: Spherical with double membrane contain nucleolus, chromosome and nuclear
membrane
F: Control and regulate all activities on cell; Contain hereditary factor gene)
responsible for trait; Control center of the cell; Stores DNA
Nucleus composed of:
 Nuclear envelope- membrane enclosing the nucleus. Protein- lined
pores that allow materials to move in and out
 Chromatin- DNA plus associated proteins
 Nucleolus- condensed region that produced the ribosomes.
2. Ribosome
S: Smallest organelle; NOT surrounded by a membrane; Small particle consist of RNA;
Exist freely in cytoplasm or on the surface of rough ER
F: Makes proteins according to DNA instructions; Synthesis of protein
Two Types:
 Free ribosomes: float free in cytosol
 Bound ribosomes: attached to rough ER
3. Rough and smooth ER
S: System of membrane enclosed tubules closely packed together and continuous
with nuclear membrane; Rough ER has ribosome while smooth ER did not have
F: Transport system for protein and lipid within the cell; Rough ER transport protein
synthesis by ribosome to other part of the cell; Smooth ER stimulate the synthesis of
lipid and cholesterol and transport within cell
4. Mitochondria
S: Rod-shape with a double membrane; Outer membrane is smooth and regular while
inner membrane is folded to form cristae
F: “Powerhouse” of the cell; Site of cellular respiration
Converts energy stored in food into energy the cell needs – ATP; Releases energy as
it the site for aerobic respiration
5. Lysosomes
S: Membrane bound vesicle found in animal
F: Contain enzyme which control breakdown of protein and lipid; Contain enzyme
that digest aged or defective cell component
 6. Centrioles
S: Consist of two cylindrical body structure arranged at right angles to one another;
Only in animal cell
F: Formation of spindle fiber during cell division
7. Chloroplast
S: Disc-shape organelles with double membrane; Consist arrangement of grana
within stroma; Found only in plant cells and algae; Contains green pigment,
chlorophyll
F: Changes sunlight (solar energy) into food like glucose (chemical energy); Carry out
photosynthesis
8. Vacuoles
S: Cavities filled with cell sap surrounded by a semi-permeable membrane called
tonoplast
F: Contain water, sugar and dissolve materials; Maintain turgidity of cell in plant
9. Peroxisomes
S: Small round organelles enclosed by a single membrane.
F:They carry out oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids;
they detoxify many poisons that may enter the body
10. Cell Membrane
S: Surrounds the cell and decides what comes in and out; Semi-permeable: allows
nutrients in and waste products out: Made of a phospholipid bilayer; Also called
Plasma Membrane; Thin, semi-permeable membrane
F: Control the movement of substance in and out of the cell
11. Cytoplasm
S: Jelly-like substance contain water and mineral salt called cytosol; Contain
organelles
F: Medium for metabolic reaction
12. Cell Wall
S: Thick layer outside the plasma membrane; Made up of cellulose and fully
permeable
F: Maintain the shape of plant cell; Provide support
Different Kinds of Plant Cells
Different Kinds of Animal Cells
14 TYPES OF CELLS IN THE HUMAN BODY & THEIR FUNCTIONS
Different Types Of Cells In The Human Body (Based On Tissue Formation)
1. Bone cells: They are the toughest body cell systems and are bound together
by calcium and phosphate. As you know they give strength, support and
framework to the body by enclosing organs in skeletal system i.e bones.
2. Cartilage cells (chondrocytes): These cells are similar to bone cells but the
surrounding material is just loose and flexible compared to those of bone
cells. Hence they are freely bendable. They are present in ear bone (hence
ears are foldable), in between large bones to help them bend and move
freely like in between two ribs, spinal bones, joints etc.
3. Nerve cells: These cells form the nervous system. Nerve-cells-1Its features
are like they are very long, having many branches at either ends. They never
multiply or divide in one’s life time. Once formed during fetus, they live till
the entire life an individual. They are present all over the body and are
sometimes as long as few meters long. These cells are found in plenty in the
brain and the spinal cord. They combine to form the nervous tissue.
4. Epithelial cell: These cells are very simple cells which form covering of other
cells. They form covering layers of all the organs and hence are preset in skin,
scalp, respiratory tract, in the buccal cavity surface, over the surface of the
heart etc. Ex: Skin cells, mucous cells.
5. Muscle cells: They are also called as myocytes and are present in the muscle
tissue. They are rich in proteins like actin and myosin due to which they
contract. They are mostly long, large and have ability to provide movements
to the body. They are of three types as skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle
cells. Skeletal muscles cells are attached to long bones and assist in their
movements (by muscle contraction). They are also called as striated cells as
they have bands or striations on them as seen above (white and red bands).
These bands are indicative of actin and myosin filaments which help in
contraction. Cardiac muscles cells are present only in heart muscle and
 responsible for heart beats. These are also striated but have branches with human body are given so importance due to their promising role in
others. Smooth muscle cells are flexible yet, can contract and relax and are treatment of disorders in future. Have a glance on stem cell types.
present in stomach, intestine, blood vessel walls (vascular tissue) etc. d. Rods & cones: These cells are in eye and have capacity to capture
helping in the movement of food through the gut. image color and light.
6. Secretory cell: These cells as name indicates are secretory in nature. They e. Ciliated cells: These cells are present as lining of respiratory tract,
form glands and secrete something important e.g; pancreatic cells which esophagus etc. and have a pointed thread like cilia which move in
secrete insulin, glucagon, salivary gland secrete salivary amylase, sebaceous one particular direction to pass material.
gland secrete oil on the skin etc. They are found in all secretory organs. f. Blood cells: These are quite interesting cells and they are never
7. Adipose cells: These are fat cells and are storage in nature to store fat. attached to one another. Blood cells freely flow in the liquid blood.
Especially seen in the soles, palms, bums etc. They reduce friction to the Some of them are not alive (RBC‘s) while others are alive and have
body. varied shapes like WBC, platelets (spindle shape). Further these
8. Blood cells: These cells include RBC’s, WBC, Platelets. They are always motile WBC’s are of different types. Of them macrophages have ability to
and never stay in one place. They have limited life span and they never eat (gulp) any foreign particle like bacteria in the body. Hence they
multiply to form new cells. Instead new cells are formed from other cells. are body defense cells.
g. Pancreatic cells: These cells have both exocrine and endocrine
Types Of Cells In Human Body (Based On Their Function) types. There are a total of 5 types.
1. Conductive cells: Nerve cells, muscle cells come under this category. They
have internal ability to conduct an electric impulse from region to other Specialized Cell
distant region in the body.  Specialized cellular modifications- modifications that make a cell different
2. Connective cells: Bone cells, blood cells come under this category. They help from another type of cell.
connect other cells and tissues.  This usually occurs in multicellular eukaryotes, where the opportunity for
3. Glandular cells: These cells secretory cells. They form glands like pancreas, cell specialization arises.
salivary glands etc. and help in the production of enzymes, hormones etc.
4. Storage cells: Adipose cells, some liver cells etc. act to store materials like CELL DIVISION: MITOSIS
fat for later use. This fat is consumed in times of starvation and also in excess Three reasons why cells reproduce by asexual reproduction:
cold temperatures. 1. Growth
5. Supportive cells: These are the cells which are present as support to adjacent 2. Repair
cells. Ex: Glial cells in the brain and spinal cord help provide nourishment to 3. Replacement
the nerve cells and also protect them from shocks and trauma
6. Special type of cells: These are specialized cells with some important Stages of Cell Division
functions. They are: 1. Interphase
a. Sperms: These cells unlike others have haploid DNA (i.e. have only 2. Mitosis
one set of chromosome). They are present only in the males after 3. Prophase
puberty. These cells have a tail which enables them to swim and 4. Metaphase
move in the female uterus. They have an enzyme hyaluronidase 5. Anaphase
which helps them penetrate through uterine tissue and reach into 6. Telophase
oocytes. 7. Cytokinesis
b. Oocytes: Cells are haploid and present in adult female genital
system. They are also haploid like sperms. They start to form after Mitosis
puberty and continue so till the stage of menopause. They accept  All daughter cells contain the same genetic information from the original
sperm cells to form zygote (fertilized egg). This further grows in the parent cell from which it was copied.
uterus to form a baby.  Every different of type cell in your body contains the same genes, but only
c. Stem cells: These are basic cells or parent cells which can some act to make the cells specialized – e.g. into nerve or muscle tissue.
differentiate into any required cell based. These stem cells in
  Some cells divide rapidly and constantly. Other cells divide when needed to 4. Cytokinesis
replace damaged or dead cells. Still other cell types, including nerve cells, Division of all the rest of the cell’s organelles into two identical daughter cells.
stop dividing once mature. Animal Cells: A cleavage furrow pinches off the cell.
Plants Cells: A cell plate develops across the center of the cell, forming a new cell wall
Two main divisions of the cell cycle: Cancer - is essentially a disease of mitosis
Interphase
1. DNA replication CELL DIVISION: MEIOSIS
2. Centrioles duplicate (animal cells only)  Organisms that reproduce sexually are made up of two different types of cells.
Somatic Cells are “body” cells and contain the normal number of chromosomes
G1 Phase called the “Diploid” number (the symbol is 2n). Examples would be skin cells,
The cell increases in mass and brain cells, etc.
organelle number in preparation for cell  Gametes are the “sex” cells; “Haploid” number (the symbol is n). Sperm cells
division. Animal cells in this phase are and ova are gametes.
diploid, meaning that they have two sets  is the process by which ”gametes” (sex cells) , with half the number of
of chromosomes. chromosomes, are produced.
S Phase  If Meiosis did not occur the chromosome number in each new generation
In most cells, there is a narrow would double. The offspring would die.
window of time during which DNA is Gametes
synthesized. The chromosome content  The Male Gamete is the Sperm and is produced in the male gonad the Testes.
is doubled in this phase.  The Female Gamete is the Ovum (ova = pl.) and is produced in the female
G2 Phase gonad the Ovaries.
The cell synthesizes additional  During Ovulation the ovum is released from the ovary and transported to an
proteins and continues to increase in size. area where fertilization, the joining of the sperm and ovum, can occur……
Mitosis. In mitosis and cytokinesis, the contents of the dividing cell are equally fertilization, in Humans, occurs in the Fallopian tube. Fertilization results in the
distributed between two daughter cells. formation of the Zygote. (fertilized egg)

Stages of Mitosis Fertilization

 Chromatin condenses into double stranded chromosomes joined by a
centromere
 Nuclear membrane dissolves freeing the DNA
 Spindle fibers stretch across the cell from centrioles that have moved to
opposite ends of the cell
1. Metaphase
Tugging action of the spindle fibers pulls the double stranded chromosomes into
a line across the middle of the cell; Highly organized so that both new cells will get
exactly the same DNA
2. Anaphase
Spindle fibers begin to contract and shorten; This action pulls the centromere
apart, allowing one of each of the replicated chromosomes to move to opposite ends
(poles) of the cell.
3. Telophase
One complete set of chromosomes is now at each pole of the cell; Nuclear
membrane forms around each set of chromosomes; Chromosomes uncoil into
chromatin; Cytokinesis begins
 The fusion of a sperm and egg to form a zygote.
 A zygote is a fertilized egg
Chromosomes
If an organism has the Diploid number (2n) it has two matching homologues
per set. One of the homologues comes from the mother (and has the mother’s DNA)
the other homologue comes from the father (and has the father’s DNA).
Most organisms are diploid. Humans have 23 sets of chromosomes…
therefore humans have 46 total chromosomes. The diploid number for humans is 46
(46 chromosomes per cell).
Homologous Chromosomes
 Pair of chromosomes (maternal and paternal) that are similar in shape and size.
 Homologous pairs (tetrads) carry genes controlling the same inherited traits.
 Each locus (position of a gene) is in the same position on homologues.
 Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes.
 22 pairs of autosomes -During Crossing over segments of nonsister chromatids break and reattach
1 pair of sex chromosomes to the other chromatid. The Chiasmata (chiasma) are the sites of crossing over.
 Homologous pair consists of 4 chromatids it is called a “Tetrad”
Crossing Over
Autosomes -creates variation (diversity) in the offspring’s traits.
The Autosomes code for most of the offspring’s traits  Metaphase I
Sex Chromosomes -Shortest phase
The Sex Chromosomes code for the sex of the offspring. -Tetrads align on the
* If the offspring has two “X” chromosomes it will be a female. metaphase plate.
* If the offspring has one “X” chromosome and one “Y” chromosome it will be a
male. INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT OCCURS:
1. Orientation of homologous
pair to poles is random.
2. Variation
3. Formula: 2n
 Anaphase I
-Homologous chromosomes separate and
move towards the poles.
Male XY Female XX -Sister chromatids remain attached at their
Stages of Meiosis centromeres.
 Meiosis in males is called spermatogenesis and produces sperm.
 Meiosis in females is called oogenesis and produces ova.  Telophase I
-Each pole now has haploid set of
Meiosis I chromosomes.
Interphase I -Cytokinesis occurs and two haploid
 Nucleus and nucleolus visible. daughter cells are formed.
Meiosis I (four phases)
 Cell division that reduces the chromosome number by one-half. Meiosis II
 Prophase I No interphase II
-Longest and most complex (or very short - no more DNA replication)
phase. Meiosis II is similar to mitosis
-90% of the meiotic process is
spent in Prophase I  Telophase II
-Chromosomes condense.  Non-disjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes, or sister
-Synapsis occurs: homologous chromatids, to separate during meiosis. Non-disjunction results with the
chromosomes come together to form a production of zygotes with abnormal chromosome numbers. An abnormal
tetrad. chromosome number (abnormal amount of DNA) is damaging to the
-Tetrad is two offspring.
chromosomes or four chromatids (sister and nonsister  Non-disjunctions usually occur in one of two fashions.
chromatids).
 Prophase I - Synapsis 1. Monosomy
-“Crossing Over” occurs. 2. Trisomy
Common Non-disjunction Disorders
 Down’s Syndrome – Trisomy 21
 Turner’s Syndrome – Monosomy 23 (X)
 Kleinfelter’s Syndrome – Trisomy 23 (XXY)
 Edward’s Syndrome – Trisomy 18

Amniocentesis
 An Amniocentesis is a procedure a
pregnant woman can have in order
to detect some genetic disorders
such as non-disjunction.

Karyotype

 One of the ways to analyze the

amniocentesis is to make a Karyotype